Going Too Far? Sex, Sin and Social Policy
Author(s): Susan Rose
Source: Social Forces, Vol. 84, No. 2 (Dec., 2005), pp. 1207-1232
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3598496
Accessed: 21-07-2015 13:14 UTC
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
Oxford University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Social Forces.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
GoingTooFar?Sex,SinandSocialPolicy
SusanRose,DickinsonCollege
Abstract
This paper examines the impact of the ReligiousRight on Americansocial policy as it
relates to family, sexuality and reproductivehealth. The articlefocuses on the current
debates and practices of abstinence-until-marriageprograms vs. comprehensivesex
educationprograms- and thewaysin whichtheyreflectand affectculturalattitudesabout
sexuality, teenagers,parents and rights. The manuscript is based on comparative
fieldwork, includingparticipant observationsin schoolsand interviewsin the United
States and Denmark with teenagers,teachersand sexuality educators.We question
whetherit is sex educationthatgoestoofar in promotingearlyandpromiscuoussex or the
ReligiousRightin attemptingto censorvital informationand servicesfromyoungpeople.
Whatif Iwantto havesex outsideof marriage?
Iguess you'lljusthaveto be preparedto die.
- No Second Chance
The UnitedStates leads the industrialized
worldin teen pregnancy,abortionand sexuallytransmitted
disease rates- andinlegislatingandfundingabstinence-until-marriage
programs
as socialpolicy.Italso standsoutas the onlyindustrialized
countrystillembroiledina debate
aboutwhethercreationismshouldbe taughtin publicschools.These issues helprevealthe
betweenreligionandpoliticsinthe UnitedStates.Inexaminingthe roleand
dynamicinterplay
powerof conservativereligiousgroupsin shapingdomesticand foreignpolicy,this paper
focuses on the issues of reproductiveand sexual health,educationand family- and the
impactthey haveon youngpeople.
Inorderto illuminate
the culturaland political-economic
factorsthatinformdebates and
social policyconcerningsexualityand gender in the UnitedStates, this study presents a
health
comparativeanalysisof Danishand U.S.approachesto familyplanning,reproductive
andsexualityeducation.Thisanalysisof youngpeople,theirteachers,sex educatorsandsex
ed materialsinthe UnitedStatesand Denmarkrepresentsmorethana yearof ethnographic
in Roskilde,Denmarkand centralPennsylvania.'
fieldworkand participant-observation
The
becausethe ratesof teen pregnancyandattitudestowards
case of Denmarkis informative
sexuality50 years ago were not muchdifferentthanthose in the UnitedStates. Sincethe
1970s,however,Denmarkhas takena muchmorepragmaticapproachto teen sexualityand
sex education.AlthoughDanishandAmericanteens tend to havesimilarpatternsof sexual
debutandactivity,Danishteens havemuchlowerratesof teenage pregnancy,abortionand
sexuallytransmitteddiseases (STDs).Forexample,in 1995,therewere 61 birthsper 1,000
females betweenthe ages of 15-19inthe UnitedStates, and onlyninein Denmark(Feijoo
the dominantDanishdiscourseaboutsexualityand
2001; Singhand Darroch2000).Today,
differentfromthe dominantdiscourseinthe UnitedStatesreproductive
rightsis strikingly
not because Danesare by natureor nationality
"justmoreopen"aboutsex andAmericans
- rather,the debatesoversexualityandreproductive
moreprudish"
rightsand
"justnaturally
arerootedindifferentreligious,political,
economicandcommunityorientations.
responsibility
DickinsonCollege,Carlisle,PA
to SusanRose,Department
Directcorrespondence
of Sociology,
17013.E-mail:[email protected].
? The Universityof NorthCarolinaPress
SocialForces,Volume84, Number2, December2005
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1208 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
Abstinence-Until-Marriage Programs in the United States
Since 1996,nearly$1 billionin state andfederalfundinghas been allocatedforabstinenceonly educationdespite a lackof evidence supportingthe effectiveness of this approach
(Hauser2004; Kirby
[1997]2000; Manloveet al.2004; "NewStudies"2005; "SexEducation"
2002; "WaxmanReport"2004). Underthe Bushadministration,
abstinence-onlyprograms
have expandedrapidly.While$170 millionin federalfunds have been slated for FY2005,
PresidentBushhas allocatedan additional
education
$39 millionforabstinence-until-married
programs,bringingthe total requestfor FY2006 to $205.5 million.Thisrepresentsa 50
percentincreaseinfundingsince 2004 ("NewStudies"2005;Yoder2005).
Despitethe decliningteen pregnancyratesduringthe 1990s,34 percentof teenage girls
get pregnantat least once beforethey reachage 20, resultingin morethan850,000teen
of whichareunintended.
Atthislevel,the UnitedStates
pregnanciesa year- the vastmajority
world.Roughly9 millionnew
has the highestrateof teen pregnancyinthe fullyindustrialized
STIsalso occuramongteenagersandyoungadultsinthe UnitedStatesannually(Children's
DefenseFund2004;Henshaw2004;"NewStudies"2005).Bylaw,abstinence-only
programs
and healthgainsto
musthaveas their"exclusivepurpose,teachingthe social,psychological
be realizedbyabstaining
fromsexualactivity."
Whilethisis a desirableoptionforyoungpeople,
formany.Bypromoting
it is also problematic
educationthatomitscomplete,
abstinence-only
accurateinformation,
U.S.policyignoresresearch,publicopinionandtheexperience
medically
of othercountriesaboutwhatactuallyworksto preventteenagepregnancyandSTIs.
The WaxmanReport(December2004), which examinedschool-basedsex education
ormisleading
concludedthatmanyyoungpeoplearereceivingmedicallyinaccurate
curricula,
oftenindirectcontradiction
to the findingsof governmentscientists.Since1999,
information,
inthe morethan100 federally-funded
severalmillionchildrenages 9 to 18 haveparticipated
abstinenceprograms.Afterreviewingthe 13 most commonlyused curricula,
Congressman
were accuratebut 11 others,used by 69
Waxman'sstaffconcludedthattwo of the curricula
organizationsin 25 states, contain unprovedclaims, subjectiveconclusionsor outright
falsehoodsregardingreproductive
health,gendertraitsandwhen lifebegins(Connolly
2004;
see also "TexasTeensIncreasedSex AfterAbstinenceProgram"
2005;Waxman2004).
InMay2002,the Houseof Representatives
passed H.R.473, the PersonalResponsibility,
Workand FamilyProtectionBill,whichrenewedfundingof abstinence-only
programsat the
levelof $50 milliona yearfor the nextfive years.Whiletherewas oppositionto the billby
many,includingRep. Lois Capps (D-Calif.)who argued that "abstinenceprogramsare
exaggeratingthe failurerateof condoms"and using"terror
techniquesto keepteens from
havingsex,"the billpassed by a vote of 229-197withcommitteeRepublicansarguingthat
"itwouldbe impossibleto agreeon whatinformation
is medicallyaccurate."
Americans Teaching Fear
Inabstinence-until-marriage
materials,sex is oftenequatedwithdeath,disease anddanger;
fearsurfacesas the primary
messageandtacticusedto persuadeyoungpeopleto steerclear
of sex beforeoroutsideof marriage.
Theabstinence-only
video,"NoSecondChance,"used
for middle-schoolSex Respectaudiences,juxtaposesdiscussionsof havingsex outsideof
marriagewithimagesof men dyingfromAIDS.In"NoSecond Chance,"an evangelicalsex
- notto the all-American
educatorcomparessex outsideof marriage
game of baseball- but
to playingRussianRoulette.Shetellsa classroomof youngpeoplethat:"Every
timeyou have
sex, it'slikepullingthe trigger- the onlydifferenceis, in RussianRoulette,you onlyhaveone
in six chances of gettingkilled."Whenone boyasks, "whatif I havesex beforemarriage?"
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy ? 1209
he is told,"Well,Iguess you'lljust haveto be preparedto die. Andyou'llprobablytakewith
James Dobson'sorganization,
Focuson
you yourspouse andone or moreof yourchildren."
the Family,distributes"NoSecond Chance"and its companion,"Sex,Lies,andthe Truth."
Bothhave been widelyused in publicas well as Christian,
schools throughoutthe United
States (Kantor1994; Mast 1983; "TeachingFear"1996).Accordingto the organization's
website (1999-2005),"SexRespect"is now beingused in50 states and23 countries.
Founderand presidentof the NationalAbstinenceClearingHouse in SiouxFalls,South
Dakota,LeslieUnruhuses snakesto teach aboutSTDsandthe dangersof usingcondoms.
'Asshe uncoilshernest of rubbervipers:HerbieHerpes,WallyWart,HesterHepatitis,Albert
- anddon'tforget- poorPregnantPeggySue, she tellsyoung
AIDS,LucyLossof Reputation
she says, "are
peopleaboutthe risksof sex beforemarriage."
(Sternberg2002)"Condoms,"
overrated.'We tell them condoms won't protectyourheart,that latexwon'tstop human
(See also Brody2003; quotedinSternberg2002.)Anotherabstinence-only
papillomavirus."'
AbstinenceWorks.A Notebookon Pre-Marital
curriculum,
Chastity,invokesthe image of
MotherTeresa(Driscol1990).Displayedon its 1990coveris a pictureof MotherTeresaon one
side anda pictureof a skeletonon the other.Surrounding
them in bolditalicsarethe words:
TodayIset beforeyou LifeorDeath,Blessingor Curse.
Oh,thatyouwouldChooseLifethatyouandyourchildrenmightLive.
- Deuteronomy30:19
LeslieKantor,
formerdirectorof the SIECUS
Community
AdvocacyProject,conductedan
extensivecontentanalysisof abstinence-only
sex-ed programsproducedand promotedby
Christian
Rightgroupsthatareused inpublicschools.She concluded:
These programs omit the most fundamentalinformationon
contraception and disease prevention, perpetuate medical
andrelyon religiousdoctrineandimagesof fearand
misinformation,
shamein discouraging
sexualactivity
to sexualityin increasingnumbersof publicschools across the
Giventhis introduction
UnitedStates (Dailard2000; Landryet al. 1999),how areyoungAmericansconditionedto
thinkaboutand negotiatetheirown andothers'sexuality?Oncethey marry- ifthey choose
to marry- how willthey deal withtheirsexualityand the sexualityof theirspouses? Even
withinthe contextof a heterosexualmarriage,
howaresuch negative- eventerrifying
images
- suddenlytransformed?Andwhat aboutthose who do not livewithinthe confines of a
heterosexualmarriage;those who are gay, lesbianor transgendered;or those who find
be it throughdeath,divorceor nevermarrying?
themselveswithouta partner,
Whereshould
the linesbetweenprivatebeliefandpublicpolicybe drawn?
The ReligiousRightrepresentssome 10 percentof the adultAmericanpopulation.
Their
concernsaboutteenage sex andteen pregnancyclearlyresonatewith a largerpublic,but
theirsolutionsdo not.Theirinfluenceon socialpolicyis disproportionate
to theirnumbers;the
of the Americanpublicis supportiveof sex education.A 2004 reporton "Public
vast majority
indicatesthat93 percentof parentsof junior
SexualityEducation"
SupportforComprehensive
highschool studentsand91 percentof parentsof highschool studentsbelieveit is veryor
Andyoung
somewhat importantto have sex educationas partof the school curriculum.2
percentof adolescentsages 15-17and75 percentof youngpeopleages
people?Eighty-two
and otherSTDs,"
on "howto protectyourselffromHIV/AIDS
18-24want moreinformation
and "howto bringup sexualhealth
"thedifferenttypes of birthcontrolthat are available,"
issues such as STDsand birthcontrolwitha partner."
(Hoff2003: pp.70-71and 111-112)
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1210 * Social Forces Volume 84, Number 2 * December 2005
63 percentof
Theelectoratelikewiseshows supportforcomprehensive
sexualityeducation:
voterssaidthey were morelikelyto vote fora candidatewho supportscomprehensivesex
education,while only 10 percentof engaged voters supportedabstinence-until-marriage
2002).While30 percentof Americanadults
Support"
programsin publicschools("Mobilizing
should
fundsex educationprograms
thathave
with
the
statement
"the
federal
government
agree
of
adults
from
sexual
as
their
67
agreewiththe
activity'
onlypurpose," percent
'abstaining
sex educationprograms
statementthat"themoneyshouldbe usedto fundmorecomprehensive
thatincludeinformation
on how to obtainand use condomsandothercontraceptives."
(Sex
Education
inAmerica2000:7).Although28 percentof American
adultsagreedthat"providing
information
abouthowto obtainanduse condomsandothercontraception
mightencourage
information
65 percentof adultsbelievedthat"notproviding
teens to havesexualintercourse,"
abouthowto obtainanduse condomsandothercontraception
mightmeanmoreteenswillhave
inAmerica2004:22)
unsafesexualintercourse."
(SexEducation
Christians
tendto supportcomprehensive
sex education.A 1999survey
Evenconservative
showedthat8 in 10 conservativeChristians
supportedcomprehensivesex educationin high
schoolsand7 in 10 supportedit in middleschools(Surveyof America'sViews1999).Former
for12yearsandcurrentpresidentof "TheReligiousInstituteon
PresidentandCEOof SIECUS
SexualMorality,
Justiceand Healing,"
DeborahHaffneragrees, arguingthatthe majorityof
evangelicalssupportcomprehensivesex educationthatincludesabstinenceas an option.3
Inspite of millionsof dollarsin funding,to date,thereare no sound empiricaldatathat
indicatethat abstinence-onlyprogramsare effective; in fact, there have been very few
evaluationstudiesof abstinence-until-marriage
2001; Manlove2004; "New
programs(Kirby
State Evaluations"
data also suggest thatto the degree that an effect of
2004). Empirical
it has been foundto postponeinitiation
comprehensivesex educationhas been identifiable,
of sexualintercourse;reducethe frequencyof intercourseand numberof sexualpartners;
increasethe use of contraceptives;and reducepregnancyratesamongteens (Kirby
[1997]
Fear"1994).Why,then,do abstinence-only
2001;Schorr1998;"Teaching
approachesappeal
to many politiciansand policy-makers,even when the majorityof Americanssupport
sex education?Whatarethe consequencesof implementing
comprehensive
abstinence-only
approachescomparedwith comprehensivesex educationthat includesabstinenceas a
reasonableand often desirableoption?No one is debatingwhetherabstinenceshouldbe
presentedas a viableoptionand reasonablechoice. Whatcriticsare questioningis how
abstinence-until-marriage
programscame to masqueradeas educationin publicschools.
The Sexual Politics ofAbstinence-Only
Since the early1980s, the "familyvalues"movementhas been pushingabstinence-until
Affairsbegan administering
the
marriageprograms.In 1981,the U.S.Officeof Population
LifeAct(AFLA),
AdolescentFamily
a program
designedto preventteen pregnancy
bypromoting
Crusadersforteen sexualabstinencethen scoredanothermajor
chastityandself-discipline.
victorywhenCongresspassedwelfarereformin 1996.Overshadowed
bythe welfare-to-work
to fundprograms
to teachchildren
thatsex beforemarriage
aspectsof the lawwas a provision
is notonlymorally
wrongbutalsodangerousto theirhealth.Between1997and2002,morethan
halfa billiondollarswas spent on abstinence-only
programs.Atthe same time,fundswere
divertedfrom comprehensivesex educationprogramsand international
familyplanning
assistance(International
2005,PresidentBushproposeda 25 percent
Family1997).4InFebruary
increaseinfundingforabstinence-only
forFY2006overthe previousfiscalyearwhile
programs
slashingfundingfor manyothersocial programsin the nameof deficitreduction,including
fundingforlocalschools,foodstamps,childcareandhealthcareforveterans."
Many- fromthe
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy *1211
Children'sDefense Fund to the Texas Baptist Standard- are questioningjust how
DefenseFund2005).
compassionateBush'spoliciesare(Marus2005;Children's
International Consequences: From Domestic to Foreign Policy
Theserecentactionsto limitreproductive
healthrevealthe ways inwhichthe UnitedStatesis
alliesaroundthe world
retreatingfromits own previouspositionand that of its traditional
(LaFranchi
2004).On his firstday in office in January2001, PresidentBushreimposedthe
"globalgag rule"that had been institutedby PresidentReaganin 1984 and revokedby
PresidentClintonin 1993. Imposingthe UnitedStates'positionon the abortionpracticesof
othercountries,however,reflectsneitherU.S.lawnorU.S.publicopinion.Italso significantly
U.S.
impedeswomen'saccess to familyplanningand contraceptiveservicesby prohibiting
to
health
in
that
assistance
and
clinics
countries
also
hospitals
developing
familyplanning
information
(Cohen2001).
provideabortionsorabortion-related
At the U.N.Children'sSummitin May2002, U.S. HealthSecretaryTommyThompson
approachto sex education.According
arguedforthe teachingof abstinenceas the preferred
to a CBSWorldNews report,"Thethree-dayconferencewas long on rhetoricaboutthe
sanctityof childhoodbut short on consensus. Delegates at a U.N.session on children
haggled... overa finaldeclarationwiththe UnitedStates, the Vaticanand Islamicstates in
favorof sexualabstinenceandagainstany hintof abortionforadolescents."(Ireland2002;
U.N.Children's
SummitHitsSnag2002)SusanCohen,writingforthe GuttmacherInstitute,
reportedthat: "TheUnitedStates delegation,sidingwith the Sudan,Iran,and Iraq"(and
slidingperilouslyclose to Bush's"evilaxis"),"bothstupefiedandangeredthe European(EU)
and LatinAmericandelegationswhich finallyvoted againstthe U.S. position."Adrienne
Women'sHealthCoalition,
Germain,presidentof the International
bluntlystated:
Thisallianceshows the depthsof perversityof the [US.]position.On
the one hand, we're presumablyblaming these countriesfor
unspeakableacts of terrorism,and at the same time we are allying
ourselveswiththemin the oppressionof women.
-quoted in Cohen2002
to the United
Inits closingstatementat the summit,the EUdelivereda strongrejoinder
andsafe choices about
States. "Youngpeople shouldbe empoweredto makeappropriate
The Spanishdiplomatspeakingon the EU'sbehalfargued:"They
theirsexual behavior."
must
be able to access high qualitysexual and reproductivehealth
people)
(young
and servicesto achievethis, as we allagreed in Cairoand Beijing."Belgium's
information
youth minister,BertAnciaux,went furtherin a statement releasedafterthe summit.The
U.S.approach,he said, reduces sex educationto "awoollydiscourseon abstinenceand
fidelity"that "does not fit in with the world of experience of millionsof young people
throughoutthe world."Echoingthe sentiments of others, Anciauxcommented that he
was "amazedthat,due to the pressureof extremelyconservativelobbygroupswithinthe
United States, the U.S. government has become an ally of all kinds of reactionary
regimes."(Cohen2002)
Likewise,in the seven-dayAsianand PacificPopulationConferenceheld in Bangkokin
December2002,the Americandelegationengaged in an acrimoniousdebatewithallof the
othercountriesoverabortion,sex educationand methodsof birthcontrol(Dao2002).U.S.
thatthe 1994Cairoagreementdidnotadequatelysupport
officialsmaintained
administration
the promotionof abstinence. U.S. delegates maintainedthat phrases present in the
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1212 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
conference'sproposedpolicy- such as "reproductive
rights"and"consistentcondomuse"of "underage"
sex - policiesthatwerefarout
wereeuphemismsforabortionandthe approval
of linewiththe currentBushadministration
whichadvocatesabstinenceoutsideof marriage
and opposes abortion(McClure
2002).AssistantSecretaryof StateArthurE. Deweystated
that
the
United
States
wouldseekto blockthe passageof anyinternational
family
unequivocally
abortion
foradolescents."TheUnited
that
or promotescontraception
planningpolicy permits
death."(Dao2002)Butwhenthe
Statessupportsthe sanctityof lifefromconceptionto natural
be struckfromthe proposal
UnitedStatesdemandedthateventhe phrase"reproductive
health"
inorderto protectunbornchildren,critics- eventhose fromhighlyreligiouscountrieslikethe
and Iran- suggestedthatU.S.foreignpolicyhadbeen hijackedby the Religious
Philippines
32 Asiannationsreaffirmed
the historic
Right.Rejectingproposalsbythe BushAdministration,
Conferenceon Population
and Development
agreementreachedat the 1994 International
andsexualhealthandrights
(ICPD).
Theyalsoagreedon anactionplanto advancereproductive
acrossthe region(CaucusforICPD2002;StatementbyObaid2002;"U.S.Failsto Block"2002).
"Itis sad to see the U.S.movefrombeinga leaderon these issues, to thatof a minority
voice,"said NinukWidyantoroof the Women'sHealthFoundationin Indonesia:
Sexualand reproductivehealthis one of the most importantsocial
issues of the millennium.We know thatthe U.S.delegationdoes
not even represent the views of the majorityof the American
is being held hostageby an
people. ThecurrentU.S.administration
extreme conservativeminoritywith little regard for the health,
welfareand freedomsof women of Asiaand the Pacific.Wehope
thatin the future,U.S.delegationsat such conferences willmore
values of the women and
accuratelyrepresentthe humanitarian
men of theirnation.
- quoted in Dao 2001
Such positions have distanced the UnitedStates even furtherfrom the worldwide
consensus on reproductive
and sexualhealthissues thatthe UnitedStates hadonce been
instrumentalin shaping at the 1994 InternationalConference on Populationand
Developmentin Cairo,and the 1995 WorldConferenceon Womenin Beijing.Throughout
the negotiations,it was the "Riogroup,"comprisedof LatinAmericacountries,that took
the leadinconfrontingthe UnitedStateson most of the reproductive
healthissues, despite
the U.S.government'sassumptionthatthese overwhelminglyRomanCatholiccountries
wouldsupportthe sociallyconservativeU.S.position.The EuropeanUnion(EU),Australia,
Canada,Japanand Norwaywere also active in opposingthe U.S.efforts. Cohen(2002)
concluded:"Indications
arethatthe WhiteHousefocus primarily
is on appeasingits core
("President'sOverseas
far-rightconstituency,which does not bode well for UNFPA"
ReproductiveHealthPolicy2002"),nor does it for young and unmarriedpeople in the
UnitedStates.
Cross-National Data on Teen Sexual Behavior
The UnitedStates leads the industrialized
worldin its highratesof teenage pregnancies,
abortionsand STDs.Althoughthe U.S.teen pregnancyratehas decreasedduringthe past
decade, it is still ninetimes higherthanthat of the Netherlands,nearlyfive times higher
thanin Germany,and nearlyfourtimes higherthanthe ratein France.Theteen birthrateis
also much higherin the UnitedStates, nearly11 times higherthan in the Netherlands,
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy ? 1213
nearlyfive times higherthan the rate in France,and nearlyfour times higherthan in
Theteen abortionrate is nearlyeight times higherin the UnitedStates than in
Germany.6
Germany,nearlyseven times higherthaninthe Netherlands,and nearlythreetimes higher
than in France(Feijoo2001). Muchhigherratesfor HIV,syphilis,gonorrheaand chlamydia
likewisedistinguishthe UnitedStates (Darrochet al. 2001; Feijoo2001).
Cross-national
studies revealthatdifferentialratesinteen pregnancyare influencedby
culturalattitudestowardsand educationaboutsexuality,the accessibilityof healthcare
and contraception,the relationshipbetween religionand politics, and the degree of
economic inequality(Jones et al. 1996).Withone of the highest ratesof infantmortality,
child death, child poverty and economic inequalitybetween rich and poor in the
industrialized
world,the UnitedStates is not faringwell (Brouwer1998; Henshaw2004;
KidsCount2000; "NewStudies"2005; Shapiro1992;Singhet al. 2000; Stateof America's
Children2004).Ratherthandealwiththese complexand interrelated
issues, however,U.S.
policytoo often addresses teen pregnancyas an isolatedsocial problemand increasingly
advises younggirlsto 'justsay no."
Just Say No
Abstinence-onlyadvocatesadviseyoung peopleto not havesex; theiraim, however,is to
curtailsexual activityfor anyone not in a heterosexualmarriage.Uneasy about teen
sexuality,homosexuality,the increase in out-of-wedlockbirths,and the erosion of the
nuclearfamily,they emphasizethe dangersof sex and the hazardsof sexual
patriarchal,
relationshipsoutside of marriage(Gallagher1999).Fearratherthan affirmation,rejection
ratherthan acceptance, and denial ratherthan knowledge about sexuality tend to
dominate abstinence-onlymaterials,and serve as a chillingeffect on contemporary
Americanresearchand social policy.
Forexample, in 1987 a numberof institutes,includingthe NationalInstituteof Child
Healthand HumanDevelopment,The Centerfor Disease Controland Prevention,the
NationalInstituteon Aging, and the NationalInstituteof Mental Healthsupported a
proposal by EdwardLaumann,et al., to undertakean ambitiousstudy of sexuality in
America.Scientists in these agencies "wantedmore generalstudies of sexualityto then
examinesuch issues as teen pregnancy,sexual dysfunctionand childabuse."Butsoon
after the contract was awarded, the researchers noted that (America's)"national
squeamishness about sex" began to emerge (Michaelet al. 1994: 27; Nussbaum1997).
were squeamishaboutthe inclusionof questionsabout
Governmentofficialsin particular
masturbation- evidencedalso in the forced resignationof formerU.S.SurgeonGeneral
Politicalbattlesfollowed.Sen. Jesse
Jocelyn Eldersfor usingthe M-word(masturbation).
Helms introducedan amendment to a funding bill that specifically prohibitedthe
governmentfrom payingfor such a study.As a result,the researchersconducted the
studythroughprivatemoney;the sample was reducedfrom20,000 to 3,500 adults,and
no one underthe age of 18 was included in the sample (Boonstra2001; Nussbaum
1997:225).As MarthaNussbaumarguedin Cultivating
Humanity:"Suspiciousnessof sex
researchhadtriumphed,impedingthe progressin inquiry."
(1997: 225)7
Incontrastto the currentU.S.trends in legislatingabstinence-onlypolicies, Denmark
- and manyothercountriesboth in the industrialized
and developingworld- continueto
implementmorecomprehensiveresearchand sex educationprograms,believingthat it is
importantto informand educate young people about sexualityand contraception.They
believethatadolescents havea rightto information
(Alford2005).
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1214 ? SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
AttitudesTowardTeenSexualityin the United Statesand Denmark
CaseStudy:The UnitedStates
Sincethe 1960s,ReligiousRightpoliticalgroupshavewageda campaignagainstthe teaching
of comprehensivesex educationin publicschools. Duringthe late 1960s, conservative
Christian
such as the Christian
Crusadepublishedbookletsincluding:"Isthe
organizations
LittleRedSchoolhousethe Placeto TeachRawSex?"inwhichtheyarguedthatparentswere
the onlyappropriatesource for information
aboutsexuality(Kantor1994; "TeachingFear"
1994:11).PhyllisSchafly,headof the conservativeEagleForum,went as faras to arguethat
exposingchildreninpublicschoolsto sex ed mayconstitutechildabuse(1985).Theirposition
was clear:anydiscussionaboutsex belongedinthe home,not inthe schools.
Bythe 1980s, however,it was clearthatthe ReligiousRightwas havinglittlesuccess in
removingsex educationfromthe schools.8As a result,conservativeChristian
groupsshifted
strategiesand beganto promote"abstinence-only"
programsinthe publicschools. Rallying
grass-rootssupportagainstcomprehensivesex education,the Eagle Forum,Concerned
WomenforAmerica,Focuson the Family,
andCitizensforExcellencein Education
alldevoted
majorresourcesto promotingabstinence-onlycurriculaas a substitutefor comprehensive
sex ed programs.Througha rangeof educationalmaterials,videotapesand promotional
advertising,they have effectivelypromotedcurriculathat teach fear and withholdvital
information
aboutpreventionof AIDSandteen pregnancy.
Programssuch as "SexRespect,""FacingReality"and curriculadevelopedby TeenAid
and Family)
receivedfederalTitle
(Me,MyWorld,MyFuture;Sexuality,Commitment
initially
XXfundingthroughthe AdolescentFamilyLifeAct (AFLA).
Duringthe Reaganyears under
this Act, approximately
$7 millionwas availableannuallyfor the developmentof "family
central"pregnancypreventionprogramsemphasizingabstinenceand adoption.Thestate
andfederalmoneyused to fund"Sex-Respect"
was essential,accordingto a writerforthe
Conservative
Digest:
... the Adolescent FamilyLifeAct was writtenexpresslyfor the
purpose of diverting[federal]money that would otherwisego to
PlannedParenthoodintogroupswithtraditional
values.Thisnoble
been fulfilledhere.
purposehas certainly
Fear1994:11)
-quoted in(Teaching
Whileratesof pregnancy,
AIDSandothersexuallytransmitted
diseases remainalarmingly
high among America'syouth, opponents of sex education have become increasingly
successfulin censoringvital,life-savinginformation
thathas proveneffectivein dealingwith
these problems(Kantor
1994).
BeyondSex:TeachingTraditionalGenderRoles
Centralto the sex ed debate is the ReligiousRight'sattemptto preservepatriarchy
andto
privilegemen'srightsoverwomen'srightsandparentalrightsoverchildren's
rights(Bendroth
1993;Hawley1994;Howland1997;MartyandAppleby1999;Riesebrodt1993).Theideaof
equalitybetween men and women is threateningto manyadvocatesof abstinence-only
policies.Notonlyaretheyworkingto preventsex beforeoroutsideof marriage,
theyarealso
movementgoes handfightingto preservethe traditional,
patriarchal
family.Thepro-marriage
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy 1215
in-handwith this (Gallagher1999; Stacey 2002) as does the promotionof old-fashioned
gender-rolenorms.
As one readsthroughthe abstinence-only
materials,one findsan oldandmixedmessage.
It is the story of sex as the tale of predatorand prey- and women, beware. Men are
consideredto be sexualbeings,who beyonda certainpoint,cannotholdback.Therefore,
women must. Such messages are abundantlyclearin PatriciaDriscoll's,SexualCommon
Sense. Affirming
AdolescentAbstinence.Theturningpoint,accordingto the ArousalTime
Linefoundinthisbookis "theprolongedkiss."Afterthispoint,thereis noturningback.While
females too havesexualinstincts,they take longerto become arousedand,therefore,are
inexercisingrestraint.
givengreaterresponsibility
Thefollowingexcerptfrom"SexRespect"contextualizes
the ArousalTimeLine.Presented
hereis a fictitiousdialoguebetweenTVhost,Jane Bright,andpsychologist,Dr.Wise.
Jane: Wehave manyteenagersin our "RespectingSex"audience,
Doctorso I thinkit wouldbe helpfulto them if we talkabouthow
sexual feeling gets strongeras two people become increasingly
intimatephysicallyLet'scallit thestages of sexualarousal.
Dr.Wise:Fine,Jane.As you can see, itshows the stages of sexual
arousal.
Dr.Wise:Malesthinking
aboutthe oppositesex tendto focuson the
sexualorgans,theirown andthoseof theimaginedpartnerFemales,
when theyvisualizea sex partner- I shouldsay love partner- think
not of the male's genitals, but ratherof his whole body as an
instrument
forgivingwarmth,closenessandsecurityInfact,a male
can experiencesexualrelease witha womanhe doesn'teven like,
whereasa womanusuallycan'tdo so unlessshe lovesherpartner
Jane:Dr Wise,do you thinkthisdifferenceis a good thing?
Dr.Wise: Yes,it helps girlscope withthe sexualaggressivenessof
boys.Ithelpsthembe morelevel-headedaboutsex.
The ReligiousRight'sconcern about sex and sexualityfocuses on issues regarding
social orderand control- especiallyover women's bodies and desires. The adage that
"good girls don't"but "realboys do" continues to engender the double-standardthat
defines male and female in oppositionto one another,althoughmanyof the abstinenceThisframework,however,
only curriculaare pushingfor abstinencefor all pre-marrieds.
revealscontradictions.Froma conservativeChristianperspective,humansare not animals
debate),ratherthey stand onlya littlelower
(whichis at the cruxof the evolution-creation
than the angels. Yet,they are also seen as no differentfrom animalsdrivenby sexual
instincts:once aroused,there is no turningback.These distinctionssound veryfamiliar
because they are partof the "sexualwisdom"of Americanculturethat goes well beyond
the confinesof conservativeChristian
thinking.Womenareconsideredto be less controlled
by theirsexualityand thereforemore responsiblefor boththeirown sexual behaviorand
thatof men. Ifshe is not,thenwarnsT.V.evangelistJames Robison,whose bookSex is Not
Lovesold morethanhalfa millioncopies, it is the worstthingthatcan happento humanity.
In"God'sAngryMan,"WilliamMartindescribesRobison'stiradeagainstsex, "hisprime
target,selected at least in partbecause he ratherobviouslyunderstandsits powerfulallure."
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Knowthe Progressionof SexualFeelingwith IncreasedPhysicalIntimacy SexualArousal
i?
?~~~~~~~~~~~%
---
- ---
Being
Tooether
Hand
Holdina
Simple
Good
Night
Kiss
Nogenitalfeelingaroused
Prolonged
Kiss
of
beginning
danger
Pettina
Heavy
Pettina
Female
Male
Genital Genital
feeling feeling
aroused aroused
Female
Genital
feeling
aroused
Neckina
*Chartfrom PatriciaB. Driscoll,SexualCommonSense:AffirmingAdolescentAbstinence
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Mutual
Sex
Plav
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy * 1217
Ina talkto youngpeople,Robison"spokeinexcited,almostluridtones of the responsea girl's
bodycan stirina youngman'sloins."
Man,whenyousee a girl'slegs orbreast,it'ssupposedto botheryou.
Ifyoucanlookatherlegs andherbodyanditdoesn'tbotheryou,you
are a purequeer... Girls,if yourboyfriendwalksout of here tonight
and looksoverat yourlegs justshiningin the breezeandsays,your
legs don'tbotherme, youcanputit down- you'veeithergot hideous
legs orhe's a pervert.
- Robison(quotedin Martin1981: 157)
intamingthe malebeast:
Robisonthen goes on to talkaboutthe woman'sresponsibility
Sex before marriagedevelops sensual drives that can never be
satisfiedand maycause a manto behavelikean animal.Some girls
become thatwaytoo,butmostof themdon't.Whentheydo, it'sthe
mostawfulthingthatcanhappento humanity
- Robison(quotedin Martin1981:223)
Moreawful,we must ask,thanrape?Thanmillionsof peopledyingof AIDS?Of having
unwantedchildrenwho cannotbe caredfor bytheirparentsora societythatrefusesto pay
for adequatehealthcare or raisethe minimumwage so that people workingfulltimerise
abovethe povertyline?Therenewedeffortsto underminesex educationare notjustabout
sex; they are partof a broaderchallengeto publiceducationwhichcentersaroundparents'
vs. children's
andstates' rights.
Gender and Sexual Politics of the Religious Right
The attemptsof the ReligiousRightin the UnitedStates to preserveparentalrightsover
those of children'srightsrevealthe kindof hostilitydirectedtowardswomen and children.
In his critiqueof the FourthWorldConferenceon Women,GaryBauer,presidentof the
FamilyResearch Council,wrote that feminists wanted "to enshrine the 'rights'of
adolescents to informationand medicalservices where sex and AIDSwere concerned,
without 'interference'from parents" and that although, "parents rights were not
completely overruled,they were subordinatedto 'the best interests of the child."'
Moreover,"these radicalwomen are tryingto achieve greaterequalitybetween women
and men in economic and politicalspheres, so that women can better supporttheir
familiesand children."(Bauer1995)
Inhis August1995 FOFNewsletter,"TheFamilyUnderFireBythe U.N.,"James Dobson
warnsthatthe U.N.Conferenceon Womenrepresented:
"themost radical,atheistic,anti-family
crusadein the historyof the
world....Theextremistswho are...promotingthisconferenceare a
millionmiles outsidethe Americanmainstream....Itis a mysteryto
me how such enormousthreatsto ourspiritual
and culturalheritage
haveslitheredintoourmidstwithoutdue noticeoralarm."
FormerU.S.Presidential
candidate,PatBuchanan,evidentlyconcurred,commentingjust
afterthe conferencethat"itwas so bizarre,
seeingallthose women- itwas likethe barscene
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1218 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
outof StarWars."Dobsongoes on to warnhisreaders,radioaudiencesandcongressmenthat
willchannelhundredsof millionsof dollarsto
while"theAgencyforInternational
Development
andsexualrightsandfamilyplanningservices,the onlyhope
supportwomen'sreproductive
forderailing
church."
thistrainis the Christian
Althoughempiricaldata show that the degree to which an effect of comprehensive
sexualityeducationhas been identifiablein studies, it has postponed initiationof sexual
intercourse
and/orincreasedthe effectiveuse of contraceptives
[1999]2001; Manlove,
(Kirby
continueto insist
2004;"Schorr1998),abstinence-advocates
2004; "NewStateEvaluations
sex educationencouragesyoungpeopleto havesex.
thatcomprehensive
Different Discourses: The Danish Approach
andteens' rightsis strikingly
ThedominantDanishdiscourseaboutsexualityandreproductive
differentfromthe dominantdiscourseinthe UnitedStates(AdolescentSexualHealth2001;
the rightsof adolescentsto sexual
see also Heins2001;"Sexuality
Rights"1995).InDenmark,
information
andchoiceareframedwithinthe contextof a socialdemocracy
andreproductive
andhavebeenembeddedinDanishlegislationsince 1966.As NellRasmussen,directorof the
DanishFamilyPlanning
Association,describedinan interviewin 1998:
Denmarkbecamethe firstcountryinthe worldto grantyoungpeople,regardlessof age,
andcontraception
access to contraception
counseling...It'sabouthumanrights:in orderfor
you to act responsibly,you haveto havechoices - governmentor parentsor whoeverthe
if
decisionmakersarecannotdemandresponsiblebehaviorof teenagersorof the population
they don't give them an opportunityto make their own choices based on sufficient
We have developedan enablingenvironmentfor young people to support
information....
themselves in the process of makingtheir sexual identityand realizingthemselves as
becomingadults- andsexualityis an importantpartof becomingan adult....Youngpeople
havethe rightto askandtheyhavea rightto be metwithrespect....theyshouldn'tbe letdown,
theyshouldbe supported.
Rasmussenalso arguedthatprogressivesocialpoliciesrecognizingadolescentsexuality
havenotpromotedpromiscuity.
Fromthe outside,(itseems that)we inDenmarkhavethemostliberal
healthandrights.Seen
systemof adolescentsexualandreproductive
fromthe inside,however,we don'ttendto thinkthatwe havea very
liberalsystem. We tend to thinkthatwe have a verypracticaland
pragmaticapproachto the fact thatyoungpeople do starthaving
sexualrelationssomewherein theirteens.InDenmark,
actuallyrather
late. around16.7forboysand even 16.9forgirls,and it reallyhasn't
changedverymuchovertime.And80 percentof youngpeople use
at firstintercourse.Thatmaynot be enoughbut it'sa
contraception
situation.(SeealsoKnudsen1999.)
veryfavorable
dominantDanishattitudestowardssexualitywere not so differentfrom
Historically,
mainstreamAmericanones (Centerwall
1995;"SexualRights"1995).Withinthe past three
use than
decades,however,we findDanesmuchmoreopenaboutsexualityandcontraceptive
Americans(Davidet al. 1990). The Danishgovernmenthas mandatedthe teaching of
Theseprogramstend
sex educationas partof the generalschoolcurriculum.
comprehensive
withoutbeing graphic,whichis hardfor many
to be quitepragmaticand straightforward,
Americansto envision.
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy ? 1219
Oneof the sex ed videos used inelementaryschools, "WhereDo BabiesComeFrom,"
is
a cartoon-animated
videothatpresentsfourchildrentalking,laughingandgigglingwithone
anotheras they sharequestionsand information
aboutwherebabiescome from.Covering
femaleandmaleanatomy,menstruation,
intercourseandbirthing,
the videopresentsa lotof
information
ina veryfunnyyet directway.WhenIshowedthisto mycollegeclass, students
saidthatit was the best - the most informative
andthe funniest- "documentary"
they had
everseen on sex education.Thevideodemystifiessex andinvitesthe audienceto laughwith
the childrenandcouple,who areloving,affectionate- andyes - sexualwithone another.The
message reflectsthe realitythatkidsarecuriousandhavelotsof questions,thattalkingabout
sex can be bothembarrassing
andfun,andthatit'sas muchaboutfeelings,caringandlove
as it is aboutbiology.
YoungPeople's Perspectives
Individual
interviewsand co-ed classroomandsmall-group
discussions(bothsame sex and
co-ed) with approximately100 Danish and 300 Americanteens revealed significant
differencesin howtheyspokeaboutsexualityandrelationships.
TheDanishteens tendedto
whereasthe Americanteens
talkaboutsex in terms of mutualpleasureand responsibility
tendedto speakintermsof performance
andachievement(as in "feelinginadequateifthey
Whenaskedwhen "nomeansno,"bothDanishboys andgirlswere
didn'tachieveorgasm").
quiteclear:"whensomeonesays no,thatmeansno."Theirlanguagedidnotassumethatthe
malewas the predatorandthe femalethe preywho was the one pressuredintohavingsex.
Forexample,one 15-year-old
boy inthe presenceof his maleandfemaleclassmatessaid:
IfI don'tfeel likeit, thenI wantthatto be OK.Ifmygirlfriend
doesn't
likesomething,well thenwe trysomethingelse. Ifone of us doesn't
wantto, thenwe findanotherway Orwe go fora walk.
A 15-year-old
girlinthe same class commented:
Ifa girlsaysno andshe reallymeansyes, wellthenshe'stheone who
misses out- she couldhavesaidyes ifshe wantedto.
IndiscussionswithAmericanteenagers,therewas muchless consensus.Decidingwhen
"nomeantno"was seen as a veryconfusingjudgmentcall,andtherewas greatertolerance
for- or at least morewillingnessto not speakout against- sexuallyaggressivebehavior.In
the Americanclassrooms,those who came rightout and said "ifsomeone says no, that
therewould be a prolongedconversationabout
means no"were in the minority.
Typically
whethera person(alwaysassumedto be a female)was clearin herown mind,whethershe
reallymeantno whenshe saidno, howforcefullyorfrequentlyshe saidno,whethershe was
whatthe girlwas wearing,and how
givingdoublemessages eitherverballyor non-verbally,
she was actingwhen she said no. The same ambivalenceor confusionwas expressed in
interviewsas well.
discussionsandindividual
small-group
The discourseamongAmericanteenagersalso was genderedin ways thatthe Danish
and responsivenesswas not. Inthe Americancontext,
discourseaboutsexualresponsibility
abouthavingsex; notonce
onlyfemaleswere referredto as saying"no"or beingambivalent
was the malepronounused to speakof someone saying"no."Whenitcameto talkingabout
women's ambivalence,the discussionoften led to girlsand women being untrustworthy
ratherthanconfused or conflictedaboutwhat they wanted,or theirbeing unclearin their
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1220 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
was placed,
expressionof whattheydidanddidnotwant.Theblameformiscommunication
as muchby otherwomenas by men,on the female.Oftenthe conversationinthe American
classroomwouldfallbackon: "Ihaveknowngirlswho tease men;""... who say no when
theymeanyes;""Youcan'tblamethe guys.""Ifthe girlteases a guy,thenshe hasto be ready
a certainpoint,youcan'texpecta guyto juststop."Inthe Danish
to get whatshe gets.""After
on the individual
to saywhathe or
context,bothmaleandfemaleteenagersputresponsibility
she meant, and they held the individualresponsiblefor his or her actions (including
and blamewas placed
contraceptivechoices).Inthe Americancontext,moreresponsibility
Americangirltoldme:
on the femaleespeciallyif somethingwent wrong.One 16-year-old
I thinksometimesgirlsare afraidto say "no."They'reafraidof what
theirboyfriendsmightthink.Or,if theydo say no, and then the guy
goes aheadanywayTtheydon'twantto admittheysaidno because
thatwould mean thatthe guy didn'tcare aboutthem. I know I've
done that.I don'tlikethataboutmyself,butI'vedone it.AndI have
friendswho havetoo.
Itmaybe easierforsome of these girlsto disregardtheirown desiresandvoices thanto
believethey were forcedto haveunwantedsex fromsomeone they thoughtthey lovedor
who lovedthem.Thisseemed to be muchless of a quandary
forthe Danishgirlsinterviewed.
Whilesome of them hadsex thatwas not particularly
pleasurable,they were less likelyto
haveexperiencedunwantedorforcedsex and muchmorelikelyto knowwhattheywanted
anddidn'twant.Theyalso were muchless likelyto confuse love andsexualdesire.Forthe
Danishyoungpeopleandtheirparents,itwas OKto havesex withsomeoneonce youturned
16 or 17.Validation
didnotdependon how muchyouwere inlovewiththe otherperson,but
how responsibleyou were in makingdecisions.Becomingsexualwas considereda partof
normaldevelopment,of growingup.
Loveis such a strongword.I havea boyfriendandI careabouthim.
We'rehavingsex andthat'sOKwithmyparents.Theyknow.Theyjust
wantus to be protected.He cansleep overat my house.But,I can't
sayI lovehim.Loveandhatearesuchstrongwords.Myparents,and
mysistersandmybrother- I love them.I'veknownthemallmy life.
Butmy boyfriend,I'veonlyknownhim a few months.Weneed to
knoweach othermore.Itshouldbe reallydeep whenyousay that.
-17-year-oldDanishgirl
I reallylove my boyfriend.So I thinkit's OKI'mhavingsex withhim.
Butif myparentscaughtme, theywouldkillme!
Americangirl
- 17-year-old
Lene,the Danishgirl,takeslovequiteseriously.Itis nota wordto be thrownabouteasily.
Sex, on the otherhand,is nota bigdeal.It'sfun,butyou needto takecareto use protection
so you don'tget AIDSor an infection.Elena,the Americangirlemphasizeslove. Because
she's in love,it'sOKto havesex. Elenais bothsincereandadamantwhen she says, "Ireally
lovemy boyfriend,"
butthenshe leansforwardandwhispers,"Butif my parentscaughtme,
theywouldkillme. Ifthey knew,itwouldbe allover.Idon'tknowwhythey can'tunderstand
how muchwe loveeach other."
Anotherstrikingcontrastbetweenthe DanishandAmericanteenagerswas theirattitude
towardsalcoholandsex. WhiletheAmerican
teenagersreportedthattheyortheirfriendsoften
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy ? 1221
to havesex, the Danishteenagersbelievedthatalcohol
drinkinorderto lowertheirinhibitions
Danishgirlscommented:
andsex were nota good match.A smallgroupof 15-to 17-year-old
Itruinsit if you'redrunkI think.Ifthe boy's verydrunkhe can'tget it
up. He can'tget [an]erectionand thatruinsit a lot. So I thinkyou
shouldn'tdo it if you'redrunk.Andyou forgetthe condomif you're
drunk.It'seasierto havegood sex ifyou'renotdrunk.
A 15-year-old
boyconcurred,
Ifyou'redrunk,you can'tdo it verywellandit doesn'tfeel as good. If
I reallylikea girl,I don'tdrinkbeforewe havesex.
communication
andintimacy:
TheDanishgirlswerealsomoreopenintalkingaboutsexuality,
Ifyou feel totallycomfortable
ButI thinkyou have to be comfortable.
andsafe withtheperson,youdo morethings.So I thinkyoucanhave
sex andall,butthemoresafe andthemorecomfortable
youget with
thepersonthemorewildthe thingsget, themoreopenyouget with
yourboyfriend.
- 16-year-old
Danishgirl
Nonetheless,Danishgirlsalso experiencedsome of the same difficultiesas American
girls.The doublestandardcontinuesto exist in Denmarkas well as in the UnitedStates,
althoughperhapsto a lesserdegree:
Girlsif theyarekissingwithtwo (boys)in one eveningat a partythen
they are cheap and hookersand all that.But,if a boy or a man is
togetherwithmore thanone, 'ohit'sjust cool.' Ijust think,thatjust
sucksreally
- 15-year-old
Danishgirl
Whatboth Danishand Americanyoung people emphasizedwas theirdesire for more
and discussionaboutfeelings,emotionsand relationships.
information
Theywantedmore
communication
withtheirparentsandteachers.Manyof them faced problemsat home:a
difficult.
parent'salcoholism,abuse,depressionthatoftenmadethatcommunication
her
Forexample,Laura,an American14-year-old
shared
after
storyjust
girl
attendingan
Unlikepreviousyears
abstinence-onlyassemblyat herruralschool in centralPennsylvania.
when PlannedParenthoodhad given the assembly,Lauralistenedto MollyKelly,a selfidentifiedand nationallywell-known"chastityeducator,"who gave the presentationfor
Heartbeat
Services.Kelly'spublicrelationsmaterialsindicatedthatshe hadtalked
Community
and
withmorethan100,000youngpeople,drawingfromthe PostponingSexualInvolvement
bothof whichuse "Sex,Lies,andthe Truth"
ManagingPressuresBeforeMarriagecurricula,
and "NoApologies"as video resourcesin theirtraining"inorderto reinforcethe risksof
sexualinvolvement."
dollarbusinessthatis "ripping
Kellycriticizedthe contraceptiveindustryas a multi-million
off youngpeople."
Someone'smakinglotsof moneyoffof otherpeople'ssex. Peopletalk
offersno guaranteefor
aboutsafesex - butthe contraceptive
industry
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1222 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
theirproduct.Condomshavea 10-17percentfailurerate.Butyoucan't
takethecondomorpillbackifitfails.Whatiftherewasanairlinecrash
and the airlinesresponded,"well,we get there83 percentof the
Thestakesarehigh.Withsex,youeithergain
time?"(Lotsof laughter).
a lifeorlose a life.AIDSis a lose-a-lifekindof situation.
ingivingyoungpeoplemore
Mrs.Kellyarguedthatitwas adultswho were irresponsible
and moredevicesthatonlymademattersworse.
They're
givingyouthetoolsthatgiveyoutheproblemsinthefirstplace
- andthentheytellyouitis "safesex."There's
no suchthingas safesex.
Thereis a risk.Wecan'tcallitsafe orsaferThere'sonlysavedsex.
Afterthe assembly,I hadthe opportunity
to talkwith Laurain a smallgroupof 8thgrade
girls.Whilethe otherswere laughingthatit was "alittletoo littleand muchtoo late,"Laura
quietlybutpassionatelybegantalking:
MyMomgot pregnantwhenshe was 16andhadto reallystruggle.
Thenwhen my oldersistergot pregnantat 16, my Mom was really
angryShe wouldn'ttalkto heraboutsex orgettingpregnant,andshe
doesn'ttalkto me. Shejustyellsandtellsme "notto do it."Youcan't
havea reasonableconversationwithheraboutit.Andnow it'sreally
crazyat home with my sister's baby, and everyone cryingand
screaming.It'snuts.Ithinkwe need to knowmoreaboutsex notless.
Laurafelt leftinthe lurchbothat homeandat schoolwhen it cameto sex education.The
school counselorwho sat inwithus agreed:"Theydeserve more- better."BothAmerican
andDanishteenagerswantedparentsandteachersto trustthem more,respectthem more,
butit
andteachthem more.Theybelievedthey needed more,ratherthanless, information,
was the Americanteenagerswho pointedto the numberof theirfriends,sisters or school
mateswho hadgottenpregnantas proof.
Ratherthanbeingshelteredfromthe world,childrenlivein families,andyoung people
haveto dealwiththe problemsthatthe adultswho raisethemface (Males1996;1998).Yet,
legislationlikethe FamilyProtectionActs striveto protectparents'rightsoverthe rightsof
infamilylife(Rose1986;1993).Inthe case
theirchildrenandto prohibit
potentialinterference
of sex education,ratherthanrecognizing
the realitiesof youngpeople'slivesandtheirrightto
information,
manyadvocatesof the ReligiousRightaretryingto imposea gag orderthatwill
children
isolated,ignorant,andsadly,morevulnerable.
keep
Adolescent Rights as Human Rights: The Danish Case
Ifyouareto understand
whathasreallyhappenedinDenmark,
youcan
notexplainthedevelopmentof ourviewof sex educationandaccess
to contraception
in generalby theliberalNordicapproachto sexuality
because it's not like that. It's actuallymuch more a consensual
understanding
by the populationin generaland the governmentin
dealingwiththingsina waythatmakesthemostsense.
- Rasmussen
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy * 1223
Sincethe 1960s,withthe activismof the labor,women's,anddisabilities'
movements,young
people'srightswere also recognizedandgivena moreprominentplacein Danishsociety.
Duringthe'60s,the DanishWelfareSociety... realizedthatyoung
people were equalmembersof societyandshouldsharethe same
benefits of belonging to society as adults.If we want people to
behave responsibly,we have to give them the chance to.... The
governmentsawthebenefitsof this- ifyougive them(youngpeople)
the option,you canalso demandthattheybehaveresponsibly
- Rasmussen
Thiswas a recurrenttheme in interviewswithteachers,as well as withsex educatorsand
health.BjarneRasmussen,AIDs-Secretariat
professionalsworkinginthe areaof reproductive
at the Frederiksberg
and
Hospital principalinvestigatorfor and authorof "YoungPeople's
SexualBehavior"
([1989]1998)explainedina 1998interview:
It'simportantnot to cheat youngpeople... Tobe honest in sexual
education,especiallyin theschoolsbecauseif theyoungpeople find
out thatyou are cheatingthem,they won'tbelieveyou lateron. It's
to get a discussiongoing.It'simportant
to make
very,veryimportant
the youngpeople understand
thattheymaketheirown choice. They
mustmakean activechoice andsay ' wantto use contraception'
or
because they have made the
'I don't want to use contraception'
choiceand theyareinvolved.
Conclusion
information
ortheAmericansinwithholding
Whothenis goingtoo far?TheDanesinproviding
information?
Whilethe onset of sexualactivityforDanesis similarto thatof Americans,both
andare
averagingaround16.7years,Danishteenagersare morelikelyto use contraception
muchless likelyto get pregnant,havean abortionorcontracta sexuallytransmitteddisease.
fewer Danish11 to 14 yearolds who havebeen engaged in
Thereare also proportionately
sexualactivity(B.Rasmussen[1997]1998).Thisis an important
finding.Using1988datafrom
GleiestimatedthatamongU.S.girlswho
the UnitedStatesNSFGandthe Guttmacher
Institute,
were mothersbythe age of 15, 39 percentof the fatherswere ages 20-29;forgirlswho had
figurewas 53 percent(GleicitedinBrownand
givenbirthto a childbyage 17,the comparable
Eisenberg1995:205;see also Moore1995).Whilethese datasay nothingaboutwhetherany
involvedsexualcoercionorviolence,the significant
of these relationships
age differenceatthis
pointinthe lifecyclesuggests an imbalanceof power.A numberof studieshavealso revealed
thata historyof childhoodsexualabuse amongteen mothersis common(Boyerand Fine
the
andstatisticianin Denmark,
has attributed
1992).FlemmingBalvig,a leadingcriminologist
Danishdecline in the rate of reportedrapes to two primarymovements:the women's
and
movementand sexualityeducationwhichfocused on sex equity,mutualresponsibility
B.
Interview
with
Rasmussen
and
1998).
(Balvig1997;
respect, bodilyintegrity
IntheAmerican
context,specialinterestgroupsvieforpowerandoftenhavedisproportionate
healthingeneral.Numerous
educationandreproductive
influence.
Thisisthe case withsexuality
andreligious
mainstream
medical,government,
agencies,aresupportive
including
organizations,
a
to
President
Bushstatingthatthey
letter
education.
of comprehensive
Manysigned
sexuality
"arecommittedto responsiblesexualityeducationfor young people that includesage-
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1224 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
accurateinformation
aboutbothabstinenceandcontraception,
[and]urge
appropriate,
medically
[him]to reconsiderincreasing
fundingforunproven
abstinence-only-until-marriage
programs."9
Andwhilenewbillsarebeingintroduced
to bettersupportcomprehensive
at
education,
sexuality
the moment,abstinence-only
continueto dominatethe agenda.
programs
andpromotefearand
Abstinence-only
proponentsnotonlyprovidemedicalmisinformation
also
fail
to
and
social
effective
fund,
plan,
ignorance,they
implement
policythatcouldmore
effectivelycurbteen pregnancyand the spreadof STDs- and providebettereconomic,
andhealthopportunities
forallyoungpeople.Expertson teen pregnancy
andchild
educational,
welfaresuchas Marianne
Luker
(1997)convincingly
WrightEdelmanandKristin
arguethatteen
pregnancyis less aboutyounggirlsandtheirsex livesthanaboutrestrictedhorizonsandthe
boundariesof hope.Yet,the ReligiousRightcontinuesto blamethe "fallengirl/woman,"
the
feminization
of men,the declineof two-parent
andthe mediaforthe ills
families,homosexuality,
of oursocietyrather
thaneconomicandstructural
forcesthatperpetuate
betweenmen
inequality
andwomen,andbetweentheenrichedandimpoverished
classes.Inthe battleoversexuality
and
choice,it'sgirls'andwomen'sbodies,lives,and livelihoodsthatarealltoo oftensacrificedandheldaccountable
forcreatingthe problemof teen pregnancy.
blamed,marginalized
The threatof women's equalityand the usurpingof male power is echoed in many
Christian
Rightnewsletters,books,sermons,rallies,andTVandradioshows, as the desirefor
patriarchalcontrol and parentalorder is unabashedlypronounced.Both hostile and
benevolentformsof sexism (Glickand Fiske2001)are evidenthereas the ReligiousRight
attempts to keep women in their place, on the pedestal, dependent on men who are
expectedto remainincontrol.Thedebatesaroundabstinence-only
policies,whileconcerned
withtryingto preventadolescentsexualactivity,areas much- if not more- abouttryingto
nuclear,heterosexual,Christian
preserveor reclaimthe patriarchal,
family.
WhenformerSecretary
of StateColinL.Powellwas askedaboutHIV-prevention
strategiesfor
on Valentine's
youngpeopleduringan MTVinterview
Day,2001,Powelltoldthe musicchannel
thatthewholeinternational
cometogether,speakcandidly
audience,"Itis important
community
aboutit,forgetabouttaboos,andforgetaboutconservativeideaswithrespectto whatyou
shouldtellyoungpeopleabout.It'sthe livesof youngpeoplethatareputat riskby unsafesex.
And,therefore,protectyourself."
(Cohen2002)ButlikeDr.EverettKoop,formerU.S.Surgeon
Generalanda pro-lifeconservative
who advocatedforsex educationandthe rightto
Christian,
information
on contraception
andabortion,Powellwas immediately
attacked."Conservatives
reactedharshly
to the secretary'sendorsementof condomuse bysexuallyactiveyoungpeople
and to the ideathatthis administration
sanctionsany message otherthanabstinenceuntil
as the principal,
ifnotonly,acceptableapproach"
(Cohen2002).GaryBauer,presidentof
marriage
American
Values,admonishedPowell- who has a long-heldspecialinterestinglobalHIV/AIDS
Africa- to stickto diplomacy:On "publichealthissues, he
issues, especiallyin Sub-Saharan
shouldfollowthe leadof the Bushadministration,
whichhe serves."(Cohen2002)
As we enterthe new millennium,
familyplanning,reproductiveand sexualhealth,and
economicwell-beingarevitalconcernsforindividuals,
communities,andnations.TheUnited
States which is the only countrythat legislatesand funds abstinence-only-until
marriage
programsin publicschools, also leadsthe worldin its highratesof teenage pregnancies,
abortions,andSTDs. Moreover,
abstinence-only-until-marriage
programshavebeen taught
for over two decades and yet there is still no peer-reviewedresearchthat proves it is
effective.10
Whileratesof pregnancy,AIDS,and othersexuallytransmitteddiseases remain
alarmingly
highamongAmerica'syouthand people inthe developingworld,opponentsof
healtharetryingto censorvitalinformation
andservices
sexualityeducationandreproductive
bothat homeandabroad.
The ReligiousRighthas notachievedits agenda,butit has produceda chillingeffect on
comprehensivesexualityeducation.A 1998 studyby researchersat TheAlanGuttmacher
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy* 1225
Institutefoundthatamongthe seven inten publicschool districtsthat havea district-wide
(86 percent)requirethatabstinencebe
policyto teach sexualityeducation,the vast majority
promoted,eitheras the preferredoptionforteenagers(51 percenthavesuch anabstinenceplus policy)or as the onlyoptionoutsideof marriage(35 percenthavesuch anabstinenceonlypolicy).Only14 percenthavea comprehensivepolicythataddressesabstinenceas one
optionin a broadereducationprogramto prepareadolescentsto become sexuallyhealthy
adults.Inalmosttwo-thirdsof districtpoliciesacrossthe nation- those withcomprehensive
and abstinence-pluspolicies- discussionaboutthe benefitsof contraceptionis permitted.
However,in the one-thirdof districtswith an abstinence-onlypolicy,informationabout
contraceptionis eitherprohibitedentirelyor limitedto discussionof its ineffectivenessin
2000).
protectingagainstunplannedpregnancyandsexuallytransmitteddiseases (Dailard
InFebruary
2005, PresidentBushproposeda $2.57 trillionfederalbudgetforfiscalyear
2006thatwouldsubstantially
cutoreliminatemanydomesticsocialprograms,whilecreating
or boostingfundingfor a handfulof othersthatwould promote"traditional
familyvalues."
Eventhe TexasBaptistsare questioningjust how compassionatethis is (Marus2005). In
God'sPolitics:Whythe RightGetsItWrongandthe LeftDoesn'tGetIt,ReverendJimWallis,
editorof the progressiveevangelicalmagazine,Sojourners,arguesthat "thereligiousand
to focus onlyon
politicalRightgets the publicmeaningof religionmostlywrong- preferring
sexualand culturalissues while ignoringthe weightiermattersof justice.He believesthe
secular Leftdoesn't seem to get the meaningand promiseof faithfor politicseitheras irrelevant
to socialchange."Inthe interestof allchildren,
mistakenly
dismissingspirituality
as wellas familywell-being,we needto takeseriouslya broad-based
approachto bothsocial
problemsand social policythat is based on empiricalevidence and a recognitionof the
pluralistic
society inwhichwe live.Thisis whatdemocracyis allabout.Inthe finalanalysis,
ratherthanhavinggone too far,the UnitedStateshas notgone nearlyfarenoughinproviding
reliableinformation,
educationandhealthcareto ourchildren.
Notes
1. Themost widelydiscussed"abstinence-based"
program,"SexRespect,"was writtenby
ColleenK.Mastin 1983.Thefor-profit
corporation,
Respect,Inc.distributes"SexRespect"
and"FacingReality."
2. Only4 percentof parentsof juniorhighschoolstudentsand6 percentof parentsof high
school students believe sexualityeducationshould not be taught in school ("Public
2004).
Support"
3. Personalcommunication,
January2005.
4. Sincetakingofficein2001,Bushwithdrewmillionsof dollarsincongressionally
allottedaid
to the UnitedNationsPopulation
Fund,froze$3 millionforthe WorldHealthOrganization's
reproductivehealth program,and aggressively attempted to export its domestic
viewsatvenuesprovidedbyvariousU.N."abstinence-only"
campaignanditsanti-abortion
andReproductive
HealthServices"2002).
sponsoredglobalmeetings("Congress
released a 237-page reportFebruary11, 2005 detailingthe
5. The Bush Administration
or substantialcuts intheirFY2006 budgetproposal.The
programsslatedforelimination
reportis availableat http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2006/pdf/savings.pdf.
Severalmembersof the Coalitionon HumanNeeds (CHN)have producedexcellent
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1226 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
analyses of the President'sbudget. The CHNwebsite links to many of these is
OMBWatchhas produceda numberof pieces
www.chn.org/issues/budget/index.html.
analyzingthe President'sbudgetand they are availableon the OMBWatchwebsite:
President'Bush'sFY 06 Budget:AnOverview.
6. Adolescentchild-bearing
is morecommonin the UnitedStates (22 percentof women
(15percent),Canada(11percent),
reportedhavinga childbeforeage 20)thaninGreatBritain
France(6 percent)and Sweden(4 percent).Andthe differencesare even greaterwhen
of U.S.teenagersdidnotuse
comparingbirthsto youngerteenagers.A greaterproportion
at
the
first
or
either
most
recent
intercourse
(25 percentand 20 percent
contraception
thanthat reportedin France(11 percentand 12 percent),GreatBritain(21
respectively)
SexualHealth2002;
percentand4 percent),Sweden(22percentand7 percent)(Adolescent
et al.2001;Feijoo2001;Joneset al.1996;"Teenage
SexualandReproductive
Darroch
2001).
7. Deeplyconcernedaboutthe growingAIDsepidemic,a numberof otherleadingsocial
of
scientists in the mid-1980sbegan makingtheircase that a greaterunderstanding
teenagers'sexualbehaviorwas urgentlyneeded in orderto stem the rateof deadlyHIV
was designedas a five-yearnationalstudy,
infections.TheAmericanTeenageStudy(ATS)
riskbehaviorsrelatedto teenage
withthe intentto provideinformation
abouthealth-related
pregnancyandsexuallytransmitteddiseases, including,HIVIn1993,however,Congress
act. Inresponding
to the controversies
bannedthe ATSinthe NIHreauthorization
explicitly
asserted:Children
the fundingof ATS,Rep.JimMcDermott
(D-Wash.)
maybe
surrounding
embarrassedby such discussion,buttheywillnotdie fromembarrassment.
Theycan die
fromAIDS.Thecan sufferpermanenthealtheffects fromsexuallytransmitteddiseases.
Andtheycansuffera lifetimefrompremature
(Boonstra2001).
parenthood
8. Thisfieldworkincludedclassroomobservations;class, small group,and one-on-one
interviewswithteenagers;and interviewswith parents,teachers,andsex educators.In
the case of the CentralPennsylvania
School,240 9ththrough12th
gradersalso filledout
surveysinthe week followingthe abstinence-onlyassembliessponsoredby Heartbeat
CommunityServices.Thisnumberincludedallthose in one of fourhealthclasses or a
quarterof the highschool population.
9. In1981,a nationalpollindicatedthat70 percentof parentsfavoredsex-ed programsin
the publicschools;a 1985pollshowed75 percentof adultsapproving
sex-edinthe public
highschools, with52 percentapprovingof such programsin grades4 through8; most
respondentsalso believedthatprogramsshouldcovera widerrangeof topics,including
the natureof sexualintercourse
teachingaboutbirthcontrol,the biologyof reproduction,
andabortion("Teaching
Fear"1994).
10. An evangelicalpsychologist,James Dobson heads up the largest Christian-Right
inthe UnitedStates,Focuson the Family(FOF),withmagazinesreaching3
Organization
millionreaders,anda dailyradioprogramreachingmorethan5 millionpeopleon 3,000
stationsworldwide.He is also authorof Dareto Discipline,one of the leadingchildcare
manualssold inthe UnitedStates.
11.StudiesconductedbyJohnsHopkinsresearchersandfundedbythe NationalInstituteof
ChildHealthandDevelopmentindicatethe effectivenessof sexualityeducationprograms
indelayingthe age at firstintercourse,increasingthe use of contraception,
and reducing
pregnancyrates amongteens. Researchersfound no significantassociationbetween
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy ? 1227
takinga courseinsexualityeducationandbeingsexuallyactive.In1994,the WorldHealth
releaseda reportthat hadanalyzed35 studies done aroundthe worldon
Organization
concludethatthereis no supportforthe
sexualityeducation.AuthorsGrunseitandKippax
contentionthat sexualityeducationencouragessexual experimentation
or increased
Fear"1994).
activity(Schorr1988;"Teaching
12. Fora listgo to: http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/news/president.htm.
13.AdvocatesforYouthcontractedwithan independentstatisticianto analyzedata,recently
releasedbythe CentersforDiseaseControland Prevention
(CDC),aboutsexualbehavior
school
students
from
1991
to
2003.
Advocates'
amonghigh
reporton the analysisof the
YouthRiskBehaviorSurveys(YRBS),
Trendsin SexualRiskBehaviorsamongHighSchool
Students- UnitedStates, 1991 to 1997and 1999to 2003, foundthatthe much-touted
behavioractuallytook placefrom1991to
improvementsin adolescentsexualrisk-taking
1997.Theseimprovements
didnotcontinueintothe timeperiodbetween1999and2003,
whichcorrespondsto the firstyearsof the abstinence-only
initiative.
References
"Sex"
Education.
July2004.FactSheet,PlannedParenthood.
Abstinence-Only
inContext:UnitedStatesandWorldwide."
"Abortion
1999.Issuesin Brief.TheAlanGuttmacher
Institute
(www.agi-usa.org/pubs/ib_0599.html).
"Adolescenceand AbstinenceFactSheet."1997.26 SIECUS
Report,October/November.
(http://www.
.html).
siecus.org/pubs/fact/factO001
Current
TrendsandIssues:1998."February
1999.American
"Adolescent
Pregnancy:
Academyof Pediatrics.
Pediatrics.
103(2):516-520.(http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/103/2/516).
Alford,S., and AmmieeS. Feijoo.2000.AdolescentSexualHealthin Europeand the U.S.- Whythe
D.C.:
forYouth.
Difference?
Advocates
Washington,
(www.advocatesforyouth.org).
Alford,S., N. Cheethamand D. Hauser.2005. Science and Success in DevelopingCountries.Holistic
ThatWorktoPreventTeenPregnancyHIV&Sexually
Transmitted
Infections.
Programs
Washington,
D.C.:
forYouth.
Advocates
Z MagazineOnline,Vol. 18, No. 1, January
Education"
Bader,Eleanor.2005. "Abstinence-Only
05.html).
(www.zmagsite.zmag.org/lmages/baderpr1
Balvig,Flemming.
Opinion,Information
Mandag,20January:5-6;
"Voldtaegters
Omfang
1997."Voldtaegt,"
i Danmark:En undersogelseaf voldaegtsanmeldelser
i 1990, 1991, og 1992 &
og Karakter
i Danmark.
1998.
Voldtaegstudviklingen
Copenhagen:
Udgivetaf Rigspolitichefen
2001. "Promising
the Future:Virginity
Bearman,PS.,and H. Brueckner.
Pledgesand FirstIntercourse."
Journalof Sociology,106(4):859-912.
American
and Gender,1875to the Present.:YaleUniversity
Bendroth,MargaretLamberts.1993.Fundamentalism
Press.
to HIV/AIDS
andtheU.S.Approach
Prevention
Overseas."
Heather.
2004."Abstinence-Promotion
Boonstra,
Institute.
IssuesinBrief.TheAlanGuttmacher
Boyer,D.,andD.Fine.1992."Sexualabuseas a factorinadolescentpregnancyandchildmaltreatment."
24:4-11.
FamilyPlanning
Perspectives,
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1228 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
Jane.2004."Abstinence-Only:
Does ItWork?
New York
Times,June1, F1.
Brody,
Steve.1998.SharingthePie.A Citizen's
Guideto Wealth
andPower.HenryHolt&Co.
Brouwer,
theAmericanGospel:GlobalChristian
Steve, PaulGiffordandSusanD.Rose. 1996.Exporting
Brouwer,
Fundamentalism.
Routledge.
andthe WellBrown,Sarah,andLeonEisenberg,editors.1995.BestIntentions.Unintended
Pregnancy
andFamilies.National
Beingof Children
AcademyPress,205.
Children's
DefenseFund.2004."Children's
DefenseFundBlastsWithholding
Press
of Reporton Hunger."
Release:Oct.24.
Antiabortion
Cohen,Susan.June2001."Global
Ideologyatthe Expenseof American
GagRule:Exporting
TheGuttmacher
Values."
Reporton PublicPolicy,4(3).
The
andReproductive
Health:Major
Actionsin2001anda LookAhead."
2002."Congress
February
Guttmacher
Reporton PublicPolicy,5(1).
Connolly,Ceci. 2004. "SomeAbstinenceProgramsMisleadTeens, ReportSays."WashingtonPost,
December2, A01.
Dailard,
Cynthia.
April2000. "Fueledby CampaignPromises,DriveIntensifiesto BoostAbstinence-Only
Funds."
TheGuttmacher
Education
Reporton PublicPolicy,3(2).
TheMisguidedDriveforEqual
. February
2002."Abstinence
Promotion
andTeenFamilyPlanning:
TheGuttmacher
Funding."
Reporton PublicPolicy,5(1).
forIndividuals,
andPolicies."
. December2003."Understanding
Abstinence:'
Implications
Programs,
TheGuttmacher
Reporton PublicPolicy,6(5).
Times,
Dao,James.2002. "OverU.S.Protest,AsianGroupApprovesFamilyPlanningGoals."New York
December18.
2001.
Darroch,
Jacqueline,SinghSusheela,JenniferJ. Frostandthe StudyTeam.November/December
"Differencesin TeenagePregnancyRatesAmongFiveDevelopedCountries."
FamilyPlanning
Institute.
33(6).TheAlanGuttmacher
Perspectives,
M.Olser,et al.1990."United
to Health
StatesandDenmark:
Different
David,H.A.,J.M.Morgall,
Approaches
CareandFamily
StudiesinFamily
21:1-19.
Planning."
Planning,
Dobson,James.August1995."TheFamilyUnderFirebythe UnitedNations:AnUrgentMessage,"Focus
on theFamilyNewsletter,1-8.
Patricia.
1990.AbstinenceWorks:
A Notebookon Pre-Marital
Publications.
Driscoll,
Chastity.
Womanity
andMaryRoseOsborn.1982.SexualCommonSense:Affirming
AdolescentAbstinence.
Driscoll,Patricia,
Publications.
Womanity
ChildWatchWeblog.Washington,DC:
Edelman,Marianne
1, 2005. "God'sPolitics."
Wright.February
Children's
DefenseFund.(http://www.childrensdefense.org/childwatch/050201.aspx).
the Impactof EffectiveTeenagePregnancy
Prevention
Frost,J.J.,andJ.D.Forrest.1997."Understanding
Family
27(5).
Programs."
Perspectives,
Planning
Gallagher,
Maggie.1999.TheAge of UnwedMothersIs TeenPregnancythe Problem?A Reportto the
Nation.NewYork:
Institute
forAmerican
Values.(http://www.americanvalues.org/Teen.PDF).
2001.AnAmbivalent
Alliance:HostileandBenevolentSexismas
Glick,Peter,andSusanFiske.February
Justifications
forGenderInequality.
American
56(2):109-118.
Complementary
Psychologist,
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy ? 1229
Grunseit,
A., andS. Kippax.1995.Effectsof SexEducationon YoungPeople'sSexualBehavior.Geneva:
WorldHealthOrganization.
20:A CalltoAction.SIECUS.
Debra.1990.SexEducation
Haffner,
. 2001.BeyondtheBigTalk.
GuidetoRaising
Press.
EveryParent's
Sexually
HealthyTeens.Newmarket
Education:Assessing the Impact.
Hauser,Debra.2004. FiveYearsof Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage
DC:AdvocatesforYouth.
Washington,
andGender.OxfordUniversity
Press.
John,editor.1994.Fundamentalism
Hawley,
Hill&Wang.
2001.NotinFrontof the Children.
Heins,Marjorie.
withComparative
forWomenAged20-24.
Statistics
Statistics
Henshaw,S.K.2004.US. TeenagePregnancy
Institute.
TheGuttmacher
NewYork:
andYoung
Adults:SexualHealthKnowledge,
Attitudes,
Hoff,Tina,et al.2003.National
SurveyofAdolescents
"National
andExperiences.
Surveyof AdolescentsandYoungAdults:SexualHealthKnowledge,
Foundation.
andExperiences."
Attitudes,
HenryJ. KaiserFamily
andtheHumanRightsof Women.St. Martin's
Fundamentalisms
editor.1999.Religious
Howland,
Courtney,
Press.
CutsUndermine
HumanRights."
"International
4, 1997.CenterforReproductive
February
FamilyPlanning
LawandPolicy.
"In Good Company:Who Supports ComprehensiveSexualityEducation."Fact Sheet, SIECUS.
(http://www.siecus.org/policy/in_good_company.pdf).
HumanRights."
CutsUndermine
"International
4, 1997.CenterforReproductive
February
FamilyPlanning
LawandPolicy.
TheNation.
Ireland,
Doug.May27, 2002."USandEvilAxis- AlliesforAbstinence."
intheUnitedStates.University
of California
TheBattlesoverSexEducation
Janie.2002.TalkAboutSex.'
Irvine,
Press.
Press.
in Industrialized
Nations.YaleUniversity
Jones,Elise,et al. 1996.TeenagePregnancy
Jones, RachelK.,AlisonPurcell,SusheelaSinghand LawrenceB. Finer.2005. "Adolescents:
Reportsof
ParentalKnowledgeof AdolescentsUse of Sexual HealthServicesand TheirReactionsto
forPrescription
Notification
MandatedParental
JAMA,293:340-348.
Contraception."
21 SIECUS
Fear-Based
Educational
1993.ScaredChaste?
Leslie.December/January
Curricula,
Kantor,
Report.
1993-94School
Education
on PublicSchoolSexuality
1994."Attacks
Programs:
.August/September
SIECUS
Year,"
Report.
Kirby,Douglas.1997.No EasyAnswers.ResearchFindingson Programsto ReduceTeenPregnancy.
PreventTeenPregnancy.
D.C.National
Campaign
Washington,
toReduceTeenPregnancy.
on Programs
Answers.ResearchFindings
.2001.Emerging
Washington,
to PreventTeenPregnancy
DC:National
Campaign
of NewYorkPress.
StateUniversity
inEducation.
andSexuality
Klein,SusanS. 1992.SexEquity
Trendsin Denmark."
Knudsen,Lisbeth.1999."RecentFertility
Report11.DanishCenterforDemographic
Research.
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1230 * Social Forces Volume 84, Number 2 * December 2005
Knudsen,Lisbeth,and HanneWielandt.1997."SexualActivityand PregnanciesamongAdolescentsin
Nordisk
Denmark."
Sexologi,15:75-88.
Kristof,NicholasD., 2005. "Bush'sSex Scandal."New YorkTimes,Op-EdSectionA 21, Column6.
16.
February
1999.Abstinencepromotion
andthe provision
of information
about
D.J.,L.KaeserandC.L.Richards.
Landry,
in publicschooldistrictsexualityeducationpolicies.FamilyPlanningPerspectives.
contraception
31(6):280-286.
No. NCJ-147001.
Langan,PatrickA., and CarolineWolfHarlow.1994. ChildRape Victims.Publication
DC:U.S.Department
of Justice.
Washington,
Howard.2004."OnFamilyPlanning,
U.S.vs. Muchof the World.:De-emphasisof Contraception
LaFranci,
RunsContrary
to GlobalGoals."Christian
ScienceMonitor.
March30.
Edward
Laumann,
O.,JohnH.Gagnon,RobertT.MichaelandStuartMichaels.1994.TheSocialOrganization
of Sexuality.
of ChicagoPress.
University
1997.DubiousConceptions.
Kirstin.
Harvard
Press.
Luker,
University
SchoolBoardWillCensorIllustration
inAnatomy
Textbook."
"Lynchburg
Sept.6, 2000.AssociatedPress.APES-09-06-00
1233EDT.
CommonCouragePress.
Males,Michael.1996.ScapegoatGeneration.
andErumIkramullah.
Jennifer,
Manlove,
AngelaR.Papillio
September2004."NotYet:Programs
Designed
to DelayFirstSexAmongTeens."Washington,
DC:National
to Prevent
TeenPregnancy.
Campaign
Martin.
1981."God'sAngryMan,"TexasMonthly
(April).
andScottAppleby(eds.).1993.Fundamentalisms
andSociety,Vol2. University
of Chicago
Marty,Martin,
Press.
Marus,Robert.February
11,2005."Faith
Dallas,
GroupsQuestionWhetherBushBudget'compassionate."'
TX:BaptistStandard.
1977."SexRespect:TheOptionof TrueSexualFeeling,"
StudentHandbook
Mast,ColeenKelly.
(rev.ed.)7,
IL:RespectIncorporated.
90, Bradley,
Alexander.
1998.SexualIdeologyandSchooling:Towards
Democratic
Education.
Ontario,
McKay,
Sexuality
Canada:
AlthousePress.
andGinaKolata.
1994.SexinAmerica:
Michael,Robert
A Definitive
T,JohnH.Gagnon,Edward
O.Laumann
Survey.Little,Brown.
New MessagesandTechniques."
2002. NewYork:TheOthmer
"Mobilizing
SupportforSex Education:
Institute
of PlannedParenthood
of NYC.
D.Glei,et al. 1995.AdolescentSex,Contraception
andChildbearing.
Moore,K.A.,B.C.Miller,
A Reviewof
RecentResearch.
D.C.:ChildTrends.
Washington,
"NewStateEvaluations
ShowFederally
FundedAbstinence-Only
HaveLittleEffect."
Programs
September
27. 2004.Washington,
D.C.:AdvocatesforYouth.
"New Studies SignalDangersof LimitingTeenAccess to BirthControlInformation
and Services:
Researchersand MedicalExpertsUrgeNew Congressand State Legislatures
to Heed Data."
TheGuttmacher
Institute.
January18,2005.MediaRelease.NewYork:
NoSecondChance.JeremiahFilms.
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Sex,SinandSocialPolicy ? 1231
A Classical
1997.Cultivating
DefenseofReforminLiberal
Education.
Harvard
Nussbaum,Martha.
Humanity.
Press.
University
TheNew York
5.
Pear,Robert.2005."BushBudgetCallsforCutsinHealthServices."
Times,February
"ThePoliticsof Sexuality
Education."
2004.SIECUS
Report,32(4).
"ThePresident'sOverseasReproductive
HealthPolicy:ThinkLocally,
Act Globally."
August2002. The
Guttmacher
.htm)
ReportonPublicPolicy,5(3).(http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/grO50301
"Public Support for Comprehensive Sexuality Education." 2004. SIECUS Fact Sheet.
7.html)
(www.siecus.org/pubs/fact/fact001
DanishNationalSurveyand Report.AIDS
Rasmussen,Bjarne.1997."YoungPeople'sSexualBehavior,"
Denmark.
Sekretariat,
Frederiksberg
Hospital,
Interview
withthe author.
June1998.AIDSSekretariat,
Rasmussen,Bjarne.
of the DanishFamilyPlanning
Association,Copenhagen,Interview
Rasmussen,Nell.June1998.Director
withauthor.
D.C.Children's
DefenseFund.
Card."
[1994]2002.Washington,
"Report
inIranandthe United
Martin.
1993.PiousPassion:theemergenceof modernfundamentalism
Riesebrodt,
of California
Press.
States.University
Rose,Susan.1986.KeepingThemOutof theHandsofSatan.Evangelical
SchoolinginAmerica.Routledge.
TheNegotiationof Genderin a Charismatic
1987."WomenWarriors:
Community."
Sociological
Analysis,
48(3):245-258.
InMartinMartyandScott
on NorthAmericanEducation."
.1993. "TheImpactof Fundamentalism
andSociety:Reclaiming
theSciences,theFamily,
andEducation.
Appleby(eds.),Fundamentalisms
of ChicagoPress,2:452-489.
University
and HumanRights."Pp.9-20.Religious
1999."Christian
Fundamentalism:
Sexuality,
Patriarchy,
editor.St. Martin's
Press.
Fundamentalisms
andtheHumanRightsof Women.Courtney
Howland,
inthe Classroom.
CrosswayBooks.
Schafly,Phyllis,editor.1985.ChildAbuse
withJustOneLesson:NoSex."New York
Times,December28,Al.
Schemo,DianaJ. 2000."SexEducation
TheAlanGuttmacher
Institute.
1994.NewYork:
SexandAmerica's
Teenagers.
2000.MenloPark,CA:TheKaiser
inAmerica:A ViewfromInsidetheNation'sClassrooms.
SexEducation
Foundation.
Family
Films.
1993.Focuson the Family
"Sex,Lies&theTruth."
Within
OurReach.AnchorPress.
Schorr,Lisbeth.1988.
Institute.
TheAlanGuttmacher
1994.NewYork:
SexandAmerica's
Teenagers.
Institute.
"SexEducation:
Politicians,
Parents,Teachers,andTeens."Issuesin Brief.TheAlanGuttmacher
(www.agi-usa.org/pubs/ib_2-01.html)
Sex RespectWebsite(http://www.sexrespect.com/ProgramOrig.html).
Shapiro.1992.We'reNumberOne.VintageBooks.
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1232 * SocialForcesVolume84,Number2 * December2005
and"1997-98Sexuality
"SIECUS
Looksat States'SexualityLawsandthe SexualRightsof TheirCitizens"
inthe UnitedStates."August/September
1998.SIECUS
Education
Controversies
Report.
2000.28(5)(updatedMarch2001).
SIECUS
Report.June/July
2000. 'AdolescentPregnancy
andChildbearing:
Levelsand
Singh,SusheelaandJacquelineE. Darroch.
TrendsinDevelopedCountries."
32(1).
Family
Planning
Perspectives.
ValuesForever."
TheNation.
Stacey,Judith.July9, 2001."Family
Children
2004. Children's
DefenseFund.
StateofAmerica's
Steve.2002."SexEducation
StirsControversy."
USAToday.
Sternberg,
July11.
1999.Washington,
DC:SIECUS
andAdvocatesforYouth.
ViewsonSexualityEducation.
SurveyofAmerica's
1996. Peoplefor the
Fear:The ReligiousRights'CampaignAgainstSexualityEducation."
"Teaching
American
Way.(http://www.pfaw.org/pfaw/general/default.aspx?oid
=2025print=yesSunits=all).
Texasstudyfindslittleimpacton sexualbehavior."
"Teensex increasedafterabstinenceprogram:
February
ReutersUpdated:2:56p.m.ET.
1,2005. MSNBC:
SexualandReproductive
Behavior
inDevelopedCountries:
CanMoreProgressBe Made?"
2001.
"Teenage
NewYork:
TheAlanGuttmacher
Institute.
"Texas
TeensIncreasedSexAfterAbstinenceProgram."
31, 2005.Houston:Reuters.
January
"TheSexualRightsof YoungWomenin Denmarkand Sweden."1995. The DanishFamilyPlanning
andthe SwedishAssociation
Association
forSex Education.
"UNChildren's
SummitHitsSnag."May10,2002.(Reuters)
CBSWorldNews.
"U.S.Failsto BlockConsensus at BangkokPopulationConference."2002. International
Women's
HealthCoalition.PostedTuesday,December17. (http://www.iwhc.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=
page&pagelD).
J.C.Abma,S. Henshaw.2000."Trends
inPregnancies
andPolicies."
Ventura,
S.J.,W.D.Mosher,S.C.Curtin,
HealthStat.21(56):1-49.
Vital
Sandra.May2000."Morality
PoliticsandEducational
Sex Education
Vergari,
Policy:TheAbstinence-Only
Grant."
Educational
Policy.14(2):290-310.
andtheLeftDoesn'tGetIt.Harper.
Wallis,Jim.2005.God'sPolitics.WhytheRightGetsItWrong,
TheWaxmanReport.December2004. "TheContentof FederallyFundedAbstinence-Only
Education
forRep.HenryA. Waxman.U.S.Houseof Representatives
Committeeon
Programs."
Prepared
Government Reform. Minority Staff
Special
Investigations Division.
(http://www.democrats.reform.house.gov/Documents/20041201102153-50247.pdf).
Times,
Wetzstein,Cheryl.2005. "Youngpeople 'need'new sex-educationfundingplan."Washington
11.
February
"Whatthe President's
2005.Washington,
Children."
DC:Children's
Defense
BudgetMeansforAmerica's
Fund."
(AccessedFebruary
13).(http://www.childrensdefense.org/).
theWait."
TheObserver,
Guardian
6.
Wood,Gaby.2005."Worth
Unlimited.
February
Steve.2005."Inspiteof thefacts,Bush'sDepartment
of HealthandHumanServiceskeepspushing
Yoder,
abstinence."
InTheseTimes.February
10.
This content downloaded from 128.122.149.145 on Tue, 21 Jul 2015 13:14:59 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions