Writing an (in-class) Essay
City University of New York
In this course, as in most others, you will be expected to answer in the form of an essay one or more
questions on examinations. The following are some general comments on how best to approach and
complete the task and are intended for those of you who can profit from them.
Several factors contribute to writing a good essay. These include: (a) presentation; (b) organisation; (c) factual
information; (d) analysis or interpretation; (e) summary remarks. My own shorthand for these is the 4W's -What happened; when did it happen; why did it happen; and wherefore (i.e., what resulted). So remember
the what, when, why and wherefore when you write on some historical theme.
(a) Presentation: No teacher likes careless or sloppy presentation of written work. Neither should you
present pages of even well written work as line after line without paragraph or pause. You can avoid this
by adhering to some simple rules. At the very least, write legibly (not in pencil), write in formal sentences
(subject--verb--object) and discernible paragraphs, leave the left margin on each page free, mark the
number of the question you are answering and, above all, avoid slang [I never again hope to see the
malodorous statement of a former student: "After many defeats, the Russians got their s-- - together"!].
An essay should be formal in tone, with none of the awkward 'personal touches' that might have passed
muster in grade school but are out-of-place in a formal essay: not an opening sentence such as "Let me
now give you my opinion on the Franco-Prussian war . . ." but, rather, "The Franco-Prussian war arose
over a quarrel between . . . . . ." Also, remember that you will be writing about some issue in the past, so
the past tense of verbs will be your usual recourse.
Just as you would wish to 'speak well' in a job interview, you should aspire to 'write well' in a school
exam. Minimum requirements call for correct grammar and spelling. A good essay will have logical and
coherent expression. While an instructor may indulge spelling errors, little mercy can be shown to
grammatical errors, most of which are doubtless due to carelessness or lack of proofreading.
(b) Organization: Essays, like any story you might relate, should have a beginning, a middle, and an ending
and, needless to say, in that order. History is about facts, explanation, and interpretation set in some
historical time-frame, so the 'history essay' will normally require consideration of all of these in well
defined, separate sections and paragraphs. As indicated above, be guided by the 4W's. But more than
anything, be guided by the question, avoiding any tendency to ramble off into irrelevant patches. Answer
each part of the question in corresponding order without confusing chronology or "putting the cart
before the horse."
If you grasp the notion of the topic sentence you will do good work. This sentence is the linchpin around
which a paragraph is framed. It can stand on its own and convey the information or thought around
which the supporting statements in the paragraph revolve, whether that sentence starts the paragraph (as
is usual) or appears elsewhere in it. You should have at least as many paragraphs as the separate themes
you will be introducing to answer the question.
(c) Factual Information: As far as possible, offer the reader enough historical information to enable him or
her to understand what you are writing about. A good idea in this regard is to presume ignorance on the
part of the reader (Have you noticed that almost any news article in a newspaper rarely if ever has you
scratching your head to divine the story's background). Thus, when you mention someone's name for the
first time, tell the reader who he is: not "Metternich said . . . ." but "Metternich, the Austrian statesman,
said . . . ." ; not "The Factory Act of 1833 . . ." but "The English Factory Act of 1833. . ." In other words,
a question about an individual's accomplishments, for example, should start by identifying the person
clearly by nationality, status, office and/or abilities before going on to describe his or her involvement in
the events suggested by the question. Likewise, a question dealing primarily with an historical event--the
origins of a war, for example--should pay close attention to time and geography as well as to the
developments (national and international) and personalities that shaped it.
(d) Analysis & Interpretation: This is perhaps the toughest task; laying out the intentions and purposes
behind action and events. You probably will not have read sufficient history at this stage of your studies
to offer analytical comments of your own, so you will have to extrude these from the assigned reading
and the lectures. You will find that there is usually more than a single reason or purpose behind events or
the motivation of the actors in them and your instructor will guide you through that minefield. The
course of history is not as clear-cut as the working out of a geometrical theorem. This is not to say,
however, that there is not general agreement (by historians, that is) about much of what you will read
about in an introductory history class. And, besides, the more controversial opinions are generally
reserved for discussion in later elective courses.
(e) Conclusion: So your essay has related three of the 4W's. Now go for the last one and explain the results
or consequences, as relevant, of whatever event or circumstance you have described. Only then will the
entire essay have the structure and coherence that make for an effective answer. And try to find time to
reread (proofread) your work before you hand it in. Don't rush to leave the exam with more than 15
minutes to spare. The extra time can always be well spent in ensuring that the finished product is in the
shape you wish it to be--as free as possible of careless errors or illogical thinking.
DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN ESSAY EXAMINATIONS
Compare: Examine qualities, or characteristics, to discover resemblances. "Compare" is usually stated as
"compare with": you are to emphasize similarities, although differences may be mentioned.
Contrast: Stress dissimilarities, differences, or unlikeness of things, qualities, events, or problems.
Criticize: Express your judgement or correctness or merit. Discuss the limitations and good points or
contributions of the plan or work in question.
Define: Definitions call for concise, clear, authoritative meanings. Details are not required but limitations of
the definition should be briefly cited. You must keep in mind the class to which a thing belongs and whatever
differentiates the particular object from all others in the class.
Describe: In a descriptive answer you should recount, characterize, sketch or relate in narrative form.
Diagram: For a question which specifies a diagram you should present a drawing, chart, plan, or graphic
representation in your answer. Generally the student is also expected to label the diagram and in some cases
to add a brief explanation or description.
Discuss: The term discuss, which appears often in essay questions, directs you to examine, analyze carefully,
and present considerations pro and con regarding the problems or items involved. This type of question calls
for a complete and entailed answer.
Enumerate: The word enumerate specifies a list or outline form of reply. In such questions you should
recount, one by one, in concise form, the points required.
Evaluate: In an evaluation question you are expected to present a careful appraisal of the problem stressing
both advantages and limitations. Evaluation implies authoritative and, to a lesser degree, personal appraisal of
both contributions and limitations.
Explain: In explanatory answers it is imperative that you clarify, elucidate, and interpret the material you
present. In such an answer it is best to state the "how or why," reconcile any differences in opinion or
experimental results, and, where possible, state causes. The aim is to make plain the conditions which give
rise to whatever you are examining.
Illustrate: A question which asks you to illustrate usually required you to explain or clarify your answer to the
problem by presenting a figure, picture, diagram, or concrete example.
Interpret: An interpretation question is similar to one requiring explanation. You are expected to translate,
exemplify, solve, or comment upon the subject and usually to give your judgment or reaction to the problem.
Justify: When you are instructed to justify your answer you must prove or show grounds for decisions. In
such an answer, evidence should be presented in convincing form.
List: Listing is similar to enumeration. You are expected in such questions to present an itemized series or
tabulation. Such answers should always be given in concise form.
Outline: An outline answer is organized description. You should give main points and essential
supplementary materials, omitting minor details, and present the information in a systematic arrangement or
classification.
Prove: A question which requires proof is one which demands confirmation or verification. In such
discussions you should establish something with certainty by evaluating and citing experimental evidence or
by logical reasoning.
Relate: In a question which asks you to show the relationship or to relate, your answer should emphasize
connections and associations in descriptive form.
Review: A review specifies a critical examination. You should analyze and comment briefly in organized
sequence upon the major points of the problem.
State: In questions that direct you to specify, give, state, or present you are called upon to express the high
points in brief, clear narrative form. Details and usually illustrations or examples, may be omitted.
Summarize: When you are asked to summarize or present a summarization, you should give in condensed
form the main points or facts. All details, illustrations and elaboration are to be omitted.
Trace: When a question asks you to trace a course of events, you are to give a description of progress,
historical sequence, or development from the point of origin. Such narratives may call for probing or for
deduction.
Heed the 10 Commandments:
I.
Thou shalt begin with an outline that buildeth thy entire paper around thy central ideas.
II.
Thou shalt avoid self-conscious discussion of thy intended purposes, thy strategy, thy sources, and thy research
methodology.
III.
Thou mayest covet other writers' ideas but thou shalt not steal them.
IV.
Thou shalt strive for clarity above cuteness; thou shalt not use jargon when common language will serve, nor a
large word when a small one will serve, nor a foreign term when an English one will serve, nor an abstract term
where a vivid one is possible.
V.
Remember thy paragraph to keep it a significant unity; thou shalt not fragment thy discussion into one short
paragraph after another, and neither shalt thou write a paragraph that fails to develop a topical idea.
VI.
Thou shalt write as if thy reader is intelligent--but totally uninformed on any particular subject: hence, thou
shalt identify all persons, organizations, etc., and shalt in every way try to make thy paper a self-sufficient unit.
VII.
Thou shalt use quotations sparingly and judiciously, only for color and clarity; if thou must quote, quotations
should not break the flow of thine own language and logic, and thy text should make clear whom thou art
quoting.
VIII.
Thou shalt not relegate essential information to thy footnotes.
IX.
Thou shalt write consistently in past tense, and in other ways keep thy reader firmly anchored in time.
X.
Thou shalt not use passive voice.
Copyright © 1996 by Theron F. Schlabach, with apologies to the original author.