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IM i M P i f j
The Mughal Empire was one of the largest centralized states
known in pre-modern world history. For nearly one hundred and
seven ty years (933-1029 A .H / 1556-16 19 A .D ) the M u gh al
E m p ire re m a in e d a d y n a m ic , c e n t r a liz e d
a n d c o m p le x
organization. Mughal success was the product o f hard driving
active ruler-ship exercised by extremely capable rulers who acted
as th eir own c h ie f e x e cu tives, m ilita ry v ic to ry , te rrito r ia l
expansion and centralized control upon the management skills
and strategic vision of the emperors and their advisors.
Mughal Empire in India was built by Zahir-ud-din Muhammad
Babur (888/1483 A.H -937/1527 A.D). A resident of Farghana, a
small state, Babur ruled over Kabul and from there he attacked
India specially several times where Lodhis were ruling at that
time. Mughal dynasty was established here with the capture o f
Delhi by Babur in year 933 A.H/ 1526 A.D and ended with the
exile o f last M ughal ru ler o f In d ia B a h a d u r Shah Z a fa r to
Rangoon by Britishers in 1275 A.H/ 1858 A.D. During Mughal
rule much o f Indian subcontinent was organized politically, a
new art and culture, named Mughal art and culture, developed in
this period with the collaboration of Hindu and Muslim arts and
cultures. During these years, the great achievements in political
organization and art were matched by m ystical term s in both
Hinduism and Islam .(l)
22
i'm m
jy33-9»7 A.H/1526-1S31 A.D|
Z a h ir-u d -d in M uham m ad B abu r w as b orn in A n d ija n , in
Farghana valley in 888 A.H /1483 A.D. His father Umar Shaikh
Mirza was the ruler of that place.(2) He was the fifth descendant
of Timur from the side o f his father and fourteenth descendent of
C h an giz Khan from his m oth er side. H er n am e was N ig a r
Begam.(3) Muhammad Saleh Kanbuh, in his work, Am aH-Saleh
or Shahjahan Nama, gives us Babur's genealogy as follows:
Babur son of Umar Shaikh Mirza, son o f Abu Saiyd Mirza, son o f
Muhammad Mirza, son o f Mirza Miran Shah, the son o f Am ir
Timur Kurkan.(4)
At the age o f eleven, Babur inherited the throne o f Farghana,
from there he launched repeated attem p ts to reca p tu re his
ancestors' glorious capital, Sam arqand. He su cceed ed tw ice
briefly but was unable to hold the city against Shiban Khan's
Uzbek arm y. He set up his sm all kingdom in K ab u l, w hich
remained his stronghold for two decades before he finally turned
his attention towards India. (5) The condition o f India at the time
of Babur's invasion was as follows:
India was divided into independent princely states, which were
always at war against each other. The Sultanate of Delhi under
Ibrahim Lodi ceased to be a paramount power in the country and
23
there was a struggle for supremacy among these states. That s
why some of them invited the powerful king o f Kabul, Babui to
India under Lodi. Not only rival states support the Babur but
even the outstanding nobles o f Ibrahim Lodi, Alam Khan and
Daulat Khan went to the extent o f inviting Babur to attack on
India, In central India M uslim kingdoms o f M alwa and Gujrat
greatly suffered at the hand o f Rana Sanga o f C h ittore. The
Hindu rulers of Orissa and Assam have checked the expansion of
Muslim kingdom of Bengal. In the south o f India or Deccan the
Hindu rulers o f V ijayan aga r su ccessfu lly fou gh t again st the
Bahmani kings o f Bijapore and their successors. In every part of
India, the Turko-Afghan and native Muslim chiefs were forced to
fight to preserve their existence. Hence at the time o f Babur s
invasion they could n ot provide a u n ited fron t again st theii
common enemy. (6)
In 932 A.H/1526 A.D at the battle o f Panipat, only a few miles
away from Delhi, B abur's com pact and w ell-organ ized twelve
thousands militaiy men defeated a much larger force (about one
lakh) u n d er th e c o m m a n d o f S u lta n Ib ra h im Lodi. A fte i
occupying Delhi, the victor king sent his son Humayxin (913-963
A.H/1508-1556 A.D) to Agra, the Lodi capital, to seize the royal
palaces and treasure. Shortly after that Babur him self joined his
son, distributed much o f the enorm ous treasu re to his fellow
soldiers and installed him self at the throne o f Agra and made it
his capital.(7)
Local Hindu and other rulers who invited Babur earlier to attack
24
on India under Lodis, waited for a year Babar's going back to
Afghanistan as his predecessors done before. But when he did
not return, they felt threat for themselves and made a combined
military to fight against him. So the next year they came face to
face in the battle of kanua, Babur and his army defeated and got
victory over a con fed eracy o f Rajput kings h eaded by R an a
Sanga, the ruler of the state of Mewar in present Rajasthan. The
death of Rana Sanga and many other Rajput leaders at the battle
field of Kanua shattered the possibility o f a Rajput resurgence o f
power in the north India. (8) In reality, there were three phases in
the history o f Mughal occupation o f India. During the first phase
(932-937/1526-1530), Babur su b ju gated the A fgh a n s and
defeated the Rajputs under Rana Sanga. D uring the second
phase
(9 3 7 -9 4 7
A .H / 1 5 3 0 -1 5 4 0 A .D ), H u m a y u n
tr ie d
successfully to subdue the Malwa, Gujrat and Bengal and was
ultimately ousted by Sher Shah Suri who laid the foundation of
an Afghan empire. During the third phase (952-964 A.H/ 15451556 A.D), Humayun recaptured his lost dom inions that was
latter reconsolidated by Akbar the Great (949-1014 A.H
/1542-1605 A.H).(9)
In December 937 A.H/1530 A.D, Babur died at the age o f only 49
years; his body was carried to Kabul, his favorite place and
buried there at Darul-Mulk. At that time his kingdom includes
some Central Asian territories, Kabul, Punjab, Delhi and parts o f
Bihar to the east and G ow aliar in south. B abu r m akes his
appearance on the pages o f Indian history as a great conqueror.
But in the Central Asian sphere he never ceased to con sider
25
himself apart, probably he left this world feeling like a colossal
failure. He was not very fond of India which for all its riches was
a bit con solation to him again st the lo sses he faced in his
hereditary land. Subsequent M ughal em perors who never let
their eyes on Central Asia have curiously echoed the nostalgic
reminiscences which filled Babur's memories.(10)
Batmr's Cfaaracter and liis Religions Policy
From the early period o f his life, Babur had to fight for his own
>safety and for his conquests. But, in spite o f this fact, Babur was
m o re th a n a w a r r io r k in g .
H is a u t o b io g r a p h y ,
c a lle d
Tuzuk-i-Babri, is one of the most attractive and instructive books
ever written by a ruler king. Originally this book is written in a
sim ple, precise Chaghtai dialect o f Turkish lan gu age. Babur
narrates all the events of his life in a plane and simple style, from
his early youth in the valley o f Fargh an a dow n to his m any
conquests till the final conquest o f India. In his m em oirs he
narrates not only his virtues and successes but also his faults
and failures. It is very much important and significant document
from both the angles i.e. from historical as well as literary points
o f view s. M oreover we fin d here a fin e lite r a r y ta ste w ith
fastidious critical perception. (11)
Babur's religious policy was same as his predecessor Lodhis. He
was content to govern In d ia in the orth od ox and trad ition al
fashion. In order to con firm his lo ya lty to Islam he strictly
followed and imposed Muslim law and excluded M uslim s from
26
paying stamp duties and taxes, and thus confining the taxes to
rich Hindus only. During his short tenure in India he not only
continued this policy but also increased the distinction between
his Hindu and Muslim subjects in the matter of their financial
burdens.(12) He advised his son Humayun to follow the policy of
religious tolerance and to remember that as the health of human
body depends on the balance of humours, similarly the health of
s ta te d e p e n d s on b e in g ju s t an d g e n e r o u s to d iffe r e n t
communities inhabiting there.(13)
27
1937-947 A.H/1531-1541 A .» }
1962-963 A.H/1555-1556 A.D)
According to Shahjahan Nama or Amal-e-Saleh, Humayun's birth
took place in the year 913 A.H /1508 A.D at Kabul. His mother
belonged to one of the noble families of the Khurasan. Three days
after the death of his father, Babur, Humayun got enthroned on
9th of the Islamic calendar Jamadi-l-ula 937 A.H/30th December
1530 A.D at the age of twenty two.(14)
The situation at the tim e o f his accession to the p ow er was
precarious because there was no unity in the royal family. (15)
Humayun encountered massive difficulties during his efforts to
retain and expand Babur's conquests in India. Within a year his
brother kamran who was the governor of Kabul, with the support
of his brother Askari occupied the Punjab province and forcibly
removed the governor appointed by Humayun. He then forced
H um ayun to agree to his p ossessio n o f th e p ro vin c e. But
Humayun's immediate concerns lay with the Afghans to the east
that look themselves as heir to the Lodi's throne,(16)
In th e sou th B ah adu r Shah, ru ler o f th e s ta te o f G u jrat,
challenged Humayun by seizing control over the Sultanate o f
Malwa. But the most serious threat was from the Sher Shah Suri,
an Afghan commander and ruler who had quietly gained control
of the m ilitary field of his father in sou th ern B ih ar. In 944
28
A .H / 1537 A.D, Sher Khan in vaded the lan d o f B en ga l and
cap tu red i t . (17) A fter th a t the M u gh als an d P ath a n rivals
confronted each other in two battle fields and each time Mughals
were defeated. Finally Humayun fled to Agra and then to Lahore.
In 951 A.H/ 1544 A.D he crossed the border o f Herat and sought
refuge from Shah Tahmasp, the Safavid ruler o f Persia. The king
of Persia received him with kind and gave him warm welcome.
The ousted emperor, Humayun stayed there for sometime. Shah
Tahm asp agreed to help him regaining the lost pow er on the
condition that he would embrace Shi'aism and return the city of
Qandhar to him after occupying it. (18)
After this agreem ent Humayun returned and with the help o f
Safavid ruler he seized the city of Qandhar and then occupied
Kabul. From Kabul Humayun went ahead on the steps o f his
fath er and conquered the n o rth e rn India. A fte r a hard fight
Sikandar Shah Suri fled from the battle field. With the defeat of
Sikandar Shah, Afghans have left the hope o f any resistance.
Humayun entered Delhi and restored the monarchy o f his father,
Babur by the mid of 962 A.H /1555 A.D.(19)
With the help of Shah Tahmasp and because o f inability of Sher
Shah's successors, Humayun returned India and once again got
control over Delhi and Agra etc. He overpowered his rivals and
established his rule. But now Humayun has little time left to his
life. Within seven months after occupation o f Delhi, in January
963 A.H /1556 A.D, he met a fatal accident on the steps of his
library in the fortress o f Delhi, now called as Old Fort. While
29
descen d in g by the stairs o f his lib ra ry he h ea rd the call o f
Muazzin for prayer. He
sat down there for the prayer but
when
he was getting up again he slipped from the stairs and fell on the
ground. Humayun brought from there seriously injured and after
a week of this incident he died on 11th Rabi-al-Awwal 963
A.H/
25th January, 1556 A.D at the age of 51 years,(20)
Humayun's Character and liis Religioiis Policy
Humayun was a cultured man. He was well read in Turkish and
Persian literature, philosophy, m ath em atics, astron om y and
Muslim theology. He com posed good couplets and poem s and
had great respect to the scholarly people. That's why one finds a
good number of scholars always with him and he is said to pass
several nights in their company.
Because o f his short tenure Humayun could not find opportunity
to develop any distinct religious policy of his own. He followed the
path shown by his great father and tried least confrontation,
though his religiou s p olicy was a bit m od ified and p a rtia lly
different. Bairam Khan was the most brilliant, brave and sharp
officer in his army and court. He was with him during the period
of trouble and followed him to Persia and returned with him to
India. Since Bairam Khan was a practicing Shi'a and he always
rem ained faith ful to Hum ayun, so n atu rally his services led
H u m ayu n to m ake m o d ific a tio n s in a ttitu d e in a S u n n i
dominated state and gave concessions to Shi'a community. Also
Humayun's stay in Shi'a Persia obliged him to show at least some
30
outward respect to Shi'a practices. Even his wife, Hamida Begam
was a Shi'a. Humayun's policy towards the Hindus was not ol the
religio u s toleran ce. A c c o rd in g to som e h is to ria n s even he
destroyed some tem ples at k alin jar and did not d esist from
hurting the religious feelings of Hindus,(21)
Humayun was liberal m inded in his m ystica l ap p roach and
respected the feelings o f others. It is reported that he advised his
son, Akbar, to be kind and considerate towards the Rajputs.
31
(KtSsP^'Jid’
1963-1014 A.H/1S56-160S A.B)
During the exile period o f Hum ayun, Akbar w as born in 949
A.H /1542 A.D at Amarkot. According to Tarikh-i-Akbari, Khaqan
A kbar en joys the h onou r o f h avin g d e s c e n d e d th ro u g h his
mother from Shaikh-ul-1 slam Zinda Pil, Ahmad-i-Jam. (22) When
his father, Humayun, left for Persia to seek help, prince Akbar
was left at Qandhar, where he was brought up for about a year
by Sultan Begam , w ife o f his uncle A sk ari. W hen H um ayun
defeated Askari and occupied the fort of Qandhar, he met his two
year old son, Akbar, in November 951 A.H/ 1544 A.D .(23)
After the death of Hindal, Akbar was married to his daughter and
was entrusted with the govern m en t o f G hazni. The n ew s of
Humayun's illness and subsequent death were conveyed to him
at K a la n o r. B a ira m K h a n e n th r o n e d h im th e r e o n 2 nd
rabi-al-Awwal 963 A.H/ the 14th February 1556 A.D. When he
succeeded his father, he was only th irteen years old. Bairam
Khan administered the government of the country on his behalf.
B airam Khan a d o m in a n t m em b er o f H u m a y u n ’ s n o b ility
assumed the role o f protector or regent for you n g Akbar. His
faithful generalissimo supported Akbar during the early years of
his reign until the young ruler, under differen t influ ences and
c ir c u m s ta n c e s , p a r t e d w ith h is fr ie n d , w h o w a s th e n
assassinated on his way to M ecca (970 A.H/ 1562 A.D). Akbar
married his widow, his own cousin Salima Begam. Latter Bairam
32
Khan's son Abdurrahim Kliankhanan, proved him as a special
asset to Akbar. He was among the Akbar's Nauratnas (Nine noble
men). He became the tutor of Akbar's son, Salim and m arried
into the royal family. (24)
D uring the early years o f his govern m en t A k b a r m et m any
problems. After his succession, Hemu (Baqqal) the able general
and minister of Muhammad Adilshah challenged his supremacy.
Akbar met Hemu's forces at the battle ground o f Panipat and
defeated him. Hemu was killed in the battle field and after his
death the troops in his command deserted from there and gave
the Mughal army the way to occupy the territory. This was the
seco n d b a ttle o f P a n ip a t an d it p a v e d th e w a y fo r th e
establishment of the Mughal rule over India.(25)
During the next six months M ughal arm y own another battle
against the Sikandar Shah, the defeated ruler o f Suri dynasty.
Under Bairam Khan's direction Mughal armies occupied Lahore
and seized Multan in Panjab province. Then they occupied Ajmer,
Jaunpur and the fort o f G ow aliar, This a g g re ss ive flu rry o f
activity put the vital cities and strongholds o f a compact reign
between Lahore, Delhi, Agra and Jaunpur under Mughal control.
This was Hindustan, the old heartland o f M uslim political and
military power in north India. Lahore and Delhi stood together as
western and eastern redoubts-sym bols o f M uslim victory and
domination in Hindu north India. Akbar's forces also conquered
the kingdom of Malwa, Chinnar in the east and the kingdom o f
Gondwa. He annexed Bihar, Bengal and Orissa provinces to his
empire. (26)
33
After the decline o f Bairam Khan, Akbar assumed fall executive
powers as ruler. He created four specialized m inisterial posts for
financial, m ilitary, household and religious affairs. He m ade
himself the supreme commander of his armies, the most capable
strategic and field master. The young em peror resto red to a
system o f honorific (ranks) Mnsabs derived from his M ongol
background. These assigned numerical ranks to each officer in
im perial service. The em peror was the soLirce o f ran k in g and
changes in rankings. As the ranking system evolved the graded
ranks became a powerful supplying instrument to reward or to
punish military and civil officers in imperial service. (27)
Akbar's first capital was Agra, and then in 979 A.H/ 1571 A.D he
moved twenty six miles from Agra to the city o f Fatahpur Sikri a
newly built city that remained his capital until 994 A .H / 1585A .D .(28) D uring his fifteen years residence at Fatahpur Sikri,
Akbar d irected m a jor conquests and s u rm o u n te d h is m o s t
dangerous p olitica l crisis. The new city was also the site o f
sign ifican t organization s that put in delib le stam p u p o n the
Mughal im perial system. Fatahpur Sikri was also a refu ge, a
courtly city whose architecture and public spaces w ere very
much a expression o f the young ruler's passion for building and
design. H ere A k b a r sa tisfied those cre a tiv e and a e s th e tic
impulses typical o f Taimurids.
In this city and during Akbar's time, history witnessed a series of
transitions which had an important role in the future o f India up
to the tenth century. The basic reason and most important cause
of these transitions were Akbar himself and his personality.
34
Akbar's Cliaracter and Jinis R©!igioiig» Policy
Akbar was one o f the most remarkable personalities in Indian
history. He possessed a dom inant ch a racter and prom inent
qualities that made him great. Take into consideration the three
aspects that help us to understand and perceive his personality:
first, Akbar's characteristics, second, his advisors and associates,
and third, the realm of his government.
Akbar was very intelligent, although illiterate. His son, Sultan
Salim (977 A.H), later Jahangir, says about him: "My father used
to hold discussion with the wise men of every religion and sect,
although he was illiterate, he had sat so much with sages and
learned men in discussion that no one could guess from his
appearance that he is illitera te".(29) He was m an o f diverse
literary taste and o f great in te lle ct that he was possessed a
marvelous memory and was keenly interested in such branches
of learning as philosophy, history and politics. He evinced a keen
interest in religious and intellectual discussion s early in his
reign. He hoped both to educate himself and to satisfy his soul.
As he p o s s e s s e d a w id e ly open m in d , th e m y s tic a l and
metaphysical controversies stimulated his interest in the problem
of mankind in general.
As far as the second point is concerned, we see that he had in his
court the most brilliant and intelligent people o f his time, like
Shaikh Mubarak and his sons Faizi and Abul Fazl. According to
Sri Ram Sharma; "This might, however, have never been noticed
35
but for the fact that in Mubarak, Abul Fazl and Faizi got three
kindred spirits able to meet the scholars on their own grounds
and gave them what was better than they received.(30)
Faizi had been introduced at the court in the year 975 A.H /1566
A.D, his younger brother Abul Fazl was presented to the emperor
in the year 982 A.H /1574 A.D.(31) Shaikh Mubarak's ancestors
belonged to the Quraish clan of the Arabs that lived in Yemen.
His father Shaikh Khizr migrated with his family and relatives to
India and settled down in Nagur. Shaikh Mubarak studied under
m any em in en t scholars, and for fou r m on th s he ab sorbed
spiritual and intellectual benefits from Shaikh Faiyazi Bukhai'i,
one o f the disciples o f Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar. After that he
migrated to Ahmadabad and studied there the jurisprudence of
Maliki, Shafai, Hanaii and Hanbali schools. He later on studied
the Isna Ash'ari or Shi'a principles and the works of Ibn-e-Arabi
and his com m entator Sadruddin Qunawi. He m ade a special
study o f the works o f Ibn-i-Sina and the Ishraqi philosophy of
Shihabuddin Suhrawardi Maqtool or Shaheed.(32)
M u b a ra k 's stu d ies at A h m a d a b a d w ere m u ltip le an d he
developed an objective attitude to contemporary intellectual and
religious movements. Towards the end of his stay at Ahmadabad
when Mubarak was contemplating a life o f ascetic renunciation,
Shaikh Usuf, an em inent m ystic who paid equ al attention to
m editation and form al prayers, made a profou n d im pression
upon his mind and urged him to travel to Agra. Shaikh Mubarak
accordingly set off for Agra. His first contact was with Shaikh
36
Alauddin Majzub. He then gave Shaikh M ubarak his blessings
and prophesied for him a splendid career in Agra. In this city one
of his pupils was Ghiasuddin, who was subsequently given the
title of Naqib Khan by Akbar.(33) At Agra Shaikh Mubarak was
teaching philosophical thoughts o f Ibn-i-Sina along with theology
as well as the illumination of the soul wisdom. His training in
these two disciplines and his studies in Sufism had given him a
broader outlook than the most orthodox scholars.
Shaikh Mubarak's religious ideas were the logical outcome of his
comprehensive and objective outlook. He evolved into all religions
and philosophical subjects and tried to extract their nector. He
left an indelible impression upon the leaders of other religions,
who after their admission to Akbar's court came in contact with
him. He supported the Shi'as when they were the target of the
bitterest possible attack from the side of the religious scholars of
Sunni Sect Ulama. He was not opportunist or time server as it is
said from some corners. He never hesitated to take the court’s
danger or even disaster by expressing his views fearlessly. (34)
Shaikh Mubarak after his visit to Akbar seems to have realized
that the emperor's mind was receptive enough to the suggestion
or change in his religious policy. According to Shaikh Alaudduala
Simnani, who in his youth served the Ilkhanid ruler of Persia,
that was the best place to introduce reforms in the society and
strengthen the cause o f the faith at the roya l court. Shaikh
Mubarak probably used this weighty precedent to suggest his
son to find out a place for his lim itless fund o f energy at the
imperial court.(35)
37
The third aspect that requires attention is the realm, in which
Akbar ruled. The area o f his kingdom was very large, about 3.2
million square kilometers, with a population between 100 and
150 millions. It seems that Akbar took into consideration the fate
of previous Islamic kingdoms and he wanted to avoid the causes
of their breaking up. He tried to gain the support o f majority o f
h is s u b jec ts p a rtic u la rly the H in du s. F o r th is re a s o n he
attempted to understand their culture and religion better than
any o f the preceding kings o f Delhi and the other kingdoms of the
subcontinent. Therefore, he restored a series of innovations the
result of which was still visible.(36)
In fact, Akbar's concept o f the state was strikingly modern and
secularist and cut the root o f clerical privileges. His well known
religious policy o f 'peace with air(su lh-i-kull) was the source
spring o f his innovations and was the context of that emperor's
various experim ents with w inning p o litica l su p port for the
empire. At the level of internal politics he tried to give the Hindus
a large sh are in the ad m in istra tion s. He a lso rem o ved all
restrictions connected with the building of places o f worship, so
that the Jesuit missionaries were able to erect some churches,
and Hindus could build and repair their temples. Akbar granted
the city o f Amritsar as Jagir to Guru Ramdas, the third guru of
Sikhs.(37) The measure which helped to strengthen the base o f
Sikhism in this period and caused to raise many controversies
and conflicts in Jahangir,s reign and after ward.
Moreover Akbar perm itted all to follow w h atever religion they
38
liked. He permitted Hindus to be reconvert to their faith who had
been com p elled to adopt Islam e a r lie r .(38) He rem o ved all
r e s tr ic tio n s from the p u b lic r e lig io u s w o rs h ip p la c e s o f
non-Muslims and abolished Jizya (Islamic tax on non - Muslims)
and pilgrimage tax. Akbar had married with some Hindu princess
and he had allowed them to perform their religious rites and
rituals in their places. These things had their impact upon his
re lig io u s attitu d e tow ards his p eop le. I f id o l w orsh ip was
to le ra ted in the p alace, it w ou ld h ave b een look ed ra th er
unreasonable to be prohibited outside. He also participated in
some of Hindu festivals, like Rakhi Bandhan and Dipavali.(39)
Among the important measures that had been taken by him had
their im pact upon the subsequent occurren ces. He built the
Ibadatkhana (the house o f worship). A fter his retu rn from the
jo u r n e y o f A jm er in 982 A .H ./ 1574 A.D th e b u ild in g o f
Ibadatkhana consisted of four halls , which were near the new
palace at Fatahpur. The building of Ibadtakhana was completed
the next year. A ccordin g to the statem en ts o f B adauni the
purpose o f establishing the building was remarkable and decisive
successive emperor's victories and the growth o f the empire that
was expanding day by day. (40)
When Akbar had leisure time he was to sit with the ascetics .He
passed much of his time discussing with them about the word of
God and the sayings of the Prophet. He spent whole nights in
praying God, and his heart was full of reverence for Him. He had
a feeling o f thankfulness for his past success. On Friday after
39
prayer he would go to Ibadatkhana. Shaikhs, Ulamas , and pious
men and a few of his com panions were the people who were
invited . Discussions were carried on all sorts o f instructive and
useful subjects.(41) At the first instance , he called there the
learned divines of Islam . Sometimes there were such discussions
among scholars that led them to indecent attacks on each other.
Badauni mentions "The learned men used to draw the sword o f
the tongue in the battle field of mutual contradictory opposition
and the antagonism. On the matters o f the sect they reached
such a high pitch that called one another fools and heretics. The
controversies used to pass beyond the pole o f Sunni and Shi,a ,
Hanafi and Shafai , and they would attack the very bases o f
b e lie f".(42) W rangles o f sch olars o f Islam d isillu s io n ed the
emperor and he summoned the exponents o f other religions to
the Ibadatkhana to participate in the debates.(43) Then it became
Akbar's official forum where he listened to and arbitrated debates
am on g lea d in g th eo lo g ia n s o f v a rio u s re lig io n s in c lu d in g
Sunnism, Shiism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Roman Catholics.(44)
B adauni believes that the em peror p ossessed an excellen t
disposition and was earnest after truth but very ignorant and
used be to in the com pany o f infidels and base persons, into
perplexity there rose still serious doubts in his mind. Then there
came a time, after doubts and suspicions that he lost all definite
aim, and the straight wall of clear law and o f firm religion was
broken down, so after five or six years not a trace of Islam was
left in him. In the words o f Badauni after conducting Ulama's
opinion about Mut'ah (the temporary marriage) and getting the
40
was a matter for which for several years he had been anxiously
looking forward.(47)
But this document not only failed to strengthen Akbar's hands
but was responsible for reopening a very sensitive issue as it
sought to provide a theological justification o f his sovereignty. It
is noteworthy that a Fatwa of kufr against Akbar appeared only
after the signing of the Mahzar Nama. At this Akbar soon realized
that issuing The Mahzar Nama had been a mistake and decided
to withdraw it.(48)
Another Akbar's innovation was Din-i-Ilahi. Being dissatisfied
with the petty wrangles o f Muslim divines Akbar listened to the
debates o f the scholars o f other religio n s and cam e to the
conclusion that there was certainly truth in every religion. Hence
he became an eclectic and promulgated the Din-i-IIIahi. This new
religion was compounded out of various elements, taken partly
from the Quran, partly from the scriptures o f the Brahmins and
to a certain extent from the Gospels o f Christ. (49)
A cco rd in g to M u n tak h ab -u -T aw arik h , "From ch ild h ood to
manhood and from manhood to his declining years, the emperor
had combined in himself various religions and opposite sectarian
beliefs. Thus a faith of materialistic character became painted on
the mirror of his mind that there are wise m en to be found and
ready at hand in all religions, there are the men of asceticism,
recep tion ists o f revelation and worker o f m iracles am ong all
peoples and that the truth is inhabitant o f every place, and that
consequently how could it be right to consider it as confined to
42
one religion or creed.(50) The Din-i-Ilahi was condemned by some
authors, following Badauni , as apostasy from Islam , others
regai'ded it as a heresy within Islam, In any case Akbar himself
denied any claims of prophet hood or divinity. The Din-i- llahi
had also been called a heterodox personality cult in which Akbar
assumed the role of Insan-e-kamil, the perfect man o f whom the
theoreticians o f Sufism had long d ream t.(51) The D in-i-Ilahi
however, was accepted by only a small number o f courtiers and
was n ot en forced th rou gh ou t the em pire by p o litic a l and
administrative pressure.
The opposition of the Ulama to Akbar's concept of the state and
his policies, especially religious policies, forced him to review in
them. Although at the first instance he embarked upon abolition
of initial discriminating measures such as Jizya or pilgrim age
taxes, at last he reimposed them again to attract Indian Muslims
to the imperial cause and even
declared himself "King of Islam
".But such measures failed to prevent the outbreak of a serious
rebellion among his Muslim nobles and Ulama. (52)
The last years of Akbar, s long rule was overshadow ed by the
rebellion o f his favorite son, Salim, and specially by this son's
being responsible for the assassination of Akbar's faithful friend
,Abul Fazl, on his way from Deccan in 1011 A.H /1602 A.D. So
his last days were spent in grief and anguish. Akbar was not
destined to live long. In the autumn of 1014 A.H/1605 A.D, he
was attacked by dysentery and died on 17th October o f the same
year.(53)
43
J«han§ir
(101.4-1037 A.H/ 1605-1628 A.D|
Mirza Muhammad Hadi at his introduction to Jah an gir Nama
says: "Because His Majesty Arsh-Ashiani (residing in his heavily
abode) was always asking the Divine court o f the work-creator o f
the universe, to be for a son worthy o f the crown and throne for
the continu ance o f the state and d yn asty he had m ade the
blessed thoughts of those near the Divine cou rt a means for his
desire. When he heard about a saint named Shaikh Salim who
had traversed many stages o f life lived on a m ountain next to
Sikri, went to the Shaikh's house and told him his secret in true
humility and sincere belief. The Shaikh gave him the good news
and said he gave his nam e to this n ew s a p lin g o f fortu n e
auspiciousness .After that on Wednesday the 17th of Rabi, I 977
A.H/August 30, 1569 A.D in the village of Fatahpur in the house
of Shaikh Salim, Sultan Salim was born. (54)
Salim ascended the throne in Agra fort on 13th Jamadal I 1014
A.H/1605 A.D when he was thirty six years old.(55) He adopted
the title of Nur-ud-Din Muhammad Jahangir Padshahe Ghazi. He
says about his title "when I became emperor, it occurred to me
that 1 should change my name lest it be confused with the Cesars
of Anatolia. An inspiration from the beyond suggested to me that
a labor of emperor is world domination (Jahangir). So I named
myself Jahangir and made my honorific Nuru-d-Din,(56)
44
Jahangir's reign, like that of his ancestors and descendents was
troubled by insurrections and internal feuds which are usually
overlooked when one admires the gloiy o f the Mughal empire. At
the beginning of his reign, Jahangir had to quell the rebellion o f
his eldest son, Khusrau, who was supported by the Sikh Guru
Arjun. Aftei*wai'ds Arjun's execution in 1015 A M / 1606 A.D was
the turning point in
the Sikh history, for it was he who had
collected the sacred writings of the community in the Adi Granth
and who had set up an organization for his followers who were
evolving over the course o f the country into a m ilitaiy power. At
last khusru was arrested by im perial forces and was brought
before his father. (57) Jahangir had some other conquests during
his reign. Among them the subjugation o f the Rajputs of Mewar
who had so long resisted the Mughal might. (58)
A rem arkable event o f Jahangir's life was his m arriage with
Mihrunnisa called later Nurjahan, whose first husband had died
ea rlier u n d er m ysteriou s circu m sta n ces. N u rjah an for all
practical purposes was the ru ler o f the em pire. Her father,
Itimadaduaia and her brother, Asef Khan, soon became the most
influential persons in the kingdom. N u rjahan's influence on
Jahangir was the main cause of some events, especially during
the last years of his reign. (59) She tried to persuade Jahangir to
send Shah Jahan to capture Qandahar. But Shah Jahan refused
to lead the expedition, as he was afraid that in his absence
NurJahan would affect his claim to the throne and strengthen
that for her son-in-law, Shahryar. Shah Jahan started to lead a
rebellion against his father. But after some prosecutions and
45
escapes, he was forced to surrender to his father in 1625 A.D. He
sent his sons, Dara shukoh and Aurangzeb, as hostages to the
court and surrendered the fortress o f R ohtas to the officers
appointed by the emperor, (60) Though the rebellion o f Shahjahan
was futile but it considera.bly weakened the empire.
Jalangii's Charaeter asid lais Religions Policy
J a h a n g ir was a w e ll-re a d and cu ltu red em p eror. He had
command over Persian and Turkish languages and knew Hindi,
Arabic and some other languages. His T u z u k - i- J ah an gir or
Jahangir Nama is written in a lucid style. He was a great lover of
poetry, architect in Botany, Zoology and Medicine his description
of beauties of landscape flora and fond of the country is vivid in
his memoirs.(61)
In his religious Policy, Jahangir followed to some extent, his
father's policy. For example building the public places of worship
for non Muslims, with some exceptions, was continued. But
whenever he made war on the Hindus and Christians, these
c o n s id e ra tio n s w ere g iv e n up. It a p p e a rs th a t th e open
c e le b ra tio n o f H in du re lig io u s cu stom s and fe s tiv a l was
continued, as has been mentioned by Jahangir in the second
year o f his accession. In those events he had mentioned about
the Rakhi festival, As he wrote, "During my exalted father's time
the Hindu Amirs and other groups celebrated Rakhi by tying on
his blessed wrist the band of
rubies, pearls and flowers". The
custom rem ained continue for several years, But, when the
46
extravagance went beyond all limits, it become displeasing to him
and forbade it. As he says: "This year I have followed his good
example and ordered that the Hindu Am irs and nobles of this
caste should not tie Rakhi around my wrist, on the day of Rakhi,
once again the spectacle was held and the castes could no longer
be prevented from a fanatic observance. I agreed to it for (next)
year and ordered that according to ancient custom, the Brahmins
could tie silken threads".(62)
Jahangir's relations with Christians were so cordial that not only
he tolerated Christianity, but he maintained them as well. The
Christian fathers were paid from Rs.3 to Rs..7 daily, occasionally
he would give them money for their religious services. (63) But
his conduct with the Sikh raised a m any thorny issues. Guru
Arjun, his con tem porary leader o f the Sikhs, had in cu rred
Jahangir's displeasure on account of his proselytizing activities,
specially his giving som e pecun iary assistan ce to the rebel
prince, Khusrou. Jahangir asked the Guru either convert to
Islam or close his religious shop. In Jahangir Nama he refers to
this subject "In Cobinwal, there was a Hindu named Arjun, in the
garm ents o f sainthood and sanctity, so m uch so that he had
captivated many of the simple-hearted o f the Hindus, and even of
the ignorant and foolish follow ers o f Islam , by his ways and
manners, and they had loudly sounded the drum o f his holiness.
They called him Guru and from all sides stupid people crowded
to worship and manifest complete faith in him .For three or four
generations (of spiritual successors) they had kept this shop
warm .Many time it occurred to me to put a stop to this vain
47
affair to bring him in to the assembly of the people of Is la m . (64)
Guru Arjun was arrested, who died in the state o f imprisonment.
After his death his son, Hargobind, assumed his father's role as
the sixth Guru.he adopted a new quazi-real style. He wore tw^'o
swords and built a fort at Amritsar as if he was a raja or prince.
After arresting and releasing, he shifted his house hold and
estab lish ed his cou rt as a Z a m in d a r (w here) a n etw o rk of
supporters continued to send offerin gs from the plains. The
retreat to the hills ended further Mughal persecution o f the Guru
and his followers in Jahangir's reign.(65)
Jahangir died on his way coming back from Kashmir during the
hot weather (summer season) o f 1037 A.H/ 1627 A.D, after a
serious illness. His death took place at Changir Hath, a ho ting
place between Kashmir and Lahore.(66)
48
Shohjahan
(1037-1068 A.H/ 1628-1658 A.Dl
According to Shah Jahan Nama , prince Khurram 's birth took
place in Lahore on the last day of Rabi I, the year o f 1000 A.H./
15 January, 1592 A.D. During the second year o f the Jahangir's
reign, he was betrothed by the E m peror to A rjum and Bano
Begam, later Mumtaz Mahal, the daughter of A sef Khan. (67) After
J a h a n gir's death th ere w ere two cla im a n ts o f the th ro n e ,
S h ah J ah a n and his b ro th e r S h a h rya r. At the b e h e s t o f
mother-in-Law, Nur Jahan declared, Shahiyar the emperor of the
Hindustan at Lahore. But at last with good management o f Shah
Jahan's father - in - law, Asef Khan, he could overcome on any
claimant of the throne and ascended on it. On Sunday, the 22nd
of Jamadal ula in the capital o f Lahore the Khutba was recited in
his name. He assum ed the h onorific title o f Abul M uzaffar
S h ih ab -u d -din M uham m ad S a h ib -i-Q ira n II S h ah jah a n ,
Padshah Ghazi.(68)
Under ShahJahan's vigorous reign the em pire continued its
expansion. Mughal power realigned political relationship and
cultural activities in every part o f the subcontinent. M ughal
dominion during his empire stretched from Sindh to the far North
West upto Sylhet on the other side of Brahma putra, from new^ly
conquered Balkh and in the South to the southern boundary of
the Deccan provinces. Twenty - two provinces contained 4,350
Pargan-as - the basic unit o f adm in istration. The assessed
49
annual reverme of the empire was 8,800 million Dams -a sharp
increase from the 1000 million Dams assessed under Jahangir
just two years before his death .(69)
The reign of Shahjahan was the climax o f the glory of the Mughal
dynasty. There was unprecedented development in every sphere
of administration and life. The com plete peace and prospering
were prevailing everywhere in the empire. The authority o f the
emperor was not seriously challenged and the country was not
invaded.
In the country the strength of the army was sufficient
to maintain law and order. In short the age of Shahjahan was the
most glorious period of Mughal history in India and there was
unique prosperity in the country to ju s tify his period being
designated as the Golden Age o f the Empire.(70)
Shahjalian's Character and his Religious Policy
Shahjahan was one o f the great M ughal rulers. He w as fully
conversant with his duties and responsibilities. So long as his
health remained good, he didn’t allow any prince or minister to
defy him. During his reign the fmancial condition of the empire
was most sound .In his time many great buildings, palaces, forts,
gardens and mosques at Agra , Delhi, Lahore, Kashmir and many
other places were erected by him. Hindu and Muslim scholars,
writers, painters and the others were patronized by the emperor,
His son, D ara Shukuh was the great p a tro n o f the m an of
learning. He got translated many Sanskrit books into Persian. (71)
In fact, with the accession o f Shahjahan, the M ughal em pire
50
entered in a new phase. If Akbar was liberal in his religious views
and Jahangir indifferent to delicate problem s o f the theology,
Shahjahan was an orthodox Muslim. Under Shahjahan, for the
first tim e the results o f an orth od o x M uslim reactio n to the
policies o f Akbar and Jahangir had an effect on his official policy.
Shahjahan unlike his father and grandfather m arried no Hidu
princess, and thus the m ellowing influence was lacking in his
Haram. According to Inayat Khan’s statem ent "The first order
which was issued on that auspicious day at the court was the
prohibition of prostration (Sijdeh) by those who approached the
threshold of the Caliphate, which had been practiced during the
reign o f the late emperors Akbar and Jahangir(72) Shahjahan
changed the spirit of religious toleration that had characterized
the Mughal government so far, in several other ways as well. The
emperor forbade the completion of certain temples that had been
started during his predecessor's reign. Repairs o f new temples
was forbidden and even embarked on a cam paign o f com plete
destruction of the new temples of the Hindus.(73)
Shahjahan also stopped the prevailing practice o f allowing the
Hindus and Christians to make convert to their religions. Then in
his reign the Muslim law more strictly followed. He took active
steps not only to stop the conversion of the M uslim s to other
faiths but for swelling their number by all possible m eans as
well. The emperor made systematic efforts to convert the Hindus
to Islam by persuasion. The converts were given service and
rewarded. The Hindus were ordered not to influence or discuss
51
with their relatives for embracing Islam.(74)
Shahjahan's last days were made gloomy by the outbreak of a
te rrib le w ar o f s u c ce ss io n am on g h is son s .A c c o rd in g to
Shahjahan Nama the em peror fell ill and his serious illness
caused a great consternation in the empire. His eldest son, Dara
Shukoh, was greatly loved by his father and he wished him to be
his successor. He was an erudite scholar and a man ol eclectic
view s who attra cted so m any o f n ob les, im p e ria l o ffic e rs ,
scholars, intellectuals and others who rem ained com m itted to
Akbar's ideology and policies. From the other side Shahjahan's
third son, Aurangzeb, drew to him M u slim n obles, officers,
theologians, official ulama who wished to shift the empire toward
a more properly Muslim state in conformity with the sharia. (75)
When the emperor fell ill tensions am ong the m ature Timurid
princes exploded into a four-sided war of succession. This was a
bloody struggle fought by formidable opponents. Dara, Shuja,
Aurangzeb and Murad battled each other with that intensity and
intimacy reserved to brothers with differing personalities .Each
prince shared in the T im u rid fa m ilia l c h a ris m a and royal
authority which he gave all an undisputable claim to the throne.
Each brother claimed long experience in war, statecra ft and
administration. But only one contender could claim the throne,
the others were forced to surrender. (76)
When Shahjahan fell ill, Dara quickly assum ed com mand. He
seized the agents and spies o f his brothers and censored all
communication among them and their masters. In every part one
52
o f th e p rin c e s cla im ed fo r the t h r o n e . In B e n g a l p rin c e
Muhammad Shuja', enthroned himself as king, in Gujarat Murad
'Bakhsh. Aurangzeb in contrast to his brothers did not take the
irrevocable step of crowning himself. Instead, he engaged in a
secret correspondence with Murad, and to a lesser extent with
Shuja'. Within a few weeks Aurangzeb and Murad had agreed on
a plan for join t action. Aurangzeb prom ised Murad to leave to
him the Punjab, Afghanistan Kashmir, and Sind's throne as an
independent kingdom. (77)
A fter jo in in g A u ran gzeb's and M urad's forces th ey m et the
Shahjahan's army headed by Dara Shukuh. D uring the holy
month of Rmazan 1068 A.H/ 1658 A.D the battle was fought. At
first day it seemed that the war is going in the favour of Dara
S h u k u h , bu t a fa ls e frie n d p e rs u a d e d h im th a t n o th in g
rem ained. He dism ounted from his elep h an t and as usually
resulted with Indian armies, the disappearance o f the leader led
to the inference that he was either dead or had abandoned the
field, Dara's army began to disperse.(78) More over because of
Aurangzeb's superior tactic and better disciplined artillery, his
army defeated the battle. Aurangzeb occupied the Agra city and
then besieged his father. After some tim es when Dara tried to
take to refuge in Persia, one Zaminadar arrested him. When Dara
arrived at Delhi (Shahjahan Abad) the official Ulama according to
Aurangzeb's desire, condemned him to death on the ground of
apostasy from Islam.(79)
Shahjahan was one of the greatest Mughal rulers. He was fully
53
conversant with his duties and responsibilities. So long as his
health remained good, lie didn't allow any prince or minister to
defy him. During his reign the financial condition of the empire
was m ost sound. During his time palaces, forts, gardens and
mosques at Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Kashmir and many other cities
were erected (built) by him. Also Hindu and M uslim scholars,
writers and so were patronized by him. He passed the last year ot
his life under strict confinem ent. This great em peror died on
22nd January of year 1666 A.D at the age of seventy four.
54
Mahiuddin Mcihammad
11068-1118 A.H/ 1658-1707 A.D)
Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb, the third son of the emperor
Shahjahan, was born at Duhad in the year 1027 A .H / 1618
A.D.(80) During his father's reign when he was the governor of
Deccan. He ascended the throne twice; once on 1068 A.H/1658
A.D in the month of Ramazan, immediately after the capture of
Agra and imprisonment of his father. The second time after his
victories over Khajua and Ajmer in 1069 A.H/ 1659 A.D .(81)
During the first twenty years of his reign, the emperor kept his
capital at Shahjahan Abad. In the next Decade the capital was
shifted to Rajasthan and Deccan and all the resources of the
empire were concentrated there, the em peror, his court and
family, the bulk of the army and his best officers lived there for a
quarter o f the ce n tu ry .(82) A t the beginning o f his kingdom,
Aurangzeb faced with the rebellions o f Zamindars of Bengal and
Bihar. So he appointed Mir Jumla, his collaborator in Deccan as
governor of Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa. During his first year in the
office, Mir Jumla restructured the provincial administration and
imposed Mughal Authority in all the region.(83)
Aurangzeb's administration was highly centralized despotism. All
authority was concentrated in his hand. He looked into the
minutest details o f the administration. He said h im self all the
55
petitions that were submitted to him. He wrote orders either in
his own writing or dictated them to all his officers, ministers and
the other officers who were kept under his control. Aurangzeb
had not tolerated any rival authority in his state. (84)
iiurangsselb's Cfiaracter and liis Religions Policy
In private life Aurangzeb was simple, pious and stern in private
morality. He was simple in dress, food and recreation. He was an
erudite scholar and read the books on Islam ic th eology and
jurisprudence. He was also fond of Persian literature.
That he
studied to his last breath a book on Islamic law. The Fatawa-eAlamgiri, a great Muslim law book in India was w ritten at his
behest. The Quranic percepts were his sole guide in the conduct
of his personal as well as public life. When asked if he believes
that the "authority lies in the hands of God, the pow erful and
one, his answer was yes. His moral principles were the outcome
o f his religiou s beliefs. He was o f the v ie w th a t o rd er and
management of the kingdom property depends upon justice and
wisdom and the state and people are inseparable entities. The
state is inconceivable w ithout the existen ce o f the people. It
comes into being on their strength that depended on justice and
wisdom of the rulers and governments. The people are the vital
part o f kingship; therefore the existence o f kingship is in their
interest.(85) Being a strict believer o f Islam , Aurangzeb was
very scrupulous in observing the injunctions o f the Holy Quran
such as prayer, fast, etc and no one can deny his sincerity of
religious convictions.(86)
66
Aurangzeb's m ilitary cam paigns prove th at he was a man o f
extraordinary courage and coolness o f mind in his judgm ents.
The m ann er in w h ich he en cou n tered th e in trig u e s of his
enemies, prove him to be adept in diplomacy. His administration
of justice was fair.(87) In political aspects he was as adept in the
art of politics. He believed that politic was all fluid
and not a
static phenomenon, changing from time to time. His political
wisdom was the outcome of his experiences in the field of politics
and statecraft. (88)
Aurangzeb's religious policy was obvious. He believed in the
Islamic theory of kingship then the Mughal empire must become
a Muslim state governed by the percepts of the Sharia for the
benefit o f the Indian Muslim community. The reign would make
every p ossible effort to en cou rage con version o f the infidel
p op u lation . A u ran gzeb was con vin ced th a t his im m ed ia te
ancestors on the throne of Delhi had committed a grave error in
disregarding the Quranic law and in attempting to conduct the
administration on secular lines. Akbar had destablished Islam as
the state and had abandoned the Islamic theory o f kingship and
substituted it by the Hindu ideal of sovereignty. It was, therefore,
Aurangzeb's policy to do away with the innovations introduced by
his ancestors. Accordingly from the very beginning of his reign,
he took steps to champion the cause o f Sunni orthodoxy. He
made it the chief aim of his life to put down kufr and to carry on
jihad for transforming India.(89)
First of all, Aurangzeb restored Islam to its original position as
57
the religion o f the court and country. Next, he u n dertook to
reestablish the Muslim law of conduct by abolishing non Muslim
in n ovations .He forbade m usic at his cou rt, ab olish ed the
celebration o f the Persian New year's day. He forbade the old
temples to be repaired and little later issued an order to demolish
the schools and temples o f infidels and put down their teaching
and religious practices strongly.(90)
Aurangzeb on 1142 A .H / 1729 A.D prom ulgated an order and
again im posed Jizya on Hindus with the object o f spreading
Islam and overthrowing infidel practices. He also re-imposed the
pilgrimage tax on Hindus and announced that those Hindus who
embraced Islam would be granted stipends and free gifts. In
1100 A.H/ 1688 A.D he prohibited Hindu religiou s fairs and
festivals and the same year all Hindus except R ajputs were
forbidden from riding the elephants and the horses o f breed.
Many Hindus who could not pay Jizya became Muslims.{91)
The new regulations and ordinances must have produced a deep
impression upon the people and would have affected them. This
has added much difficulties with which the imperial government
had to deal. According to S.R. Bakshi no one deny the emperor
Aurangzeb the credit o f being a sincere follower of the faith that
was on him. But it is also absolutely correct that the effect of his
religious policy upon Hindus was highly injurious. His policy of
converting India to a Muslim country was opposed in Rajastan,
Malwa, Bundelkhand and Khandes, where m any people were
converted. Its reclaim was that Hindus in their turn abolished
58
the Muslim call to prayer. In some places the Jizya collectors
were beaten and then they were driven away. Akbar's tomb at
Sikandara was looted and its building was greatly damaged.
Au rangzeb's policy roused the Sikhs who broke out into a
rebellion and eventually became an im p orta n t cause of the
discord and hostility between the Hindus and the Muslims and
the growth of a spirit of particularism and at last the cause of the
downfall of the Mughal empire.(92)
As years passed on the future o f the em pire greatly worried
Aurangzeb, especially after his eldest son Prince Akbar's revolt in
1092 A.H /168lA.D which was supported by Rajputs. His advice
to his rebellion was the division of the empire after his death and
weaken it by a war of succession .But completely exhausted in
the mind and body, the emperor died at Ahmad Nagar on 1119
A.H, 3rd March, 1707 A.D. He was buried at Daulat Abad in the
tomb of the famous Muslim saint Shaikh Burhan-ud-din.(93)
59
R e fe r e n c e s :(D e t a ils in Bibliography)
1-
Richards, 1998, 6; Singh, 1996, 123; Ikram, 1979, 17-19
2-
Ikram, ibid, 20; Foltz, 1998, 14
3-
Abul Fazl, 1372, 138, Walia, N.A.,
4-
Kanbuh, 1858, 9-11; Lahuri, 1867, 45-46
5-
Abul Fazl, ibid, 138 & 140-144; Foltz, ibid; Ikram, ibid,
18
20-21
6-
Badauni, 1868, 331 & 338-340; Walia, ibid, 8-9
7-
Abul Fazl, ibid, 149-150 &155-156; Badauni, ibid, 337,
Richards, ibid, 6-9
8-
Abul Fazl, Ibid, 167 & Kanbuh, ibid, 15-17; Nizamuddin,
Ahmad, N.A, 13-15
9-
Walia, ibid, 17; Richards, ibid, 6-9
10-
Abul Fazl, ibid, 184; Badauni, ibid, 341; Foltz, ibid, 14-15
11-
Ibid, 185; Walia, ibid, 32; Ikram, ibid, 22-23
12-
Sharma, 2001, Kanbuh, ibid, 13,
13-
Singh, ibid, 125
14-
Kanbuh, ibid, 13; Nizamuddin, Ahmad, ibid, 29-30; Abul
Fazl, ibid, 190; Badauni, ibid, 344
15-
Richards, ibid, 8'12, Walia, ibid, 42-50
16-
Nizamuddin, Ahmad, ibid, 29-30; Abul Fazl, ibid, 236
17-
Ibid, 43-46; ibid, 241
18-
Ibid, 58-61; ibid, 301
19-
Ibid, 80-84; Ikram, ibid, 32-33; Abul Fazl, ibid, 500-524
20-
Nizamuddin, Ahmad, ibid, 84; Abul Fazl, ibid, 533
21-
Walia, ibid, 55-57; Abul Fa^l, ibid, 541
60
22-
K an b u h , ib id, 11; N iza m u d d in , A h m a d , ib id , 5v5-56;
Qandhari, 1993, 13-15; Abul Fazl, ibid, 273-275
23-
Qandhari, ibid, 23-24, Walia, ibid, 51; Abul Fazl, ibid, 363
24-
Nizaniuddin, Ahmad, ibid, 85; Abul Fazl, ibid, 539
25-
Richai-ds, ibid, 13-14, Walia, ibid, 92-93
26-
Ibid, 14-31; ibid, 91-109
27-
Ibid, 24
28-
Badauni, 1864, 108-109; Nizamuddin, Ahmad, ibid, 224
29-
Jahangir, 1863, 14; Jahangir. Translation, 1999, 36
30-
Sharma, ibid, 20
31-
Badauni, 1864, 173
32-
Rizvi, 1975, 76-80
33-
Ibid, 82-85
34-
Ibid, 100-103
35-
Ibid, 105
36-
Eaton, 2003, 139
37-
Sharma, ibid, 25
38-
Ibid, 26-29
39-
Ibid, 19
40-
Badauni, 1864, 200
41-
Ibid, 209
42-
Ibid
43-
Ibid, 282
44-
Foltz, ibid, 82
45-
Badauni, ibid, 213, 279
46-
Ibid, 279; Nizam uddin, Ahm ad, ibid, 344-345; Sharm a,
ibid, 37-39
61
47-
Ibid,
48-
Eaton, ibid, 125-126
49-
Walla, ibid, 115; Sharma, ibid,51-55
50-
Badauni, ibid, 263
51-
Eaton, ibid, 126-127; Singh,ibid,
52-
Ibid, 118-119
53-
Jahangir, 1863, introduction, 10 & 17-18
54-
Ibid, 9; Nizamuddin, Ahmad,ibid, 227; Badauni, ibid, 120
55-
Kanbuh, ibid, 9-10; Sharma,ibid,
56-
Jahangir, ibid, 22
57-
Ibid, 57
58-
Walia, ibid, 123
59-
Jahagir, ibid, 20; walia, ibid,125-126
60-
Jahangir, 1999, 434
61-
Walia, ibid, 133
62-
Jahangir, ibid, 120
63-
Sharma, ibid, 71
64-
Jahangir, ibid, 59
65-
Richards, ibid, 97
66-
Ibid, 117
67-
Kanbuh, ibid, 6 & 42
68-
Ibid, 14
69-
Richards, ibid, 138-141
70-
Walia, ibid, 156-158
71-
Ibid, 159
72-
Kanbuh, ibid, 196
73-
Sharma, ibid, 103
62
130
119; Richards, ibid, 94
74-
Walia, ibid, 158-159
75-
Richards, ibid, 151
76-
Ibid, 153-155; Walia, ibid, 149-156
77-
Ibid,
78-
Mustaid Khan, 1871, 7 ibid,
79-
Ibid; Sharma, ibid, 151,152
80-
Razi, m.s, 5; Bakshi 8s Sharma, 2000, 49; K anbuh, ibid,
332-334
81-
Razi, ibid, 99-122; Kanbuh, ibid, 314
82-
Ibid,
83-
Richards, ibid, 163
84-
Bakshi 8s Sharma, ibid, 37
85-
Ibid, 220-225
86-
Ibid, 106-107
87-
Ibid, 121-122
88-
Ibid, 218-223
89-
Sharma, ibid, 8-9
90-
Sharma, ibid, 120-125
91-
Mostaid Khan, ibid, 172-174; Bakshi & Sharma, ibid, 8-11
92-
Bakshi & Sharma, ibid, 11-13
93-
Ibid, 120-121
63