Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 12, Nos. 1/2, 2012
73
Health-related benefits: their influence on loyalty and
physical activity participation in Australian public
aquatic centres
Gary Howat*, Jessica Alikaris and
Heather March
Centre for Tourism and Leisure Management,
School of Management,
University of South Australia,
Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
*Corresponding author
Peter Howat
Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer Control,
Curtin University,
G.P.O. Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: The present study aimed to examine health-related benefits
and their potential role in encouraging more people to undertake regular
physical activity at public aquatic centres. The study used the service
quality – overall satisfaction – loyalty model to examine outcome service
quality, especially health-related benefits, and their influence on loyalty (WOM
recommendation), mediated by overall customer satisfaction. Based on a
sample of 7,133 customers of 27 multi-purpose public aquatic centres in
Australia, regression analyses indicated that health-related benefits dimensions,
improved health and fitness and relaxation and stress release, had the greatest
influence on overall customer satisfaction, which in turn significantly
influenced word-of-mouth recommendation. Improved health and fitness was
also rated highest for benefit importance as well as benefit attainment, with
success in competition the lowest rated benefit dimension. Further research is
recommended to clarify the role of health-related benefits in facilitating
physical activity, thus reducing the prevalence of chronic health disease.
Keywords: physical activity; health-related benefits; well-being; service
quality; overall customer satisfaction; word-of-mouth recommendation;
Australia.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Howat, G., Alikaris, J.,
March, H. and Howat, P. (2012) ‘Health-related benefits: their influence on
loyalty and physical activity participation in Australian public aquatic centres’,
Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 12, Nos. 1/2, pp.73–92.
Copyright © 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
74
G. Howat et al.
Biographical notes: Gary Howat is Associate Professor and co-Director of the
Centre for Tourism and Leisure Management, School of Management,
University of South Australia. He earned his Doctorate in Park and Recreation
Management from the University of Illinois in 1977. His research focuses on
service quality, satisfaction and customer behaviour in sport and leisure
contexts. He oversees the annual CERM PI benchmarking process for
Australian public sport, leisure, aquatic and tennis centres. In recent years, he
has served on the editorial panels for 12 international peer-reviewed sport,
leisure, and management journals, and has also overseen numerous technical
research reports for industry collaborators.
Jessica Alikaris is a Senior Research Associate in the Centre for Tourism and
Leisure Management, School of Management, University of South Australia.
She holds a Bachelor of Sport and Recreation Management and Honours
degree in Management from the University of South Australia. Her research
includes well-being benefits for older adult volunteers at Australian Botanic
Gardens.
Heather March is a Senior Research Associate in the Centre for Tourism and
Leisure Management, School of Management, University of South Australia.
She holds a degree in Recreation Planning and Management at the University
of South Australia. She has managed a range of industry projects within the
Centre for Tourism and Leisure Management over the past 17 years, and also
has held senior positions in local government management.
Peter Howat is Professor and Director of the Centre for Behavioural Research
in Cancer Control at Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia. He has been
an investigator on over 100 funded projects including the National Health and
Medical Research Council and the Australian Research Council. He is
Australian Editor of The American Journal of Health Behavior, and on the
editorial boards of Global Health Promotion and the Australian Journal of
Health Promotion.
1
Introduction
Continued increases in physical inactivity are contributing to an obesity epidemic and
related chronic disease (ABS, 2007), which is exacerbated by Australia’s ageing
population. In 2002, 13% of the population was aged 65 years and over, and it is
estimated this figure will grow to 25% by 2042 (Australian Government, The Treasury,
2011). In Australia over $Aust 21 billion is spent per year on medical treatment for
obesity and associated illnesses (ABS, 2007). The salient challenge faced by individuals,
communities, and governments is to identify strategies to facilitate more people to
increase their physical activity levels (Lee et al., 2011; Prochaska et al., 2008) thus
providing health benefits to decrease the incidence of chronic disease.
One approach is to capitalise on the generally widely dispersed public aquatic centres
within most communities throughout Australia providing health promoting activities such
as aerobics, fitness or gym activities and water-based activities such as lap swimming.
Previous research indicates that participating in activities at public aquatic centres results
in outcome service quality dimensions including health-related benefits, which influence
overall customer satisfaction, which, in turn, influences loyalty such as word-of-mouth
Health-related benefits
75
(WOM) recommendation (Howat et al., 2008). Similar results have been reported for
private health clubs (Alexandris et al., 2004). Therefore, the focus of the present study is
to examine the influence of service quality outcome dimensions and in particular,
health-related benefits on overall customer satisfaction and WOM recommendation.
The next section of this article explains the contextual setting for the research,
followed by the theoretical context outlining the key research constructs (service quality,
overall satisfaction, and WOM recommendation). Following the methodology, the
discussion provides some managerial implications for the research, while the final
sections discuss future research and limitations, and conclusions.
2
Contextual setting
2.1 Physical inactivity trends
Between 2001 and 2008, there was an increase in physical inactivity among the adult
population in Australia, highlighted by an increase of almost 4% in the proportion of
people who did not meet the minimum “guidelines of 30 minutes moderate exercise on
most days of the week” (ABS, 2011). The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) data
show the majority of Australians, 18 years and over (72%) did not meet the
recommended guidelines for regular physical activity in 2008 compared to 69% in 2001
(ABS, 2011). Physical inactivity is now recognised as the fourth largest preventable
cause of disease, behind high blood pressure, overweight/obesity and smoking (Flegal
et al., 2010; World Health Organization, 2010). Reducing physical inactivity can help
prevent obesity and chronic health ailments such is type II diabetes (Jonker et al., 2006),
cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, arthritis, mental illness including depression, and
some cancers as well as injury; and can help contain growing healthcare costs (ABS,
2011; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010).
2.2 Public aquatic centres and physical activity opportunities
Public aquatic centres provide physical activity opportunities that provide health-related
benefits for many Australians. The already high number of total visits to aquatic centres
is indicated by statistics that show an average of five visits per person per year to public
aquatic centres in South Australia (Service Skills SA, 2011) and Western Australia
(Leaversuch, 2010) equating to over 113 million annual visits to public aquatic centres
across Australia.
Based on ABS data collected in 2009–2010 for people aged 15 years and over, 30%
were found to participate in regular physical activity, twice a week on average each
month over the previous 12 months (ABS, 2011). Walking for exercise was the most
popular regular physical activity (23%) for all age groups, because it is relatively
convenient, inexpensive, and accessible for the wider population (Sugiyama and
Thompson, 2008). The next most popular activities included aerobics, fitness or gym
(14%) and swimming (7.4%), followed by cycling (6.5%) and jogging or running (6.5%),
with other sports activities registering lower rates of regular participation (ABS, 2011).
Aerobics, fitness or gym and swimming are among the more relatively popular
opportunities currently offered by multi-purpose Australian public aquatic centres
(Howat and Crilley, 2007), and during the last decade there has been a growth in
76
G. Howat et al.
aerobics, fitness or gym activities particularly in the larger centres. These trends are
supported by Australian Sports Commission (ASC) data showing that between 2001 and
2007, aerobics/fitness was the physical activity area enjoying the largest increase in total
participation (68%) (ASC, 2008). The ASC data also indicated that aerobics/fitness was
the most popular partly or fully organised type of physical activity for Australians
15 years and over in 2007.
3
Theoretical context
The main constructs discussed in the present study (service quality, satisfaction, and
WOM recommendation) will be summarised in the following sections. More in-depth
explanations for each construct are well documented elsewhere (e.g., Alexandris et al.,
2004; Clemes et al., 2011; Howat et al., 2008).
3.1 Service quality
As an antecedent to overall satisfaction, service quality is often conceptualised as the
customer’s cognitive evaluation of a service provider’s performance (Brady and Cronin,
2001) across a range of service attributes. Popular service quality models include
SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al., 1988; Zeithaml et al., 2006), the three dimension
model proposed by Brady and Cronin (2001), and the Grönroos (2005) model with two
major dimensions of technical quality and functional quality.
Four of the five SERVQUAL dimensions are process dimensions, three of which
focus on service delivery staff (responsiveness, assurance, and empathy), while
‘tangibles’, include physical quality such as the quality of facilities and equipment. Only
one SERVQUAL dimension (reliability) relates to outcome service quality such as the
accuracy of the diagnosis from a medical examination (Parasuraman et al., 1988). The
relatively low proportion of attention given to outcome dimensions was seen as a
shortcoming of the SERVQUAL instrument (Alexandris et al., 2004; Brady and Cronin,
2001; Kang and James, 2005).
In the Grönroos (2005) model outcome service quality or ‘technical’ quality describes
the outcomes or what the customer obtains from the service or what is accomplished as a
result of the service (Dagger and Sweeney, 2007), such as improved physical fitness.
Functional quality relates to the process of service delivery and includes two
sub-dimensions, physical quality and relational quality. Physical quality includes
facilities and equipment important to facilitate the delivery of the service, while relational
quality embraces the interactions between the service provider and the customer.
The Brady and Cronin (2001) model includes two process dimensions, functional or
interaction quality which focuses on customer-staff relationships, and the physical
environment quality. The third dimension, technical or outcome quality refers to what is
‘produced’.
In the present study, outcome service quality focuses on benefits as outcomes, which
is consistent with the attainment of a “…desired condition or an improved condition”
(Manfredo et al., 1996; Beh and Bruyere, 2007) where benefits are desired “… goals or
positive outcomes” [Driver et al., (2000), p.259].
Health-related benefits
77
Benefits of regular participation in physical activity include enjoyment (ABS, 2011),
and remaining physically active helps improve physical fitness and mental health.
Cadilhac et al. (2011) found that reducing physical inactivity led to improved health and
well-being for individuals. Participating with others strengthens social networks,
increasing opportunities to develop social capital and community interdependence, and
can reduce social isolation (Howat et al., 2004). Participating in physical activity
improves mental health, such as improvements in self-esteem and reduced depression
(Paluska and Schwenk, 2000).
As a key component of service quality models relevant to aquatic centres and health
clubs, outcome service quality or benefits attained directly influence overall customer
satisfaction (Alexandris et al., 2004; Howat et al., 2008). Participation in a fitness club’s
programmes include one outcome quality dimension comprising five health-related
outcomes: increased energy, improved health, improved mood, improved psychological
well-being, and improved fitness (Alexandris et al., 2004). Complementing the study by
Alexandris et al. (2004) is the research of Theodorakis et al. (2004) and their Customer
Satisfaction Scale for health clubs that includes need-satisfaction dimensions for:
relaxation, health and fitness, social and intellectual. Research on two public aquatic
centres identified key outcome service quality dimensions to include relaxation and
personal accomplishment benefits (Howat et al., 2008).
3.2 Overall customer satisfaction
There are similarities between overall customer satisfaction and the overall customer
experience when viewed as a global attitude towards a service (Palmer, 2010). For
example, Baker and Crompton (2000) describe customer satisfaction as an emotional
state of mind or the outcome of an experience. In a similar vein, Wong (2004) refers to
consumer satisfaction as emotional satisfaction, while Oliver (1997) describes
satisfaction as an affective state involving fulfilment of customer needs. Considering the
overall customer experience in terms of the ‘lifecycle of the customer relationship’ has
implications for phases of single encounters additional to the cumulative impact of repeat
encounters with the same service provider (Frow and Payne, 2007). Therefore, as a global
construct, overall customer satisfaction tends to reflect a combination of both the process
and outcome elements of a customer’s overall experience (Homburg et al., 2005; Seiders
et al., 2005), resulting in an overall attitude that is relatively stable (Jones and Suh, 2000),
especially for multiple service encounters (Choi and Chu, 2001).
Most customer experiences have an emotional or affective element, and there is
growing attention to providing opportunities for positive emotional feelings towards the
service. The outcome of the customer experience is the customer attitude towards the
service, which tends to be influenced by the customer’s emotional predisposition and
selected elements of the service (Palmer, 2010). Accordingly, customers’ ratings of their
overall satisfaction with a service are prone to a range of influences some of which are
the direct responsibility of the provider and others outside the provider’s control (Baker
and Crompton, 2000; Oliver, 1997; Zeithaml et al., 2006). Factors outside the provider’s
control include weather conditions, public transport affecting access to the service, or the
customer’s own personal circumstances such as recent successes or setbacks at work
(Howat et al., 2008).
78
G. Howat et al.
3.3 WOM recommendation
Berry and Carbone (2007) highlight the importance of emotionally connecting with
customers where the quality of the overall customer experience, or overall customer
satisfaction, influences loyalty, such as a willingness to recommend (WOM) a service to
others. WOM has been one of the most commonly researched loyalty constructs (Han
et al., 2008; Reichheld, 2003; Zeithaml et al., 2006). Furthermore, Reichheld (2003)
asserts that WOM is a good predictor of future purchasing behaviour, because
recommending a service to other potential customers involves putting one’s own
reputation on the line. Consequently, in the present study we interpret WOM
recommendation as an indication that customers are willing to endorse the aquatic centre
as well as revisit themselves.
Based on Brady and Cronin’s (2001) service quality model applied to private fitness
clubs Alexandris et al. (2004) found that outcome quality significantly predicted overall
satisfaction, which in turn significantly influenced WOM recommendation. Similarly,
outcome service quality dimensions including health-related benefits influenced
overall customer satisfaction, which significantly predicted loyalty such as WOM
recommendation for aquatic centres (Howat et al., 2008).
The focus of the present study is to examine the influence of service quality outcome
dimensions and in particular, health-related benefits on overall customer satisfaction
and WOM recommendation. Therefore, understanding the role of outcome service
quality or benefits attained by specific target groups should help service providers to
develop, promote and deliver physical activity opportunities that both attract and retain
customers.
4
Research questions
The primary research questions for this study were:
RQ1 To what extent are health-related benefits a relative priority for Australian public
aquatic centre customers and do these differ by age group?
RQ2 Are there significant positive relationships between attainment of health-related
benefits and overall customer satisfaction and do these differ by age group?
RQ3 Is there a significant positive relationship between overall customer satisfaction
and WOM recommendation and does this differ by age group?
5
Methods
5.1 Data collection and sample
The respondents were 7,133 customers from 27 Australian public aquatic centres who
completed a paper-based questionnaire during their visit to the facility during 2009. A
stratified sampling approach was utilised so that all activity groups had an opportunity to
be included. Respondents were repeat customers aged 15 years and over, most (80%) of
whom who had been aquatic centre customers for six months or more, with a majority
Health-related benefits
79
being females (65%). Customers under the age of 15 years were not surveyed, although
parents or carers of learn to swim participants were included, with 75% of this group
being females of whom 81% were between 30–49 years of age. The most popular
water-based activities were swimming lessons (25%), lap swimming (18%) and
recreational swimming (17%), while other activities included aerobics, fitness or gym
activities (29%). The majority of the centres were larger multi-purpose centres that
included facilities for aerobics, fitness or gym activities. Most centres had indoor pools
(69%), and the remaining 31% were centres with outdoor pools. The centres were mainly
located in the Australian States of Victoria (35%), Western Australia (33%) and New
South Wales (28%).
5.2 Measures
5.2.1 WOM recommendation
Rated on seven-point scales the three WOM recommendation items were: ‘To what
extent would you recommend this centre to others?’, ‘I say positive things about this
centre to other people’, and ‘I encourage friends and relatives to use this centre’. The
three items were combined into a WOM recommendation factor, with high internal
consistency (Cronbach’s α = .94). The WOM scales were adapted from Alexandris et al.
(2004), Bruner et al. (2005), and Zeithaml et al. (1996), and are similar to those used by
Zhang and Bloemer (2008).
5.2.2 Overall customer satisfaction
Overall satisfaction, ‘Overall, how satisfied are you as a customer of this centre?’ was
measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 7 (very
satisfied) (Murray and Howat, 2002; Skogland and Siguaw, 2004; Voss et al., 2004).
Overall experience (‘Based on all of your experiences at this centre, please rate how you
feel overall as a customer of this facility?’) was rated on a seven-point scale ranging from
1 (displeased) to 7 (pleased) (Jones and Suh, 2000). These two measures were aggregated
into an ‘overall customer satisfaction’ scale with good internal consistency (Cronbach’s
α = .81). The two-item overall satisfaction scale used by Mittal et al. (2008) also included
one item focussing on the customers’ experience and the other on satisfaction, while Han
et al. (2008) used a combination of satisfaction and experiences in their five-item global
satisfaction scale. Our two items have similar anchors to those recommended by Bruner
et al. (2005, p.507).
5.2.3 Benefits
In the questionnaire, benefits were rated for importance as well as attainment on separate
interval scales, ranging from 1 (very low), to 5 (very high). Respondents were asked to
rate ‘How important are each of the following benefits for you and, as a result of your
visits to the Aquatic Centre, to what extent do you feel these benefits have been attained’.
The benefit importance measures were combined into factors, as were the benefit
attainment measures, with satisfactory to good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .75
to .92) (Table 1). All 11 benefits are listed in Table 1 as worded in the questionnaire, and
were initially based on a series of customer focus groups at four different aquatic centres
80
G. Howat et al.
across Australia and New Zealand (McGrath, 2007) as well as inputs from other research
(e.g., Alexandris et al., 2004; Paluska and Schwenk, 2000). In the present study,
reference to ‘health-related benefits’ will focus on the first three benefits dimensions
listed in Table 1: improved health and fitness, relaxation and stress release, and
improved skill and self-esteem, although social benefits are often considered as a health
benefit. However, in the present study supplementary analyses indicate that the social
benefit, time with family or friends is relevant only to specific age groups, and is
generally rated relatively low compared to other benefits.
Table 1
CERM PI benefits for public aquatic centre customers
Benefits
Improved health and well-being
Factors (benefit attainment)
Improved health and fitness (.82)
Improved physical fitness
Relaxation
Relaxation and stress release (.83)
Escaping the pressures of daily life (e.g., reduced stress)
A sense of personal accomplishment and success
Improved skill and self-esteem (.87)
Improved skill level
Improved self esteem
Spending time with family
Time with family or friends (.75)
Spending time with friends
Team success in competition
Success in competition (.92)
Personal success in competition
Note: Numbers in parenthesis are Cronbach’s alphas.
Data were also collected on a range of other customer demographic and usage variables
including gender, the main activity customers usually take part in at the centre, and
frequency of visiting the centre; ‘On average how many times do you visit the centre?’
with four response options: less than once per week, once per week, twice per week, three
or more times per week.
5.3 Statistical design and analyses
Statistical analyses were conducted using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS 18). Descriptive statistics included percentages, frequencies, means and standard
deviations. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were used to check the internal reliability of
factors. Means for benefit attainment and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare age
groups were utilised to answer the first research question, and paired t-tests were used to
compare benefit importance and benefit attainment means for each age group. Benefit
attainment measures were used in the regression analyses for the second research
question because these are output measures that can be compared directly with other
output measures such as overall satisfaction and WOM recommendation. Regression
analyses were also used to answer the third research question, to examine the relationship
between overall customer satisfaction and WOM recommendation. Missing values for the
factor items were replaced via imputation using maximum likelihood estimation (Switzer
and Roth, 2002). Missing data for the age groups represented 2.2% of cases (n = 157).
Health-related benefits
6
81
Results
6.1 Priority of benefits
RQ1 To what extent are health-related benefits a relative priority for Australian public
aquatic centre customers and do these differ by age groups?
6.1.1 Benefit importance versus benefit attainment
Improved health and fitness was the highest rated benefit factor in terms of benefit
importance as well as benefit attainment (MI = 4.36, MA = 4.11, t = 35.47, p < .001)
(Table 2). Other health-related benefits, relaxation and stress release (MI = 3.97,
MA = 3.83, t = 17.39, p < .001) and improved skill and self-esteem (MI = 3.93, MA = 3.79,
t = 19.87, p < .001), also rated relatively high, above both time with family or friends and
success in competition. Paired t-tests indicated that the importance means for each of the
three health-related benefit factors were significantly higher (p < .001) than their
attainment means with attainment – importance gaps of –0.25, –0.14, and –0.14 for
improved health and fitness, relaxation and stress release, and improved skill and
self-esteem respectively. These gaps were relatively uniform across the age groups within
each benefit dimension. Benefit attainment for time with family or friends (MA = 3.49)
was similar to benefit importance (MI = 3.55) with an attainment – importance gap of
–0.06 (t = –7.28, p < .01). Success in competition registered the same mean (M = 2.96)
for both benefit attainment and importance.
Table 2
Benefit importance versus benefit attainment: paired samples t-tests
Benefit
importance
Benefit
attainment
Benefit
attainment
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
Benefit
importance
Improved health
and fitness
4.36 (0.66)
4.11 (0.69)
–0.25
.007 7,132 35.47 p < .001
Relaxation and
stress release
3.97 (0.79)
3.83 (0.77)
–0.14
.008 7,132 17.39 p < .001
Improved skill
and self-esteem
3.93 (0.80)
3.79 (0.76)
–0.14
.007 7,132 19.87 p < .001
Time with family
or friends
3.55 (1.08)
3.49 (1.00)
–0.06
.008 7,132 –7.28 p < .01
Success in competition 2.96 (1.22)
2.96 (1.10)
0.00
.008 7,132 –1.01
Benefit factors
SE
df
t
p
ns
Note: Benefits scales range from 1 (very low), to 5 (very high)
6.1.2 Benefit attainment
All age groups rated attainment of the benefit factor improved health and fitness highest,
ranging from 4.02 to 4.28 on a five-point scale (Table 3), with highest ratings for the
age groups 65 years and over (MA = 4.28), 60–64 years (MA = 4.25) and 50–59 years
(MA = 4.24). ANOVA statistics with a Tukey HSD post hoc show that the older age
groups 50 years and over rated improved health and fitness significantly higher than most
of the younger age groups (F = 17.45, p < .001). In contrast, the 50–64 years age groups
82
G. Howat et al.
rated lowest for success in competition (MA = 2.77 and 2.81). The significant differences
between the age groups for each benefit attainment factor are presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Means (SD) and ANOVA for benefit attainment factors by age group
Group
Age group
%
1
15–19 yrs
5
2
3
4
5
6
7
20–29 yrs
30–39 yrs
40–49 yrs
50–59 yrs
60–64 yrs
16
32
26
11
4
65 yrs
and +
6
Total
100
ANOVA F(6, 6981)
Tukey
post hoc
Improved Relaxation Improved
Time with
Success in
health and and stress
skill and
family or
competition
fitness
release
self-esteem
friends
(attainment)
(attainment) (attainment) (attainment) (attainment)
4.11
3.92
3.98
3.79
3.63
(0.83)
(0.81)
(0.85)
(0.91)
(1.04)
4.12
3.84
3.84
3.40
3.14
(0.69)
(0.76)
(0.73)
(1.03)
(1.09)
4.02
3.78
3.75
3.57
2.93
(0.70)
(0.77)
(0.75)
(0.97)
(1.09)
4.09
3.80
3.74
3.49
2.88
(0.69)
(0.78)
(0.77)
(0.99)
(1.07)
4.24
3.94
3.80
3.28
2.77
(0.63)
(0.74)
(0.76)
(1.05)
(1.13)
4.25
3.93
3.86
3.41
2.81
(0.61)
(0.75)
(0.78)
(1.00)
(1.11)
4.28
3.91
3.88
3.46
2.92
(0.59)
(0.76)
(0.76)
(0.99)
(1.10)
4.11
3.83
3.79
3.49
2.96
(0.69)
(0.77)
(0.76)
(1.00)
(1.10)
17.45***
6.99***
7.45***
15.29***
33.65***
7>1+2
+ 3 + 4,
6 > 3 + 4,
5>2+3
+ 4, 4 > 3,
2>3
6 > 3,
5>3+4
7 > 4,
2 > 3 + 4,
1>3
+4+5
4 > 5,
3 > 2 + 5,
1>2+3
+4+5+6
3 > 5,
2>3+4
+ 5 + 6,
1>2+3
+4+5+6
Notes: ***p < .001; attainment of benefits scale ranges from 1 (very low),
to 5 (very high)
Attainment of the benefit factor relaxation and stress release was second highest
(MA = 3.83) with ANOVA statistics indicating few significant differences between the
means for most age groups except for the 30–49 year age groups which rated relaxation
and stress release lower than the 50–64 year age groups.
Compared to the other age groups, the 15–19 year age group rated highest for
improved skill and self-esteem (MA = 3.98), time with family or friends (MA = 3.79), and
success in competition (MA = 3.63). Supplementary analyses show that for all age groups,
there was an inverse relationship between frequency of visiting the centre and attainment
of the benefit time with family or friends, with highest ratings for respondents attending
the centre less frequently, F(6, 6933) = 15.75, p < .001. In contrast, frequent visitors
clearly had a greater focus on health and fitness, with a direct positive relationship
Health-related benefits
83
between frequency of visiting the centre and attainment of the benefits improved
health and fitness, F(6, 6933) = 17.58, p < .001, and improved skill and self-esteem
F(6, 6933) = 7.42, p < .001.
Other supplementary analyses by activity show that attainment of improved health
and fitness was highest for lap swimming, aerobics, fitness or gym activities, and lowest
for swimming lessons and recreational swimming F(6, 7126) = 67.45, p < .001, while
attainment of relaxation and stress release was highest for lap swimming and
recreational swimming, and lowest for swimming lessons, F(6, 7126) = 38.34, p < .001.
Attainment of time with family or friends was highest for swimming lessons and
recreational swimming and lowest for lap swimming, aerobics, fitness or gym activities
F(6, 7126) = 131.49, p < .001.
6.2 Benefit attainment and overall customer satisfaction
RQ2 Are there significant positive relationships between attainment of health-related
benefits and overall customer satisfaction and do these differ by age groups?
Table 4
Regression analysis: dependent variable: overall customer satisfaction factor, by age
Benefit
attainment
dimensions
All
sample
15–19
years
20–29
years
30–39
years
40–49
years
50–59
years
60–64
years
65
years+
df
7,127
330
1,102
2,211
1,826
796
297
384
R
.38
.50
.42
.40
.35
.39
.27
.29
R2
.14***
.25***
.17***
.16***
.12***
.15***
.07***
.08***
Improved health
and fitness
.13***
.18*
.15***
.07*
.11***
.13**
.09
.13*
Relaxation and
stress release
.22***
.23***
.21***
.26**
.20***
.24***
.23***
.18**
Improved skill
and self-esteem
.07***
.16*
.17***
.07*
.06
.07
–.04
.05
Time with
family or friends
.11***
.13*
.06
.15***
.16***
.04
.08
–.01
Success in
competition
–.10***
–.07
–.20***
–.05*
–.11***
–.02
–.11
–.09
Notes: ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05
6.2.1 Benefit attainment and overall customer satisfaction, by age group
Regression analyses were performed to examine the relationships between overall
customer satisfaction and each of the five benefit attainment factors. Standardised beta
values (Table 4) indicate that relaxation and stress release had a significant influence on
overall customer satisfaction for the overall sample (β = .22, p < .001), as well as for each
age group. Improved health and fitness had a significant influence on the overall
customer satisfaction for the overall sample (β = .13, p < .001) as well as for all activity
groups except the 60-64 year respondents. In contrast, improved skill and self-esteem had
a significant influence on overall customer satisfaction for only the age groups below
40 years of age. Time with family or friends had a significant influence on overall
84
G. Howat et al.
customer satisfaction for the 15–19 year age group (β = .13, p < .05), the 30–39 year age
group (β = .15, p < .001) and the 40–49 year age group (β = .16, p <. 001). Success in
competition had a significant negative influence on overall customer satisfaction for the
overall sample (β = –.10, p < .001), but in particular for the 20–29 year age group
(β = –.20, p < .001), and the 40–49 year age group (β = –.11, p < .05).
6.3 Overall customer satisfaction and WOM recommendation
RQ3 Is there a significant positive relationship between overall customer satisfaction
and WOM recommendation and does this differ by age groups?
Regression analyses (Table 5) indicate that overall customer satisfaction (R2 = .51,
p < .001) had a significant influence on WOM recommendation for all age groups, and in
particular for the age groups below 50 years of age. The strongest relationship between
overall customer satisfaction and WOM recommendation was for the 15–19 year age
group (R2 = .57), while a decreasing trend was recorded from the 50–59 year age group
(R2 = .46) to the 65 years and over age group (R2 = .36).
Table 5
Regression analysis: dependent variable: WOM recommendation by age group
Overall
customer
satisfaction
All
sample
15–19
years
20–29
years
30–39
years
40–49
years
50–59
years
60–64
years
65
years+
df
7,131
334
1,106
2,215
1,830
800
301
388
R
.71
.75
.72
.72
.73
.68
.64
.60
R2
.51***
.57***
.52***
.52***
.53***
.46***
.41***
.36***
Note: ***p < .001
7
Discussion and managerial implications
7.1 Priority of benefits
RQ1 To what extent are health-related benefits a relative priority for Australian public
aquatic centre customers and do these differ by age groups?
The benefit importance means were higher than the benefit attainment means
(Table 2) for the three health-related benefit dimensions, and these gaps were
relatively uniform across the age groups within each benefit dimension. The average
attainment – importance gap of –0.25 for improved health and fitness suggests that
customers would like to gain even higher levels of health and well-being and physical
fitness from their visits to public aquatic centres. Customers clearly place a high priority
on improved health and fitness, which was the highest rated benefit attained for all age
groups, and in particular for the age groups 50 years and over (Table 3). From a
managerial perspective, the challenge is to provide opportunities for customers to gain
even higher levels of health and well-being and physical fitness from their visits to
aquatic centres. For example, in acknowledging the direct positive relationship between
frequency of visiting the centre and attainment of improved health and fitness benefits,
one option is to encourage less frequent visitors to visit more often, particularly those
Health-related benefits
85
already involved in such activities as lap swimming, aerobics, fitness or gym activities.
Strategies to increase frequency of visiting include offering popular classes more often
and discounting memberships for customers moving to a pattern of more regular visits.
Such strategies may be more cost effective because they focus on existing customers
making more intensive use of existing products, or market penetration (Armstrong and
Kotler, 2005).
The relatively small attainment – importance gaps of –0.14 for relaxation and stress
release, and improved skill and self-esteem (Table 2) indicates a congruency between the
importance of these benefits and the extent to which they were attained. Respondents
overall felt that opportunities available at public aquatic centres allowed them to attain
these two health-related benefits. Relaxation and stress release as well as improved skill
and self-esteem also rated higher than both the social and success benefits, thus
strengthening the role of health-related benefits as a priority for public aquatic centre
customers.
Rated relatively low was benefit attainment for time with family or friends, especially
for activities such as lap swimming, aerobics, fitness or gym activities compared to more
‘social’ activities involving family and friends such as swimming lessons and recreational
swimming. The inverse relationship between frequency of visiting the centre and
attainment of the benefit time with family or friends also tends to link with the type of
activity as most swimming lessons and recreational swimming customers visited the
centre once a week or less, but attend with family or friends. Even though social
interaction during some aquatic activities may be limited, customers who attend with
family or friends can enjoy social interaction during their travel to the centre as well
before or after completing the main physical activity that was the core reason for their
visit. Managerial implications include a reminder that infrequent visitors may have
different priorities than frequent visitors involved in lap swimming, aerobics, fitness or
gym activities, a majority (65%) of who visited the centre alone.
Success in competition was the lowest rated benefit attained for all age groups
suggesting that most of the respondents, especially older customers, were not attending
public aquatic centres to improve their performance in competitive sport. Compared to
the other age groups, the 15–19 year age group rated highest for attainment of benefits for
time with family or friends and success in competition, although these two benefits were
still a lower priority for this age group than the three health-related benefits.
The overall trends in the present study tend to show similarities to Theodorakis et al.
(2004) in research on health clubs where a health-fitness dimension was rated higher than
a relaxation dimension with a social/intellectual dimension rated considerably lower.
7.2 Benefit attainment and overall customer satisfaction
RQ2 Are there significant positive relationships between attainment of health-related
benefits and overall customer satisfaction and do these differ by age group?
Regression analyses (Table 4) indicate that relaxation and stress release had a dominant
influence on overall customer satisfaction for all age groups. This finding is partly
explained by considering customer satisfaction as an emotional state of mind (Baker and
Crompton, 2000; Wong, 2004) reflecting fulfilment of customer needs (Oliver, 1997).
Feelings of relaxation and stress release should be mainly influenced by the actual
participation in activities that help customers escape pressures of daily life. While there
86
G. Howat et al.
may also be external factors affecting customers’ emotional states (Zeithaml et al., 2006),
centre operators can enhance feelings of relaxation and stress release by minimising
negative aspects of the service, such as providing clean facilities and responsive staff (Liu
et al., 2009). In contrast, encountering problems or service failures can generate feelings
of stress that will translate into decreased overall satisfaction and recommendation
intention (Michel and Meuter, 2008).
All age groups, particularly those aged 50 years and over, rated improved health and
fitness highest of all benefits attained (Table 3), which also had a significant influence on
overall customer satisfaction for all activity groups except the 60–64 year respondents.
Even though 60–64 year respondents rated attainment of improved health and fitness
high, and 73% of this group were involved in lap swimming, aerobics, fitness or gym
activities, more research is needed to ascertain why this age group’s overall customer
satisfaction was not significantly influenced by attainment of improved health and fitness
benefits.
Another health-related benefit improved skill and self-esteem had a significant
influence on overall customer satisfaction for only the age groups below 30 years of age.
Feelings of personal accomplishment and success, and improved skill level and self
esteem result in positive emotions impacting on overall customer satisfaction for the
15–29 year old age respondents who are more likely than older age groups to be learning
and refining skills in physical activities.
Social interaction (time with family or friends) had a significant influence on overall
customer satisfaction only for the 15–19 year age group and the 30–49 year age groups.
Supplementary analyses indicate that many of the 15–19 year age group were involved in
leisure swimming with friends (30%), while many of the 30–49 year age groups included
parents and carers accompanying children to swimming lessons (35%) or leisure
swimming (18%). Social interaction at the centre therefore, appears to be a higher
priority only for specific activity groups. For example, leisure swimming often includes
groups of young people relaxing together, while learn to swim activities generally include
children and parents or carers.
The relatively low priority of social benefits for public aquatic centre customers tends
to differ from other research where participating with others was found to strengthen
social networks (Howat et al., 2004). However, centre operators should not overlook
those groups for whom social interaction is a relatively higher priority, such as swimming
lesson and leisure swimming customers. For example, providing clean facilities
and friendly staff (Liu et al., 2009) may facilitate social interaction in a welcoming
environment where customers feel comfortable.
Furthermore, there may be scope for the parents and carers who accompany their
children to these centres, to become involved in fitness activities themselves. In turn, if
these parents are attracted to physical activity they enjoy through their aquatic centre
experiences, they are also more likely to continue with such activity into old age (Jancey
et al., 2009).
Success in competition had a significant negative influence on overall customer
satisfaction for the overall sample and in particular for the 20–29 year age group. One
explanation for this finding is that the majority of participants surveyed for the present
study were mostly seeking health and fitness benefits, rather than visiting public aquatic
centres primarily to train for or compete in competitive sport.
Health-related benefits
87
7.3 The overall customer experience and WOM recommendation
RQ3 Is there a significant positive relationship between overall customer satisfaction
and loyalty and does this differ by age group?
Overall customer satisfaction had a significant influence on WOM recommendation for
all age groups, and especially for the age groups below 50 years of age. The strongest
relationship between overall customer satisfaction and WOM recommendation was for
the 15–19 year age group while a decreasing trend was recorded from the 50–59 year age
group to the 65 years and over age group. The findings of this research indicate that
attaining health-related benefits have a significant positive influence on overall customer
satisfaction which strongly predicts customer loyalty, such as positive WOM
recommendations to other prospective customers (Berry and Carbone, 2007; Howat et al.,
2008). One possible explanation for these findings is that the 15–19 year age group may
be more impulsive and willing to communicate their recent experiences freely through
social networks such as Twitter and Facebook, and via texting.
8
Limitations and recommendations for future research
The findings of the present study support public aquatic centres as a desirable setting to
increase physical activity by promoting positive, health-related benefits. However, more
in-depth research is recommended to better understand health benefits and their role in
facilitating people, particularly older adults, to undertake more physical activity at public
aquatic centres, thus reducing the incidence of chronic disease (Burke et al., 2010; Jancey
et al., 2008; Jonker et al., 2006). Besides older adults, research could also target other
groups with low physical activity levels including adults from lower income households,
and people with dependent children (ABS, 2011; Jones et al., 2010). A cost effective
approach would be a market development focus (new customers making use of existing
products), although catering for special needs groups may require more costly market
diversification involving new products for new customers (Armstrong and Kotler, 2005).
Future qualitative research involving interviews of customers and centre staff could
examine how service providers can improve facilities and programmes to facilitate
attainment of improved health and fitness benefits. Conversely, influencing factors
outside the control of centre staff include constraints at the individual level or other
external factors such as centre location (Baker and Crompton, 2000; Howat et al., 2008,
Oliver, 1997; Smith, 2010; Zeithaml et al., 2006). Accordingly, other research with both
current aquatic centre customers as well as non-customers could clarify constraints or
barriers to benefit attainment. Barriers to physical activity include such factors as: access
to facilities, perceived safety, confidence to embark on a physical activity programme,
knowledge of health benefits attributed to physical activity, free time from work and
family commitments, quality of the environment, as well as cost factors (Arbel et al.,
2009; Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2004; Jancey et al., 2009). Several barriers have been
identified that are also potential motivators to physical activity particularly relevant to
older adults, including: poor health, quality of the environment, and knowledge (Booth
et al., 1997), and older Australians prefer to receive advice on physical activity from their
own medical doctor (Schutzer and Graves, 2004). Therefore, there may be potential for
medical referrals to stimulate more low-impact physical activity opportunities at public
88
G. Howat et al.
aquatic centres, especially water-based activities. Water-based activities are relevant for
older adults in particular because they reduce the physical impact on the body (Kim et al.,
In press), and swimming in adulthood was found to be the activity most likely to prevent
locomotor disability later in life (Hunt et al., 2010).
Further research would also help clarify whether it is cost effective for governments
to direct more of their health budgets to such strategies as improving access, refurbishing
older facilities, and subsidising activities at public aquatic centres especially for older
adults and other vulnerable and disadvantaged groups. However, behaviour change
theory (Wiedemann et al., 2011) highlights the challenge to convert physically inactive
people into regular physical activity participants. In contrast, people already engaged in
regular physical activity at an aquatic centre are more likely to adapt to other physical
activity options should they lose access to a favoured facility.
While our research has focussed on personal benefits relevant to customers and their
participation in physical activity at public aquatic centres, other research could consider
the economic benefits of physical activity at public aquatic centres at all three levels as
proposed by Cadilhac et al. (2011): individuals, businesses, and governments. Businesses
make savings from decreased absenteeism and lower recruitment and training costs.
Governments can gain increased taxation from worker income, and save on welfare
payments and health-care costs; with health sector savings of $Aust 96 million per year
estimated from a 10% reduction in physical inactivity in the Australian adult population,
while individuals gain from increased personal income and improved health and
well-being (Cadilhac et al., 2011).
Limitations of the present study include the generalisability of the findings, as the
research population was customers, 15 years and over, of public aquatic centres in
Australia. More robust research dimensions would be available in future research by
ensuring a minimum of three items for the overall satisfaction scale as well as for each of
the benefits scales. For example, in their customer satisfaction scale for health clubs
Theodorakis et al. (2004), provide three-item scales for relaxation, and health and fitness,
and an eight-item social and intellectual scale.
9
Conclusions
The results highlight that for the majority of public aquatic centre customers improved
health, well-being and fitness benefits are a priority compared to social and success in
competition benefits. The relatively high ratings that all age groups placed on health and
well-being, physical fitness, and relaxation and stress reduction benefits reinforces the
importance of public aquatic centres as an important health promotion resource. In turn,
the significant influence of these health-related benefits on WOM recommendation
mediated by overall customer satisfaction indicates that satisfied customers are likely to
recommend their centre to others as well as to revisit themselves. An improved
understanding of benefits and linking these to age groups, will aid service providers in
the design, promotion and delivery of physical activity opportunities appropriate for
different target groups, thus improving community physical activity levels. These
findings have implications for public policy, particularly for potentially substantial health
savings (Lee et al., 2011; Prochaska et al., 2008) if more government resources were
directed into promoting physical activity at facilities such as public aquatic centres.
Health-related benefits
89
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