Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
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Ore Geology Reviews
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Genesis of two different types of gold mineralization in the Linglong gold
field, China: Constrains from geology, fluid inclusions and stable isotope
Bo-Jie Wen a, Hong-Rui Fan a,⁎, M. Santosh b, Fang-Fang Hu a, Franco Pirajno c, Kui-Feng Yang a
a
b
c
Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences Beijing, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China
Centre for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 21 December 2013
Received in revised form 26 March 2014
Accepted 26 March 2014
Available online 13 April 2014
Keywords:
Fluid inclusion
Water–rock interaction
Phase separation
Dongfeng gold deposit
Linglong gold deposit
Northwest Jiaodong
Eastern China
a b s t r a c t
The Dongfeng and Linglong gold deposits are located in the northwest Jiaodong Peninsula, North China Craton.
The deposits are mainly hosted in the Mesozoic granitoids and structurally controlled by the Zhaoyuan–Pingdu
fault zone. Gold mineralization at Dongfeng occurs as disseminated ores and sulfide stockworks, typically
enveloped by broad alteration selvages. In contrast, mineralization at Linglong is characterized by massive
auriferous quartz veins with narrow alteration halos. Three stages of mineralization were identified in both
deposits, with the early stage represented by quartz ± pyrite, the middle stage by gold + quartz + pyrite or
gold + quartz + base metal sulfides, and the late stage by quartz + carbonate ± pyrite, respectively. Four
types of fluid inclusions were distinguished based on petrography, microthermometry, and laser Raman
spectroscopy, including (1) pure CO2 fluid inclusions (type I), (2) H2O–CO2–NaCl fluid inclusions (type II),
(3) H2O–NaCl fluid inclusions (type III), and (4) daughter mineral-bearing or multiphase fluid inclusions (type IV).
In the Dongfeng gold deposit, the early- and middle-stage quartz mainly contains primary type II fluid inclusions
that completely homogenized at temperatures of 276–341 °C with salinities of 2.8–11.7 wt.% NaCl equivalent,
and temperatures of 248–310 °C with salinities of 3.3–10.8 wt.% NaCl equivalent, respectively. A few primary
type I fluid inclusions could be observed in the early-stage quartz. In contrast, the late-stage quartz contains
only the type III fluid inclusions with homogenization temperatures of 117–219 °C, and salinities of
0.5–8.5 wt.% NaCl equivalent. The estimated pressures for the middle-stage fluids are 226–338 MPa, suggesting
that gold mineralization mainly occurred at paleodepths of deeper than 8.4–12.5 km. The mineralization resulted
from extensive water–rock interaction between the H2O–CO2–NaCl fluids and wallrocks in the first-order fault.
In the Linglong gold deposit, the early-stage quartz mainly contains primary type II fluid inclusions and a few type
I fluid inclusions, of which type II fluid inclusions have salinities of 3.3–7.5 wt.% NaCl equivalent and homogenization temperatures of 271–374 °C. The middle-stage quartz mainly contains all four types of fluid inclusions,
among which the type II fluid inclusions yield homogenization temperatures of 251–287 °C and salinities of
5.5–10.3 wt.% NaCl equivalent, while the type III fluid inclusions have homogenization temperatures of
244–291 °C and salinities of 4.1–13.3 wt.% NaCl equivalent. Fluid inclusions in the late-stage quartz are type III
fluid inclusions with low salinities of 0.3–8.2 wt.% NaCl equivalent and low homogenization temperatures of
103–215 °C. The trapping pressure estimated for the middle-stage fluids is 228–326 MPa, suggesting that the
gold mineralization mainly occurred at paleodepths of about 8.4–12.1 km. Precipitation of gold is possibly a consequence of phase separation or boiling of the H2O–CO2–NaCl fluids in response to pressure and temperature
fluctuations in the open space of the secondary faults.
The δ34S values of pyrite are similar for the Dongfeng and Linglong deposits and show a range of 5.8 to 7.0‰ and
5.9 to 7.4‰, respectively. Oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopic analyses for quartz yielded the following results:
δ18O = −3.8 to +6.4‰ and δD = −90.5 to −82.7‰ for the Dongfeng deposit, and δ18O = 0.0 to +8.9‰ and
δD = −77.4 to −63.7‰ for the Linglong deposit. Stable isotope data show that the ore-forming fluids of the
two gold deposits are of magmatic origin, with gradual incorporation of shallower meteoric water during/after
mineralization.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 82998218; fax: +86 10 62010846.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H.-R. Fan).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.03.018
0169-1368/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
China is the largest gold-producer in the world. Its gold production is
increasing rapidly and had reached to 428.163 metric tons in 2013
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B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
(China Gold Association, http://www.cngold.org.cn/newsinfo.aspx?
ID=996). The Jiaodong gold province located in the Jiaodong Peninsula
of eastern China (Fig. 1) is the most important gold-producing district
and is the host for several world-class gold deposits (N 100 t gold) in
the country (Fan et al., 2003; Hu et al., 2013; Qiu et al., 2002; Zhou
and Lü, 2000). The region occupies less than 0.2% of China's land area,
but yields about a quarter of the country's gold production. Gold
deposits in the Peninsula are mainly distributed along three gold belts
from west to east, i.e., the Zhaoyuan–Laizhou, Penglai–Qixia and
Muping–Rushan belts (Fan et al., 2003; Hu et al., 2006). These gold
deposits are controlled by NE- or NNE-trending faults and hosted in
the Precambrian high-grade metamorphic basement rocks as well as
the Mesozoic granitoids. They were divided into two types according
to ore occurrence, referred to as “Linglong-type” and “Jiaojia-type”
(Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014; Qiu et al., 1988). The Linglong-type lode
gold mineralization is characterized by massive auriferous quartz
veins with narrow alteration halos and usually occurs in subsidiary
second- or third-order faults. The Jiaojia-type disseminated and
stockwork gold mineralization is usually surrounded by broad alteration zones and generally develops along major first-order regional
faults. The lode gold deposits usually have smaller reserves and higher
grades, whereas the disseminated and stockwork gold deposits have
larger reserves and lower grades.
The Zhaoyuan–Laizhou gold belt, located in the northwest Jiaodong,
shows the highest concentration of gold deposits, with over 80% of the
Jiaodong gold concentrated within an area of ~ 3500 km2 (Zhou and
Lü, 2000). The Linglong gold field in this belt is the typical example of
“Linglong-type” lode gold mineralization, which together with some
other deposits such as the Taishang gold deposit, account for an overall
gold reserve of more than 1000 metric tons. Recently, a giant and new
“Jiaojia-type” gold mineralization (Dongfeng gold deposit) was discovered. It has been confirmed that the gold reserve at Dongfeng is
158.475 metric tons, with average grade of 2.75 × 10− 6 (Shandong
Gold Group Co., Ltd, unpublished data). The annual gold production in
the Dongfeng and Linglong deposits has climbed to ~3.6 metric tons in
2013 (Shandong Gold Group Co., Ltd, personal communication).
The Jiaodong gold province hosts dozens of gold deposits. Genetic
differences between the Linglong-type deposits and the Jiaojia-type
deposits have not been investigated, though most of them have been
extensively described. This paper attempts to evaluate the contrast between the Dongfeng and Linglong gold mineralization in the Linglong
gold field from field observations, ore geology, fluid inclusion and stable
isotope analysis in order to reveal the nature and evolution of the oreforming fluid system, and to probe the ore genesis in both types of
deposits.
2. Regional geology
The Jiaodong gold province is located along the southeastern margin
of the North China Craton (NCC) and at the western margin of the Pacific
Plate. It is bounded by the NE- to NNE-trending Tan–Lu fault zone to the
west and by the Su–Lu ultrahigh pressure metamorphic belt to the
south (Fig. 1). Exposed rocks in the area comprise metamorphosed
Precambrian basement sequences and a series of Mesozoic intrusive
and volcanic rocks (Zhou and Lü, 2000). The Precambrian sequences include the Archean Jiaodong Group and the Proterozoic Jingshan and
Fenzishan Groups (Guo et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2012). These groups
consist of mafic to felsic volcanic and sedimentary rocks metamorphosed to amphibolite and granulite facies. The Mesozoic volcanic
rocks, namely Qingshan Formation, are mainly distributed in the Jiaolai
Basin, and were formed at 108–110 Ma (Qiu et al., 2001a). The Qingshan
Formation comprises two units, with the lower assemblage composed
of trachybasalt, latite, and trachyte, overlain by an upper assemblage
dominated by rhyolite flows and pyroclastic rocks (Li et al., 2006; Qiu
et al., 2001a).
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Jiaodong Peninsula showing location of the major gold deposits (modified after Fan et al., 2003). The size of the symbols of the gold deposits
indicates the gold reserves: large symbol means Au N 50 t, small symbol means Au b 50 t. The Dongfeng and Linglong deposits occur at the northwestern part of the gold province.
B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
Mesozoic granitoid rocks are widespread in the Jiaodong gold province. These rocks can be subdivided into three major groups according
to their formation ages: late Triassic granitoids, late Jurassic granitoids,
and early Cretaceous granitoids. The late Triassic granitoids such as
the Jiazishan, Chashan and Xingjia plutons mainly intruded in the
southeastern fringe of Jiaodong from 225 to 205 Ma (zircon U–Pb
method; Chen et al., 2003; Guo et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2005). These granitic rocks, which show typical mantle-derived features (Gao et al.,
2004; Guo et al., 2005), were generated following the collision between
the NCC and the Yangtze Craton during the middle-late Triassic in a
post-collisional setting (Tan et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2006; Yang et al.,
2007). These intrusions are dominated by quartz syenite, pyroxene syenite and alkaline gabbro (Tan et al., 2012). The late Jurassic granitoids,
dated from 160 to 150 Ma by single zircon U–Pb method (Guo et al.,
2005; Miao et al., 1997; Wang et al., 1998; Yang et al., 2012), are represented by the Linglong and Luanjiahe suites in the western Jiaodong,
and the Kunyushan, Queshan, Wendeng, and Duogushan suites in the
eastern Jiaodong. They consist of medium-grained metaluminous to
slightly peraluminous biotite granite, granodiorite and monzonite
(Tan et al., 2012), and were likely derived from the partial melting of a
thickened Archean lower crust (Yang et al., 2012). The early Cretaceous
granitoids, emplaced from 130 to 105 Ma (zircon U–Pb method; Miao
et al., 1997; Guo et al., 2005; Zhang and Zhang, 2007; Goss et al.,
2010; Yang et al., 2012), include Guojialing, Aishan, Nantianmen, and
Beifengding suites in the western Jiaodong, and Sanfoshan, Weideshan,
Haiyang, Yuangezhuang, Yashan, and Laoshan suites in the eastern
Jiaodong. They consist of granodiorite, porphyritic granite, and
monzonitic granite, and show a mixed source of crustal and mantle
components (Guo et al., 2013; Liu et al., 1997; Song and Yan, 2000;
Yang et al., 2012, 2013; Zhang et al., 2006).
Mafic to felsic dikes are common within the gold districts. They consist of dolerite, lamprophyre, diorite (porphyry), granodiorite, granite
(porphyry) and syenite, thus spanning the range from medium/high-K
calc-alkaline to shoshonitic rocks (Cai et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2004;
Tan et al., 2007, 2012; Yang et al., 2004). These rocks were mostly
emplaced at ca. 122–114 Ma and a few at 110–102 Ma (Qiu et al.,
2001b; Tan et al., 2008; Yang and Zhou, 2001; Zhang et al., 2002; Zhu
and Zhang, 1998). The former has been correlated to magma genesis
during Cretaceous lithospheric thinning and asthenospheric upwelling
(Cai et al., 2013; Tan et al., 2008).
Two main stages of deformation have been identified in Jiaodong
during the late Mesozoic. The first stage involved northwest–southeast
oblique compression, presumably related to the subduction of the
Izanagi–Pacific plate, which produced prominent NNE- to NE-trending
brittle–ductile shear zones with sinistral oblique reverse movements.
This was followed by reactivation with development of brittle
structures and half-graben basins. These structures were accompanied
by hydrothermal alteration and gold mineralization (Fan et al., 2003;
Hu et al., 1998; Li et al., 2013; Wang et al., 1998; Zhai et al., 2002).
Northwest Jiaodong, where the Zhaoyuan–Laizhou gold belt is located, is a key part of the Jiaodong gold province (Fig. 1). Exposed rocks in
this area include metamorphosed Precambrian sequences and Mesozoic
intrusions (Wang et al., 1998; Zhou and Lü, 2000). The Precambrian sequence is mainly composed of basement rocks of the Late Archean
Jiaodong Group with an age range of 2707–2726 Ma (Jahn et al.,
2008). Plutonic rocks have been traditionally divided into two suites,
the Linglong suite and the Guojialing suite. The former suite consists
of medium-grained metaluminous to slightly peraluminous biotite
granites, and the later one is composed of porphyritic hornblende–
biotite granodiorites (Deng et al., 2011; Fan et al., 2003; Yang and
Zhou, 2001). The emplacement ages of the two suites of granitoids are
160–156 Ma and 130–126 Ma, respectively (Miao et al., 1997; Qiu
et al., 2002; Wang et al., 1998; Yang et al., 2012, 2014).
Gold deposits of the Northwest Jiaodong are mainly hosted in the
Mesozoic granitoids or along the contacts between the granitoids and
metamorphic rocks. They are usually controlled by the NE- and NNE-
645
trending faults, which cut through the Mesozoic granitoids. There are
three ore-controlling fault zones, including the Sanshandao–Cangshang,
Jiaojia–Xincheng, and Zhaoyuan–Pingdu fault zones from west to east.
More than half of the gold reserves in this area are controlled by the
Zhaoyuan–Pingdu fault zone (Deng et al., 2011). The Linglong-type
lode gold mineralization and the Jiaojia-type disseminated and
stockwork gold mineralization show coexistence in the Northwest
Jiaodong. Sericite/muscovite 40Ar/39Ar and single grain pyrite Rb–Sr
dating have been carried out to determine the ages of the gold deposits
in this area, which are between 123 and 114 Ma (Li et al., 2003, 2008;
Yang and Zhou, 2001; Zhang et al., 2003).
The Linglong gold field is situated to the east of the Zhaoyuan–
Laizhou gold belt and in the northern tip of the Zhaoyuan–Pingdu
fault zone. Mineralization in this field is dominated by auriferous quartz
veins, with minor amount of disseminated sulfide replacements, and/or
stockworks. The gold field is bordered to the southeast by the Potouqing
fault, the northern segment of the Zhaoyuan–Pingdu fault (Fig. 2),
which is the major first-order structure controlling the Jiaojia-type mineralization in this gold field (Qiu et al., 2002). The Potouqing fault trends
N60–70°E and dips S30–40°E. Granitic cataclasite, tectonic breccias and
a small amount of mylonite occur around the fault. In addition, hydrothermal alteration and mineralization along the fault are well developed. The Linglong fault, cutting through the central part of the
Linglong gold field, underwent multistage complex tectonic movements
since its formation. The fault trends N25–30°E, and dips N65–85°W and
SE. Granitic cataclasite, hydrothermal alteration and very weak mineralization occur along the fault. Second-order faults in the gold field are
generally 100–5800 m in strike length and 1–10 m in width. These faults
consistently trend NNE to NEE, dip 50–75°NW and SE, and are the major
structures controlling the occurrence of felsic to mafic dikes, and
auriferous Linglong-type quartz veins (Qiu et al., 2002). Granitoids are
well developed in the field, including Linglong gneissic biotite granite
and Luanjiahe medium-coarse grained granite with local exposures of
the Guojialing granodiorite. The gold deposits are usually hosted within
the Linglong granite, but deep within the Jiuqu area, the ores occur in
both the Linglong granite and the Guojialing porphyritic granodiorite
(Chen et al., 1993, 2004; Li et al., 2004; Lu et al., 1999; Mao et al.,
2005; Yang et al., 2013). Intermediate and mafic dykes, consisting of
diorite, dioritic porphyrite, and lamprophyre, are widely developed
within the gold field. They are spatially associated with the gold
mineralization.
3. Ore geology
3.1. Geology of the Dongfeng gold deposit
The Dongfeng gold deposit is situated in the northwestern segment
of the Jiaodong gold province, about 20 km north of Zhaoyuan City, and
forms part of the Linglong gold field (Figs. 2 and 3). Seven gold ore bodies have been identified in the Dongfeng gold deposit, which are jointly
controlled by the NNE-trending Potouqing fault and the NE-trending
Zhaoyuan–Pingdu fault. Ore bodies occur in the footwall of the main
fault plane. 1711 and 171sub-1 are the major ore bodies. As the largest
ore body, 1711 is layer-like and occurs at depths of 120 to 1700 m. The
ore body generally strikes NE 60° and dips SE 36.5° to 43.5°, with a
length of 2500 m and thicknesses of 0.27 to 26.06 m. Au grades in the
1711 ore body range from 1.00 to 26.34 g/t, with an average value of
2.71 g/t. 171sub-1 ore body is located under 1711 ore body. Their occurrences are similar. 171sub-1 ore body is also layer-like, with depths of
370 to 1270 m and thicknesses of 0.50 to 18.46 m. Its Au grades range
from 1.00 to 17.35 g/t, with an average value of 2.97 g/t. Gold ore bodies,
hosted in the late Jurassic granites, occur in large and thick fracture
alteration zones. Phyllic granite and phyllic cataclasite constitute the
roof and floor of the ore bodies. Outside the alteration zone, the hanging
wall is composed of the Luanjiahe medium-coarse grained monzonite
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B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
Fig. 2. Simplified regional geological map of the Linglong gold field.
granite, whereas the Linglong gneissic medium-fine grained biotite
granite constitutes the footwall.
Mineralization appears associated with pyrite–sericite–silica altered
rocks or fine pyrite veins (Figs. 4C and 5B). The major ore minerals include native gold, electrum, and pyrite, whereas the subordinates are
chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. The main gangue minerals consist
of quartz, plagioclase and sericite, with minor amounts of chlorite and
calcite (Fig. 6). Native gold grains occur mainly in fissures of pyrite
and quartz or as inclusions in pyrite crystals and gangue minerals
(Fig. 5F).
3.2. Geology of the Linglong gold deposit
The Linglong gold deposit is located in the western part of the northern tip of the Zhaoyuan–Pingdu fault zone, west of the Dongfeng gold
deposit (Figs. 2 and 3). The ore bodies are mainly hosted by the Linglong
granite, but in the Jiuqu area, these are hosted in both the Linglong granite and the Guojialing porphyritic granodiorites (Chen et al., 1993, 2004;
Li et al., 2004; Lu et al., 1999; Yang et al., 2013, 2014; Zhang, 2002). Intermediate and mafic dykes are widely developed within the gold deposit. The mineralization occurs typically in the form of auriferous
quartz veins with lesser disseminated sulfide replacements and/or
stockworks. The Linglong gold deposit is structurally controlled by
both the NEE- to NNE-trending Potouqing fault zone and the NNEtrending Linglong fault zone. The two major fault zones and their
branches control hundreds of auriferous quartz veins, which display a
general NNE–NE trend, with local abrupt changes in the attitude of the
fractures (Yang et al., 2014).
The Linglong gold deposit occurs in the Dongshan and Xishan mining areas. More than two hundreds veins are exposed at the surface,
Fig. 3. Geological profile crossing the ore bodies of the Dongfeng and Linglong deposits.
B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
647
Fig. 4. Photographs showing the ore geology of the Dongfeng and Linglong gold deposits. (A) K-feldspathization and silicification. (B) Early-stage quartz vein (Q1) in associated with
K-feldspathization. (C) Disseminated and stockwork mineralization, i.e., pyrite + sericite + silica alteration rocks containing the middle-stage quartz (Q2). (D) Lode mineralization, containing the middle-stage quartz (Q2), surrounded by silicification and sericitization. (E) Middle-stage quartz-sulfide vein (Q2) in the K-feldspathization and sericitization. (F) Late-stage
quartz-carbonate vein (Q3).
among which approximately 30 veins are economically viable, such as
Veins 9, 10, 36, 47, 51, 55, 56, 58, 98, 108, and 175. Overall, these veins
strike NE 35° to 70° and dip NW. However, near the Potouqing fault,
the veins have SE dips at shallow levels and NW at depth. The major
veins run for a few thousands of meters, with the longest reaching
more than 5500 m. These veins vary in width from a few meters to
tens of meters.
Auriferous quartz veins (Figs. 4D, E and 5A) usually have variable
grades from a few grams to a dozen or so per ton, with the highest
reaching up to hundreds of grams per ton. Native gold, electrum and pyrite are the major ore minerals with minor of chalcopyrite, galena, and
sphalerite (Fig. 5C and D). Minor magnetite, hematite, pyrrhotite, and
arsenopyrite are found locally. The main gangue minerals comprise
quartz, sericite, feldspar, calcite, and chlorite (Figs. 5H and 6). Native
gold grains occur mainly in fissures of pyrite and quartz or as inclusions
in pyrite crystals and gangue minerals, similar to that in the Dongfeng
gold deposit (Fig. 5E and G).
3.3. Hydrothermal alteration and mineralizing stages
Hydrothermal alteration is widespread, including potassic, sericitic,
pyritic, silicic alterations as well as chloritization and carbonatization
(Fig. 4A–F). These alterations are characterized by distinct zonings
from ore bodies to wallrocks in the two gold deposits as: pyrite +
sericite + silica → silica + sericite → K-feldspar → fresh granite.
Although the two gold deposits have similar alteration zonings, intensity of the hydrothermal alteration at the Linglong deposit is much weaker than that at the Dongfeng deposit. Locally in the Linglong deposit, the
width of the alteration zone is less than 1 m or the alteration zone is
even lacking in some cases. In contrast, alteration zones are well developed at the Dongfeng deposit with widths varying from several meters
to tens of meters, sometimes up to a few hundreds of meters.
The ore-forming stages are also similar between the Dongfeng and
Linglong gold deposits. Based on mineral paragenesis and crosscutting
relationships, four hydrothermal stages can be distinguished. Stage 1
is characterized by the assemblage of quartz ± pyrite (Fig. 4B). It is defined by milky white quartz veins or pyrite-quartz veins containing few
coarse euhedral and subhedral pyrite. K-feldspathization, silicification
and sericitization is often developed. In this stage, gold is scarcely
precipitated. Stage 2 is characterized by the assemblage of gold +
quartz + pyrite (Fig. 4D). Generally, this stage is displayed by whitegray quartz vein networks containing abundant pyrite, with minor
chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, in the lode gold mineralization. Correspondingly, disseminated sulfides in the pyrite + sericite + silica alteration rocks are the most important form of ores. In both cases,
pyrite occurs as coarse euhedral cubes and subhedral aggregates. The
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B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
Fig. 5. Photomicrographs under reflected light showing important mineral assemblages at Dongfeng and Linglong deposits. (A) Lode ore. (B) Disseminated and stockwork ore. (C) Isolated
electrum, native gold and pyrite in quartz. (D) Coexistence of quartz, pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite. (E) Fractures in early precipitated pyrite that are filled with gold. (F) Native
gold inclusion in pyrite and quartz. (G) Native gold in pyrite and its fractures. (H) Directional distribution of quartz in pyrite. Qz: quartz, Au: native gold, Py: pyrite, Gn: galena, Sph:
sphalerite, Cp: chalcopyrite, El: electrum.
structurally-controlled deformation and brecciation suggest deuteric
mechanical stress. Stage 3 is characterized by the assemblage of
gold + quartz + base metal sulfide (Fig. 4E). In this stage, large
amounts of sulfide minerals precipitated, including pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and minor pyrrhotite. Quartz is usually dark-gray. Pyrite occurs as fine-grained subhedral and anhedral aggregates. The other
sulfide minerals show fine-grained anhedral aggregates. Stage 4 is characterized by the assemblage of quartz + carbonate ±pyrite (Fig. 4F).
White quartz and milky carbonate often occur together. The carbonates
consist of calcite and minor ankerite. Pyrite occurs sporadically in minor
amount. There is almost no gold mineralization in this stage. In
summary, stage 1 is the early stage of mineralization, stages 2 and 3 constitute the middle stage when the major enrichment of gold occurred
and the practically barren stage 4 marks the late stage of mineralization
(Fig. 6).
4. Fluid inclusions
4.1. Sample descriptions and analytical methods
Samples for fluid inclusion study were collected from the two
deposits. Twenty two (early, 9; middle, 8; late, 5) and twenty (early,
B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
649
Fig. 6. Paragenetic sequences of the Dongfeng and Linglong gold deposits.
6; middle, 10; late, 4) doubly polished thin sections (about
0.20–0.30 mm thick) were prepared from quartz samples associated
with different stages in the Dongfeng and Linglong deposits, respectively. Fluid inclusion petrography involved careful observation of the
shapes, characteristics of spatial distribution, genetic and composition
types, and vapor/liquid ratios. Samples with abundant and representative fluid inclusions were selected for microthermometric measurements and laser Raman spectroscopy analyses.
Microthermometric measurements on the fluid inclusions were
carried out using a Linkam THMS 600 programmable heating–freezing
stage combined with a Zeiss microscope at the Institute of Geology
and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IGGCAS). The stage
was calibrated using synthetic fluid inclusions supplied by FLUID INC
through calibration against the triple-point of pure CO2 (− 56.6 °C),
the freezing point of water (0.0 °C) and the critical point of water
(374.1 °C). Most measurements were carried out at a heating rate of
0.2 to 0.4 °C/min. Carbonic phase melting (Tm-CO2) and clathrate melting
(Tm-clath) were determined by temperature cycling (Diamond, 2001;
Fan et al., 2003; Roedder, 1984). 0.1–0.2 °C/min, the heating rate for
measurements, was adopted near phase transformations. The precision
of measurements was ±0.2 °C at temperatures below 30 °C and ±2 °C
at temperatures above 30 °C.
Five types of temperature observations were made in this study including the melting temperature of CO2 (Tm-CO2), final melting temperatures of ice (Tm-ice), final melting temperatures of clathrate (Tm-clath),
the homogenization temperatures of the CO2 (Th-CO2) and the total homogenization temperatures (Th-tot). Using Tm-ice and Tm-clath, salinities
of the H2O–NaCl (Bodnar, 1993) and H2O–CO2–NaCl (Collins, 1979)
fluid systems can be calculated. The density of the CO2 can be well restricted through Th-CO2. Th-tot can reflect the temperature of different
stages of ore-forming fluid to some extent. Mole fractions of compositions, density of carbonic liquid and bulk fluid, and bulk molar volume
of fluid inclusions were calculated by the Flincor computer software
(Brown and Lamb, 1989).
Laser Raman spectroscopic analysis of the fluid inclusions was carried out on the LabRam HR800 Raman microspectrometer (produced
by French HORIBA Scientific) at the IGGCAS. An argon ion laser with a
wavelength of 532 nm and a source power of 44 mW was used in detection. The spectral range falls between 100 and 4000 cm−1 for the analysis of CO2, N2, CH4, and so on in the vapor phase.
4.2. Petrography and types of fluid inclusions
Four different compositional types of fluid inclusions are distinguished: pure CO2 (type I), H2O–CO2–NaCl (type II), H2O–NaCl (type
III), and daughter mineral-bearing or multiphase (type IV) fluid inclusions, based on the combination of petrography at room temperature,
phase transitions observed during heating and cooling, and laser
Raman spectroscopy (Fig. 7).
4.2.1. Type I inclusions
Type I inclusions consist of almost pure carbonic fluid lacking any
visible H2O at room temperatures, including monophase CO2 (vapor
or liquid), and two-phase CO2 (VCO2 + LCO2) (Fig. 7A and B). They are
usually dark with oval to negative crystal morphologies. These inclusions, ranging from 6 to 13 μm in size, have been mostly found
coexisting with type II inclusions in the early-stage quartz of the two deposits, and with other three types of inclusions in the middle-stage
quartz of the Linglong deposit. The typically isolated and scattered
nature of these inclusions indicates that they are primary inclusions.
4.2.2. Type II inclusions
Type II inclusions are composed of H2O and CO2 phases with
20–70 vol.% carbonic phase (Fig. 7C, D and H). They can be further
divided into two subtypes, containing two-phase (VCO2 + LH2O) and
three-phase (VCO2 + LCO2 + LH2O) inclusions at room temperature with
varying sizes between 5 and 23 μm. As the predominant type of fluid inclusions, they are abundant in quartz formed in the early- and middlestages. They generally occur in isolation or in cluster. Sometimes they
appear as trails along healed fractures which do not cut across the
crystal boundaries of quartz. These features suggest that they are primary or pseudosecondary.
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B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
Fig. 7. Photomicrographs of typical fluid inclusions in the Dongfeng and Linglong deposits. (A) One phase type I fluid inclusion. (B) Two phases type I fluid inclusion. (C) Three phases type
II fluid inclusion. (D) Two phases type II fluid inclusion. (E) Type III fluid inclusion. (F) Type IV fluid inclusion. (G) Type III fluid inclusions on a cluster distribution. (H) Type II fluid inclusions on a cluster distribution. (I) Boiling fluid inclusions association. (J–K) A comparison of the characteristics of fluid inclusions from the Dongfeng gold deposit. (L–M) A comparison of
the characteristics of fluid inclusions from the Linglong gold deposit.
4.2.3. Type III inclusions
Type III inclusions are one-phase (LH2O) or two-phase (VH2O + LH2O)
liquid-rich aqueous inclusions (Fig. 7E and G). The two-phase inclusions
are more common with vapor volume occupying 2–40% of the total
cavity volume. These inclusions, varying in size from 5 to 14 μm, have
a variety of shapes ranging from irregular to elliptical and negative
shapes. They are commonly present in quartz of all stages, particularly
in the late-stage quartz crystals. In general, the primary type III inclusions occur as isolated singles or group in late-stage quartz. Secondary
type III inclusions cutting across the crystal boundaries of quartz can
be observed as arrays or trails along healed fractures in early- and
middle-stage quartz. It's noteworthy that primary type III inclusions
are also well developed in the middle-stage quartz of Linglong deposit.
Trace content of CO2 can still be identified in the vapor bubbles by laser
Raman spectroscopy (Fig. 9e), although no visible CO2 phase appears
during heating or cooling runs.
4.2.4. Type IV inclusions
Type IV inclusions are scarce and are usually composed of aqueous liquid, a vapor bubble, and a calcite crystal at room temperature
(Figs. 7F, 9g and h). They are irregular or circular in shape with
7–12 μm in size and are only observed in the middle-stage quartz
B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
crystals. They usually occur as isolated individuals coexisting with
type I, type II and type III inclusions (Fig. 7I).
4.3. Microthermometry and laser Raman spectroscopy
4.3.1. Dongfeng gold deposit
4.3.1.1. Early stage. Type II inclusions are dominant in the early-stage
quartz, coupled with some type I inclusions. For type II inclusions, the
melting temperatures of solid CO2 (Tm-CO2) range from − 56.9 °C to
− 56.6 °C, equal to or slightly lower than the triple point of pure CO2
(−56.6 °C), indicating that the gas phase is mainly composed of CO2.
The melting temperatures of clathrates (Tm-clath) were observed between 3.1 °C and 8.4 °C, corresponding to salinities between 2.8 and
11.7 wt.% NaCl equivalent (Fig. 8 and Table 1). The carbonic phase
(Th-CO2) was partially homogenized to liquid at temperatures ranging
from 25.6 °C to 30.9 °C. Total homogenization (Th-tot) of the carbonic
and aqueous phases (L + V to L, few L + V to V) was observed at temperatures ranging from 276 °C to 341 °C. However, some inclusions
with greater vapor/liquid ratios decrepitated between 310 °C and
330 °C prior to final homogenization. The calculated CO2 densities
range from 0.25 to 0.63 g/cm3 with XCO2 from 0.02 to 0.18 and bulk
densities from 0.57 to 0.97 g/cm3. For type I inclusions, final melting
to liquid was observed during heating, with Tm-CO2 ranging from
− 57.0 °C to − 56.6 °C. Partial homogenization (Th-CO2) of CO2 (L + V
to L) occurs between 28.9 °C and 30.9 °C, corresponding to densities
of 0.53 to 0.63 g/cm3.
651
of the CO2 clathrate (Tm-clath) in the presence of CO2 liquid occurs between 3.8 °C and 8.3 °C, corresponding to the fluid salinities of 3.3 to
10.8 wt.% NaCl equivalent. CO2 generally homogenized to the liquid
phase and Th-CO2 range from 13.6 °C to 30.9 °C. The densities of the
CO2 phase are calculated to be between 0.30 and 0.83 g/cm3 with XCO2
varying from 0.01 to 0.19. Densities of the bulk inclusions range from
0.76 to 1.05 g/cm3. Most of the type II fluid inclusions homogenized in
the range of 248 °C to 310 °C (L + V to L, few L + V to V or the critical
state) (Fig. 8 and Table 1), excepting some inclusions decrepitating at
temperatures from 253 °C to 254 °C before total homogenization.
4.3.1.3. Late stage. Type III aqueous inclusions from the late-stage quartz
yield final ice melting temperatures (Tm-ice) of −5.5 °C to −0.3 °C, corresponding to salinities varying from 0.5 to 8.5 wt.% NaCl equivalent.
The temperatures of homogenization to liquid phase are between
117 °C and 219 °C (Fig. 8 and Table 1). Densities of the bulk inclusions
range from 0.86 to 1.00 g/cm3.
4.3.1.4. Laser Raman spectroscopy. Laser Raman spectroscopy shows that
CO2 and H2O are the main volatiles in the measured fluid inclusions
from the early- and middle-stage quartz (Fig. 9a–c). No CH4, N2 or
other gas phases were detected in these fluid inclusions. This is in accordance with the microthermometric results that the melting temperatures of solid CO2 are near − 56.6 °C, the triple point of pure CO2. In
the late-stage quartz, fluid inclusions mainly consist of H2O, in the
absence of any other major volatile phase (Fig. 9f).
4.3.2. Linglong gold deposit
4.3.1.2. Middle stage. Type II fluid inclusions are the most abundant
inclusions in the middle-stage quartz. Tm-CO2 ranges from − 56.9 °C
to − 56.6 °C and is generally near the pure CO2 melting point
(−56.6 °C), indicating that the dominant composition is CO2. Melting
4.3.2.1. Early stage. Type II inclusions and a few type I inclusions exist in
the early-stage quartz. For type II inclusions, melting of the solid CO2
(Tm-CO2) occurred between −56.9 °C and −56.6 °C. These temperatures
Fig. 8. Histograms of homogenization temperatures (Th-tot). (A) Dongfeng gold deposit. (B) Linglong gold deposit.
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B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
Table 1
Microthermometric data of fluid inclusions at the Dongfeng and Linglong gold deposits.
Name
Stage
Type
N
Tm-CO2/°C
Tm-clath/°C
Th-CO2/°C
Dongfeng gold
deposit
Early
I
II
II
III
I
II
I
II
III
III
10
30
31
22
8
27
11
17
8
28
−57.0 to −56.6
−56.9 to −56.6
−56.9 to −56.6
3.1–8.4
3.8–8.3
28.9–30.9
25.6–30.9
13.6–30.9
Linglong gold
deposit
Middle
Late
Early
Middle
Late
−57.2 to −56.6
−56.9 to −56.6
−57.2 to −56.6
−58.9 to −56.6
5.9–8.3
4.1–7.1
Tm-ice/°C
Th-tot/°C
Salinity/wt.%
NaCl equiv.
−5.5 to −0.3
276–341
248–310
117–219
2.8–11.7
3.3–10.8
0.5–8.5
271–374
3.3–7.5
251–287
244–291
103–215
5.5–10.3
4.1–13.3
0.3–8.2
26.6–30.7
26.5–29.0
22.2–30.9
12.5–28.4
−9.4 to −2.5
−5.3 to −0.2
CO2 density
(g/cm3)
0.53–0.63
0.25–0.63
0.30–0.83
0.55–0.69
0.63–0.69
0.53–0.75
0.65–0.84
Bulk density
(g/cm3)
0.57–0.97
0.76–1.05
0.86–1.00
0.87–1.03
0.82–1.01
0.82–0.90
0.88–0.98
Note: N, numbers of measured fluid inclusion; Tm-CO2, final melting temperature of solid CO2; Tm-clath, final melting temperature of the clathrate phase; Th-CO2, temperature of CO2 (L + V)
to CO2 (L) or CO2 (V); Tm-ice, final melting temperature of water ice; Th-tot, temperature of total homogenization of the inclusions; wt.% NaCl equiv., weight percent NaCl equivalent.
are equal to or slightly lower than the melting temperature of pure solid
CO2 (−56.6 °C) and thus indicates that the gas phase consists predominantly of CO2. Melting of the CO2 clathrate (Tm-clath) was observed
between 5.9 °C and 8.3 °C, corresponding to the salinities ranging
from 3.3 to 7.5 wt.% NaCl equivalent. The homogenization of the CO2
(Th-CO2) into liquid occurred between 26.5 °C and 29.0 °C. Total homogenization (Th-tot), mostly into liquid phase, was recorded between
271 °C and 374 °C (Fig. 8 and Table 1). Decrepitation temperatures of
some inclusions with greater vapor/liquid ratios range from 250 °C
to 272 °C. CO2 densities from type II inclusions are from 0.63
to 0.69 g/cm3 with XCO2 from 0.01 to 0.16 and bulk densities from 0.87
to 1.03 g/cm3. For type I inclusions, Tm-CO2 ranges from − 57.2 °C
to −56.6 °C. The homogenization of the CO2 (Th-CO2) into liquid was observed between 26.6 °C and 30.7 °C, corresponding to densities of 0.55
to 0.69 g/cm3.
The temperatures of homogenization to the liquid phase are between
103 °C and 215 °C (Fig. 8 and Table 1). Densities of the bulk inclusions
range from 0.88 to 0.98 g/cm3.
4.3.2.4. Laser Raman spectroscopy. The data from laser Raman spectroscopy show that CO2 and H2O are the main volatiles in the measured
fluid inclusions from the early- and middle-stage quartz (Fig. 9a–c
and e). Minor quantity of CH4 was detected in some of the middlestage type II fluid inclusions (Fig. 9d). This is in accordance with the
microthermometric results that melting temperatures of solid CO2 in
some inclusions are below −56.6 °C. Daughter minerals are almost all
calcite in the type IV inclusions (Fig. 9g and h). In the late-stage quartz,
fluid inclusions mainly consist of H2O (Fig. 9f). Other gas phase was
barely found.
5. Stable isotopes studies
4.3.2.2. Middle stage. All the four types of fluid inclusions are developed
in the middle-stage quartz. For type I inclusions, final melting to liquid
was observed during heating, with Tm-CO2 ranging from − 57.2 °C to
−56.6 °C. Partial homogenization (Th-CO2) of CO2 (L + V to L) occurs between 22.2 °C and 30.9 °C, corresponding to densities of 0.53 to
0.75 g/cm3.
Tm-CO2 of type II fluid inclusions ranges from −58.9 °C to −56.6 °C
and is generally near or below the pure CO2 melting point (−56.6 °C),
indicating there are other gas components, such as CH4 and N2
(Roedder, 1984), in the gas phase. Melting of the CO2 clathrate (Tm-clath)
in the presence of CO2 liquid occurs between 4.1 °C and 7.1 °C, corresponding to the fluid salinities of 5.5 to 10.3 wt.% NaCl equivalent. CO2
generally homogenized to the liquid phase and Th-CO2 ranges from
12.5 °C to 28.4 °C. The densities of the CO2 phase are calculated to be
between 0.65 and 0.84 g/cm3 with XCO2 varying from 0.05 to 0.43.
Densities of the bulk inclusions range from 0.82 to 1.01 g/cm3. Most of
the type II fluid inclusions homogenized in the range of 251 °C to
287 °C (some L + V to L, others L + V to V or the critical state) (Fig. 8
and Table 1) with the exception of some inclusions decrepitating at
temperatures from 240 °C to 270 °C before total homogenization.
Type III aqueous inclusions from the middle-stage quartz yield final
ice melting temperatures (Tm-ice) of −9.4 °C to −2.5 °C, corresponding
to salinities varying from 4.1 to 13.3 wt.% NaCl equivalent. Densities of
the bulk inclusions range from 0.82 to 0.90 g/cm3. The temperatures
of homogenization to the liquid phase are between 244 °C and 291 °C
(Fig. 8 and Table 1).
Vapor bubbles of the type IV inclusions disappeared firstly during
heating, whereas the daughter minerals did not dissolve even if temperature was up to 500 °C.
4.3.2.3. Late stage. Type III aqueous inclusions from the late-stage quartz
yield final ice melting temperatures (Tm-ice) of −5.3 °C to −0.2 °C, corresponding to salinities varying from 0.3 to 8.2 wt.% NaCl equivalent.
Quartz and pyrite grains were handpicked from the 40–60 mesh
crushings under a binocular (purity N 99%). Analyses of hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur isotopic compositions were performed at the Analytical
Laboratory of the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology.
Hydrogen isotope analyses of the inclusion fluids were performed on
the ten quartz vein samples, which are from different ore-forming
stages of the two gold deposits. Water was released by heating the samples to approximately 500 °C in an induction furnace. Samples were first
degassed of labile volatiles by heating to 180–200 °C until the vacuum is
less than 10−1 Pa. Water was converted to hydrogen by passage over
heated zinc powder at 400 °C and the hydrogen was analyzed with a
MAT-253 mass spectrometer. Analyses of standard water samples
suggest a precision for δD of ±2‰.
Oxygen isotope analyses were performed on ten quartz vein samples, which are used for hydrogen isotope analyses. The pure minerals
were crushed into 200 mesh and the crushings reacted with BrF5 at
500–600 °C for 14 h, generating O2 which subsequently reacted with
graphite to produce CO2 at 700 °C with platinum catalyst. The CO2 was
then measured by MAT-253 mass spectrometer for oxygen isotope. Reproducibility for isotopically homogeneous pure quartz is about ±0.2‰.
Ten pyrite samples from ores of the two gold deposits were put to
use for sulfur isotope analyses. The pyrite grains were mixed with cuprous oxide and crushed into 200 mesh powder. SO2 was produced
through the reaction of pyrite and cuprous oxide at 980 °C under a vacuum pressure of 2 × 10−2 Pa. The SO2 was then measured by MAT-251
mass spectrometer for sulfur isotope. All the analytical uncertainties
were better than ±0.2‰.
The stable isotope data obtained in this and previous studies (Hou
et al., 2006) are shown in Table 2. δD of the inclusion fluids in quartz
from the Dongfeng gold deposit vary from − 90.5‰ to − 82.7‰, with
an average value of −86.6‰. δD of the inclusion fluids in quartz from
the Linglong gold deposit vary from − 77.4‰ to − 63.7‰, with an
B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
653
Fig. 9. Representative Raman spectra of vapor bubbles of fluid inclusions in quartz. (a) Two phase type I fluid inclusion. (b) Three phase type II fluid inclusion. (c) Two phase type II fluid
inclusion. (d) Spectrum for three phase type II fluid inclusion, showing a small amount of CH4. (e) Vapor bubble in type III fluid inclusion, containing trace content of CO2. (f) Type III fluid
inclusion, containing water only. (g–h) Type IV fluid inclusions with calcite as a daughter mineral.
average value of −69.1‰. Oxygen isotopic compositions of hydrothermal waters in equilibrium with quartz were calculated using an extrapolation of the fractionation formula from Clayton et al. (1972). The
calculations of the fractionation factors were made using the mean
value of the homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions from the
same ore-forming stage quartz samples. The calculated oxygen isotope
composition of the fluid from the Dongfeng gold deposit is characterized by δ18O of −3.8‰ to +6.4‰, with an average value of 0.0‰. Similarly, the fluid from the Linglong gold deposit is characterized by δ18O
of 0.0‰ to +8.9‰, with an average value of +4.9‰. In a plot of δD vs.
δ18O, ten quartz samples plot are adjacent to the primary magmatic
water field (Fig. 10). The δ34SV-CDT values of pyrite range from +5.8‰
to + 7.0‰ and from + 5.9‰ to + 7.4‰ in the Dongfeng and Linglong
gold deposits, respectively.
6. Discussion
6.1. Fluid evolution in the two gold deposits
Fluid inclusion studies and laser Raman spectroscopy suggest that
the ore-forming fluid in the two gold deposits have similar chemical
and physical properties. The early-stage quartz contains the type I and
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B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
Table 2
Stable isotope data (reported as per mil values) for minerals from the Linglong gold field.
Name
Sample
Mineral
Stage
δ18Oqz
Th (°C)
δ18Ofluid
δD
Dongfeng gold deposit
PZ46812-1
PZ4966-1
PZ41207-2
PZ46812-3
10X74
10X78
10LL04
10X79
LL-Q-06
10X80
10LL18
10LL20
10LL22
10LL23
10LL24
10LL03
JQ-Q-04
LL-Q-02
LL-Q-06
10X80
LL-108-1
LL-108-2
LL-108-5
LL-108-6
LL-108-7
LL-53-4
LL-48-1
LL-48-4
LL-50-3
LL-50-5
LL-47-1
LL-171-2
LL-171-3
LL-171-6
LL-171-7
LL-171-10
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Quartz
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Early
Middle
Middle
Late
Early
Early
Early
Middle
Middle
Late
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Early
Middle
Middle
Middle
Late
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
Middle
6.3
6.4
14.5
11.6
12.5
11.8
12.9
14.4
17.3
14.7
308
282
282
157
294
294
294
274
274
165
−0.8
−1.7
6.4
−3.8
4.9
4.2
5.3
6.0
8.9
0.0
−82.7
−85.7
−90.5
−87.5
−67.1
−63.7
−70.1
−69.9
−77.4
−66.5
Linglong gold deposit
Dongfeng gold deposit
Linglong gold deposit
Linglong gold deposit
Lingnan gold deposit
δ34S
Data sources
This paper
This paper
6.7
6.5
6.8
5.8
7.0
6.6
6.5
6.2
5.9
7.4
7.7
8.3
7.6
8.5
7.5
7.0
8.6
7.2
6.4
7.3
7.4
7.8
7.0
8.3
7.8
7.9
This paper
This paper
Hou et al. (2006)
Hou et al. (2006)
type II inclusions, whereas the late-stage quartz contains only the type
III inclusions. In the early stage, ore-forming fluid belongs to H2O–
CO2–NaCl system, which is characterized by medium-high temperature,
enrichment of CO2, and medium-low salinity (Fig. 11 and Table 1), in
contrast to typical high temperature and high salinity magmatic fluids.
These features, combined with the analytical results of hydrogen and
oxygen isotopes (Fig. 10), indicate that the hyperthermal, volatilesabundant and Au-rich primary ore-forming fluid probably mixed with
meteoric water infiltrating downward along fractures, when it moved
upward through the fractures, altering the primary characteristics of
the ore-forming fluid. The fluid evolved into H2O–CO2–NaCl system
with medium-low temperature, less CO2, and variable salinity in the
middle stage. During the mineralization, more meteoric water was involved (Fig. 10). Finally, the ore-forming fluid, in the late stage, turned
into H2O–NaCl system with low temperature, low salinity and no CO2
(Fig. 11 and Table 1).
6.2. Source of ore-forming materials and fluids
Fig. 10. δD and δ18O characteristics of the ore-forming fluids at the Dongfeng and Linglong
gold deposits. (A) Dongfeng gold deposit. (B) Linglong gold deposit.
The hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of the two deposits show similar
distribution in the δD-δ18O isotopic diagram (Fig. 10), suggesting similar
sources of ore-forming fluids, for the data from the two deposits plot between the magmatic field (or the metamorphic field) and the global
meteoric water line (Fig. 10). Since the Mesozoic age of mineralization
is about 2 billion years younger than the timing of metamorphism in
the basement rocks, the ore-forming fluids could not have been derived
from the metamorphic fluids. Furthermore, the gold mineralization ages
(123–114 Ma) are younger than the ages of the regional Mesozoic granites such as the Linglong (160–156 Ma) and Guojialing (130–126 Ma)
granitoids, thus precluding the possibility of magmatic sources for the
ore-forming fluids. Recent studies suggest the role of mantle-derived
B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
655
from the sulfur isotopic compositions of the sulfide minerals. The two
gold deposits have consistent δ34S values (Table 2), which were obtained from pyrite in equilibrium with the mineralization of the two deposits. Hou et al. (2006) analyzed 16 pyrite samples from the Linglong
gold field, and reported δ34S values varying from 6.4‰ to 8.6‰ with
an average value of 7.6‰ (Table 2), which are in accordance with this
study. At the same time, Hou et al. (2006) carried out reported contrasting of δ34S values among metamorphic rocks of the Achaean Jiaodong
Group, Mesozoic basic-intermediate dikes, Mesozoic granites, and
gold ores (Fig. 12). The results show that the δ34S values of these geologic units are comparable, especially, the δ34S values of Mesozoic
mantle-derived basic-intermediate dikes deviate from the mantle
values (δ34S = ~ 0‰). Mao et al. (2008) suggested that the similar sulfur isotopic compositions of the Mesozoic rocks implied homogenization of the sulfur isotopic system through crust–mantle interaction. In
other words, during the Mesozoic mineralization events, the oreforming fluids were sourced from a common fluid reservoir probably
linked to processes of crust–mantle interaction.
6.3. Gold transport and deposition and a comparison of ore forming
mechanism between the two gold deposits
Fig. 11. Temperature vs. salinity plot of the fluid inclusions, showing fluid evolution at the
Dongfeng and Linglong deposits. (A) Dongfeng gold deposit. (B) Linglong gold deposit.
fluids in the metallogenic process (Deng et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2002,
2003; Mao et al., 2002). A number of mafic dikes, whose formation
ages are close to the gold mineralization ages, are widely distributed
around the Jiaodong gold province. Some researchers considered that
the ore-forming fluids had a magmatic source, derived through
degassing of mantle-derived magmas in the shallow part of crust (Fan
et al., 2003, 2005).
H2S is an important medium for the migration and precipitation of
Au. The S of H2S is bound within sulfide, especially pyrite, which often
accompanies native gold. Therefore, the source of Au can be traced
HS− and Cl−, which can form stable complexes with gold ions, are
the most important ligands in hydrothermal solutions. Initially gold is
dissolved and transported in the form of gold bisulfide [Au(HS)0,
−
Au(HS)−
2 )] and gold chloride [AuCl2 ] (Benning and Seward, 1996;
Hayashi and Ohmoto, 1991; Seward, 1973, 1990; Stefansson and
Seward, 2004; Williams-Jones et al., 2009; Zotov et al., 1991). Taking
into consideration that gold is usually accompanied with sulfide in
these deposits, especially pyrite, we infer that gold bisulfide was the
most possible species transporting gold. The abundance of type I and
type II inclusions in the early stage of the two gold deposits suggests
that the initial ore-forming fluids were enriched in CO2. CO2 can buffer
the pH of the solution (Phillips and Evans, 2004), which provides favorable conditions for gold bisulfide migration.
Although there are similarities in fluid sources between Dongfeng
and Linglong gold deposits, the ore forming mechanisms appear to
be different. Our petrographic studies, Raman spectroscopy and
microthermometry on fluid inclusions show that the type II inclusions
and two phase type III inclusions not only coexist in the middle-stage
quartz of the Linglong gold deposit (Fig. 7L and M), but also have consistent homogenization temperatures. In addition, the type III inclusions in
the middle-stage quartz usually contain trace amounts of CO2 (Fig. 9E),
although no CO2 phase was observed during the heating–cooling runs.
Furthermore, four different types of fluid inclusions coexist in some
domains (Fig. 7I). Type II and type III inclusions have similar range of
Fig. 12. A comparison of sulfur isotopic compositions of sulfide ores and rocks from the Jiaodong gold fields.
After Hou et al. (2006).
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B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
homogenization temperatures; homogenization temperatures of type
IV inclusions were not observed. These features imply that phase separation or boiling might have occurred in the middle stage at the Linglong
gold deposit. Accompanied with a significant drop in temperature and
pressure of the fluid, the boiling resulted in CO2 escape and consumption of H+ through the reaction: H+ + HCO−
3 = H2O + CO2.
This process might have led to the decomposition of gold bisulfide
+
[Au(HS)0, Au(HS)−
2 )], as the activity of H is the key factor to maintain
HS − and gold bisulfide [Au(HS)0, Au(HS)−
2 )] stable in the fluids (Chen
et al., 2007). Phase separation can release H2S from the liquid into the
vapor phase, which also decreases the stability of Au–S complexes
(Cox et al., 1995; Jia et al., 2000; Naden and Shepherd, 1989; Zhang
et al., 2012). Subsequently, Au precipitated from the ore-forming fluid.
In contrast, type II inclusions appear alone in the middle stage of the
Dongfeng gold deposit (Fig. 7J and K). This suggests that large-scale
phase separation or boiling did not occur in the main mineralization
period. Hydrothermal alteration is widely developed in the Dongfeng
gold deposit, much more intense than that at the Linglong gold deposit.
This may imply that intense water–rock interaction occurred between
ore-forming fluid and wall rocks at the Dongfeng gold deposit. This
process dramatically changed the physical and chemical conditions of
ore-forming fluid in the main mineralization period, and finally resulted
in the precipitation and mineralization of gold. In the process of water–
rock interaction, H2S was expended to generate pyrite with iron derived
from the wall rocks, and pH of the fluid ascended by release of CO2.
These factors made gold bisulfide unstable and to eventually precipitate
metallic gold.
6.4. Pressure and depth of gold deposition
Using the Flincor computer software with the equations of Brown
and Lamb (1989) for the H2O–CO2–NaCl system, pressures in the
range of 226–338 MPa were obtained in the middle stage of the
Dongfeng gold deposit, and 228–326 MPa for the Linglong gold deposit.
If these pressures are lithostatic, given 2.7 g/cm3 as the density of upper
crust rocks, the corresponding depth of mineralization is in the range of
8.4–12.5 km and 8.4–12.1 km, respectively. The trapping pressure in the
Dongfeng gold deposit should be higher than that we estimated,
because the trapping temperature is above the homogenization temperature. In contrast, the trapping pressure in the Linglong gold deposit
should be equal to the estimated values, because of fluid boiling. Therefore, the depth range computed for the Dongfeng gold deposit is only a
minimum estimate, and the actual depths must be higher, and the mineralization occurred at a deeper domain than that of the Linglong gold
deposit. This result is in accordance with the fact that the ore bodies
exploited for gold in the Dongfeng gold deposit are at greater depths
than those in the Linglong gold deposit.
6.5. Deposit genesis
The gold deposits in the Jiaodong province are mostly hosted in the
Mesozoic granitoids and are structurally controlled by faults and shear
zones that cut the Mesozoic granitoids. Previous studies have shown
that the ages of the gold deposits in the Jiaodong gold province
cluster between 123 and 114 Ma as determined by sericite/muscovite
40
Ar/39Ar and single grain pyrite Rb–Sr dating (Hu et al., 2013; Li et al.,
2003, 2006, 2008; Yang and Zhou, 2001; Zhang et al., 2003). The formation ages of the Mesozoic granitoids are 160–156 Ma and 130–126 Ma,
respectively, as obtained by zircon U–Pb dating (Guo et al., 2005; Miao
et al., 1997; Qiu et al., 2002; Wang et al., 1998; Yang et al., 2012,
2013). The timing of gold mineralization is significantly younger than
the ages of the regional granitoid magmatism as the Linglong and
Guojialing granitoids, indicating that the gold mineralization has no
direct relationship to the granitoid magmatism. Instead, most gold
deposits show temporal and spatial association with abundant mafic
to intermediate dikes that are widespread in the Jiaodong gold province,
and which have been dated at ca. 122 to 119 Ma and, less commonly, at
110 to 102 Ma (Cai et al., 2013; Qiu et al., 2001b; Yang and Zhou, 2001;
Zhang et al., 2002; Zhu and Zhang, 1998).
Yang and Zhou (2001) and Li et al. (2008) dated pyrite from the
Linglong gold field and reported ages in the range of 122–123 Ma and
120.6 ± 0.9 Ma, respectively, consistent with the ages from other gold
deposits in the Jiaodong gold province. The Dongfeng and Linglong
gold deposits have similar characteristics in mineralogy, lithology, alteration patterns, and ore-forming fluids, suggesting that these two gold
deposits were formed during the same metallogenic event at about
120 Ma. This metallogenic event is widely developed in the Jiaodong
gold province. During this period, post-collisional extension occurred
in the North China and Yangtze Cratons with transfer of the principal
stress-field from north–south to east–west directions, and east–west
lithospheric extension caused by subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate
(Fan et al., 2005; Mao et al., 2003a, 2003b, 2004, 2006, 2008). Simultaneously, lithospheric thinning, which was caused by the removal of lithospheric mantle and the upwelling of new asthenospheric mantle,
induced partial melting and dehydration of the lithospheric mantle
and lower crust due to an increase of temperature (Yang et al., 2003).
The mantle-derived magma migrated upward to the shallow crust, it
might have degassed considerable volume of fluids. These fluids
mixed with meteoric water to form the ore-forming fluids.
The first-order faults in this area underwent multi-stage reactivation, and the stress types were diverse at different periods. Repeated
stress and tectonic movements caused the rocks around faults to
become highly cataclastic. Large and small fissures and cavities were
developed within the cataclastic rocks, which provided the pathways
for ore-forming fluids against the wall rocks, creating favorable conditions for fluid permeation and hydrothermal alteration. The first-order
faults are the main migration pathway of the ore-forming fluids. High
temperature and strong water–rock interaction occurred along the
first-order faults, resulting in the formation of “Jiaojia-type” disseminated and stockwork gold mineralization. In contrast, the secondary faults
were less activated and the rocks around these show less degree of
fracture. They were thus unfavorable water–rock interaction but served
as open conduits for the migration of ore fluids. During the process of
ore fluid migration from the first-order faults to the secondary faults,
the temperature gradually decreased. Opening of the faults led to sudden
decompression and fluid phase separation (boiling). A sharp fall in temperature and large-scale exsolution of volatiles also occurred at the same
time. This process brought about the precipitation of the “Linglong-type”
lode gold mineralization.
It is worth raising that the above mentioned ore-forming process
might be closely related to seismic activity. The role of seismic pressure
fluctuations has been advocated for orogenic mineral systems in the
South Island of New Zealand (Craw et al., 2013). The movement of ore
fluids is partly controlled by permeability, and enhanced permeability
is considered to be proximal to earthquakes, where shear failure is likely
to occur, thereby explaining the common fault- to shear zone-controlling
ore deposits. Fault jogs and flower structures are particularly
efficient in the channeling of fluids during aftershocks, because
those structures promote vertical flow, and can tap metal-rich reservoirs (Craw et al., 2013). A fault-valve will drive fluid-pressure, and
enhance permeability and fault ruptures can connect shallow lowpressure reservoirs with deeper high-pressure reservoirs, resulting
in strong degassing. Importantly, the presence of breccias and veining imply episodic phases of fluid flow and quite likely with fluid
pressures changing from lithostatic to hydrostatic (Sibson, 2001;
Sibson et al., 1975). Aftershocks, seismic slips and suction-pump
mechanisms are induced by rapid transfer of fluids in dilational
fault jogs and bends, resulting in the abrupt reduction of fluid pressure at structural sites, triggering phase separation and ore precipitation throughout the aftershock phases (Sibson, 2001; Sibson
et al., 1975). These phenomena lead to multiple phases of ore mineral precipitation, accompanied by related alteration minerals.
B.-J. Wen et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 65 (2015) 643–658
7. Conclusions
(1) In the Dongfeng and Linglong gold deposits, four types of fluid
inclusions were observed, including: pure CO2 (type I), H2O–CO2–NaCl
(type II), H2O–NaCl (type III), and daughter mineral-bearing or multiphase (type IV) fluid inclusions. In the early stage of the two deposits,
type II fluid inclusions are well developed and accompanied with
some type I fluid inclusions. In the middle stage, quartz from Dongfeng
contains only type II fluid inclusions, whereas both of type II and type III
fluid inclusions occur in quartz from Linglong, with a few type I and type
IV fluid inclusions. In the late-stage quartz of the two deposits, only type
III fluid inclusions are present.
(2) Deep-seated magmatic water may be the source of the oreforming fluids. The fluid gradually blended with shallower meteoric
water during mineralization. The ore-forming fluids initially had the
characteristics of medium-high temperature, were enriched in CO2,
and had medium-low salinity. They finally evolved into low temperature, CO2-free, low salinity, and meteoric water-dominated fluids in
the late stage.
(3) The mineralization of the Dongfeng gold deposit resulted from
intense water–rock interaction between the H2O–CO2–NaCl fluids and
wallrocks in the first-order fault, whereas precipitation of gold is possibly a consequence of phase separation or boiling of the H2O–CO2–NaCl
fluids in response to pressure and temperature fluctuations in the
open space of the secondary faults within the Linglong gold deposit.
(4) Large-scale gold mineralization in the Jiaodong region occurred
during tectonic regime inversion and lithosphere thinning.
Acknowledgments
Sincere thanks are due to the managements and staffs of the
Linglong Gold Mine and the Dongfeng Gold Mine for their help during
fieldworks. Two anonymous referees are thanked for their constructive
and valuable comments which greatly contributed to the improvement
of the manuscript. This study was financially supported by the Natural
Science Foundation of China (41173056), geological surveying project
of China Geological Survey (12120114032301), and project of the
State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution (1303).
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