Chapter III
General Demographic Structure
Introduction: Population, resources and economic development are
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interrelated phenomena1. Use and utilization of available resources,
allocation of benefits and economic progress all depend upon the varied
characteristics of population such as growth and distribution patterns; age,
sex, education and economic compositions; fertility and mortality patterns
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and migration patterns of the people.2 In the developing countries,
demographic transition of high birth rate and comparatively low death rate
has led to faster growth rate of population and high percentage of children in
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the population, giving rise to high dependency ratio. High dependency ratio
as such indicates the burden of unproductive manpower on the one hand and
the pressure on resources under a backward economic and technological
situation, on the other. The resultant decreasing per capita productivity has
caused to perpetuate the culture of poverty in the society. It is envisaged that
as the population pressure on resources under a less dynamic production
technology increases there will be more child labour participation in labour
force. This growth of child labour is, in fact, a major reason for continuing
high population growth.3
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The differential rates of fertility among different economic and ethnic
groups have profound influence on household economy of farm families.
Economic progress cannot cope with the growing population pressure as has
been experienced from the developing countries of the world. It is found that
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population growth is a hindrance to economic development4. It restricts the
spread of social infrastructure, reduces the growth of income per person,
aggravates the pressure on limited natural resources and leads to excess
labour supply and consequent unemployment and underemployment. When
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the burden of population exceeds the sustaining capacity of endowed
resources it needs either a change in technology or it leads to migration of
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people outside in search of livelihood.5
In this context, the demographic characteristics of population of the
study area are necessary to understand before going through the responses.
As in other developing countries, India also has high dependency ratio,
fertility, infant and child mortality, and mobility of population. These
characteristics of population are more pronounced in the hills than in other
parts of the country6. So population pressure as a cause and effect of
environmental crisis has long been a root cause of entrenched poverty in the
process of development. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the varied
characteristics of population in detail.
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Growth and Distribution of Population
According to Colin Clark, the population growth is a powerful force
to bring about a change in traditional methods and to transform the economy
to rather advanced and productive stages.7 On the other hand, rapid
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population growth necessitates larger investments in social and public
welfare, housing, transport, health and other social infrastructures.8 The total
population of the study area as recorded in 1951 was 3,37,687 persons,
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which increased to 6,32,866 persons in 2001 and 6,21,927 persons in 2011
(Fig 3.1). It has increased by about 84% during the period 1951-2011.
Natural increase and net immigration are two notable considerations for
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examining the population growth in a region. But in the rural areas under
present study, the natural increase may be considered as the important factor,
since it gets balanced out with the ever-increasing phenomenon of outmigration.
The bulk of the increase has taken place after 1951. During the decade
1951-61 an increase of 14.29% was recorded. Table 3.1 reveals that the
region marks high growth rate of 25.48% during 1961-71, mainly due to the
considerable natural increase in population owing to better medical facilities
and control over various diseases. During 1971-81, the total growth rate was
declined to 15.35%, due to the transfer of Champawat tehsil to Pithoragarh
97
district. The census of 1991 again saw a moderate increase in the population
count of the district. The decadal growth of 1981-1991 was 9.28%. The
decade 1991-2001 recorded a modest increase at the rate of 3.67%. This was
due to the fact that a major portion of the district was cut off to create a new
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district of Bageshwar in the year 1996. During the past decade (2001-2011)
a similar modest rate was being expected in the growth of the district. This
was on account of eight villages being transferred from Bageshwar to
Almora district after 2001. But the phenomenon of migration proved too big
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a factor in determining the final population figure of the district. Successive
growth trend of population has been given in table 3.1.
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Table No 3.1: Population Growth (1951-2011)
Census Total
Year
Decadal Urban
Population Growth
Decadal Rural
Population Growth
Rate
Decadal
Population Growth
Rate
Rate
1951
337687
-
21053
-
316634
-
1961
385928
14.28
27230
29.34
358698
13.28
1971
484263
25.48
34798
27.79
449465
25.30
1981
558621
15.35
43228
24.23
515393
14.67
1991
610453
9.28
47735
10.43
562718
9.18
2001
632866
3.67
54505
14.18
578361
2.78
2011
621927
-1.73
54729
0.41
567197
-1.93
Source: Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011 and Census of India, 2011
98
Fig 3.1: Population Growth, Almora District (1951-2011)
700000
610453
600000
632866
621927
558621
484263
500000
385928
400000
337687
200000
100000
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
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0
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300000
According to the records of census office9, population of the study
area was 6,32,866 in 2001. In the period of 1991 to 2001, the decadal growth
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of population in the district was 3.67%. At this rate of increase, the
estimated population of the region in the next census year would have been
6,56,092; but the district has registered a negative growth of -1.73% during
the present decade and the latest population count in the district has been
recorded as 6,21,927 in the official data released in March 2011. There is a
negative growth of 10,939 in the district. In comparison to average national
growth rate, growth rate of population in the study area is remarkable in the
sense that the national growth rate is alarming at 17.64%, whereas that of
Uttarakhand state is 19.17%.
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Growth of population is not sufficient to explain the burgeoning
number of population because it is related to the resources. Land is the
single most important source of livelihood of the subsistence farmers.
Therefore agricultural density reflects the future of the effects of the
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population growth. The district on the whole has an agricultural density of
115 persons per sq. km of cultivated land.
In December 2010, the total population of 300 sampled households
was 1824 which increased by 0.96% from the previous year, 2009. Within
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one year from 2009, 18 persons were added to form the final sample size.
It is remarkable that the growth rate of urban population has always
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been more than that of rural. The highest growth rate of urban population
was marked in 1971 (43.56%), for then Bageshwar was considered a town
because the criteria of urban population was more liberal. In 1981 the
increase rate of urban population was 21.69%. The increase in total
population was a mere 0.97% and the rural population growth rate was
0.16%. In fact, in the last four decades the urban population of the district
has increased in a constant rate because of the industrialization and
urbanization. It has been found that there is sufficient special variation in the
growth of population in the study area. Here the variation in growth rate in
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different blocks for the period 1951 to 2011 has been analysed, and
accordingly they have been placed in four categories.
(a) Low Variation (below 14%): Such areas are concentrated only in four
blocks (Takula 1.60%, Chaukhutia 3.99%, Bhikiyasen 2.98%, Syalde
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3.57%).
(b) Medium Variation (14 to 16%): Areas of medium variation are found
only in three blocks (Dwarahat 5.41%, Salt 9.97%, Dhauladevi 11.98%).
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(c) High Variation (16 to 18%): Lamgara 13.92%, Bhainsiyachhana 13.17%
and Tarikhet 12.14% blocks represent the high variation due to the
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agricultural and industrial development.
(d) Very High Variation (more than 18%): Areas of very high variation are
found in the region of better educational, medical and other amenities with
high yielding agricultural land (Hawalbagh 16.79%)
Rural Population
During 1951-61, the region had an increase of rural population at the
rate of 13.28% whereas during 1961-71 a whooping 25.3% increase was
recorded in the rural population. This was because of the improved medical
facilities and subsequent low mortality rate of the region. 1971-81 and 1981101
91 registered growth rates of 14.67% and 9.18% in rural population
respectively. In the 1970s rural population growth was caused by the merger
of Champawat tehsil into Pithoragarh district under administrative reforms
of 1973. It is also noted that this reorganization of the district did not affect
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the urban population structure as in Champawat tehsil there was no urban
setup till 1971. The rural population increase rate was at a low of 2.78%
during the decade 1991-2001, because of the growing trend of migration to
the nearest urban centres of the district. After 2001 there has been a negative
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growth in the rural population of the region due to the extra-ordinary
phenomenon of migration of youth to the Tarai and plains in search of better
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job opportunity.
Urban Population
The growth and variation of urban population has been a moderate
feature in the study area. In 1901, there were only two towns in the district,
i.e. Almora (8596 persons) and Ranikhet Cantt (3246 persons). In 1931,
Almora Cantt emerged as a new town. Presently, Almora town has a
population of 36,154 persons (2011) which makes it a class II town.
Ranikhet, the second largest town of the district with 32,108 persons is a
class IV town. Dwarahat is the only other class V town in the region. These
towns are important urban centres of the area because of their educational
102
facilities, administrative offices, medical and other services. These are the
small scale industrial (cottage industries) centres and transport nodal points.
(Table 3.2)
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Table 3.2: Growth and Distribution of Urban Population, Almora
district
Blocks
Almora
Hawalbagh
Years
Population
% Decadal Variation
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
2011
12116
16004
19671
20758
37227
30154
32640
8937
10642
13917
18190
21599
21674
19055
641
598
1210
1947
1634
2630
1744
3092
18.45
32.09
22.97
5.53
79.5
-1.84
7.5
82.61
19.08
30.77
30.70
18.74
0.347
-1.72
-16.32
-6.71
102.34
60.91
-16.04
13.41
-33.23
1.83
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Towns
Tarikhet
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Ranikhet
Almora Cantt Hawalbagh
Dwarahat
Dwarahat
Source: Census of India 2011 and Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011
103
Distribution of Population
Man and Land are the ultimate elements in the life of human society,
so the number of people in proportion of the area of the land is a
fundamental consideration in population study.10 According to the census of
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2011, the total population of Almora district is 6,21,927, of which 91.2%
lives in rural areas while only 8.8% resides in urban centres in the district.
The region, with the rural area of 5347.07 km² (99.30%), supports 567422
(91.2%).
The
entire
population
of
Takula,
Dhauladevi,
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persons
Bhainsiyachhana, Lamgara, Chaukhutia, Bhikiyasen, Syalde and Salt is
rural, while Hawalbagh, Tarikhet and Dwarahat have considerably large
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rural with a few urban population. (Fig 3.2)
Distribution of Rural Population: The distribution of population over
space is primarily governed by natural elements. Numerous social,
demographic, economic, political and historical factors are the other
secondary elements responsible for the uneven distribution of the
population. Population distribution is a dynamic process, which is everchanging and causes and effect vary in time and space.11 The factors that
affect the spatial aspects of population are complex and varied as are the
patterns of distribution.12
104
105
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The heterogeneity of environment coupled with historical incidents
and cultural complexes has resulted into most uneven distribution of
population in this part. There are certain localities where the concentration
of population is comparatively high while the remaining areas are almost
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devoid of human population. In the entire study area, population distribution
has been directly influenced by the aspect of relief, soil, climate, water
availability, agricultural land as well as by good accessibility of road and
communication. The factors influencing spatial distribution of population are
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as follows:
(a) Physical Factors: Nature of terrain, water availability, soil conditions
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and climatic elements.
(b) Cultural Factors: Agricultural land, irrigation facilities, industrial
development, transport and communication lines.
(c) Demographic Factors involving differential birth and death rates and
migration.
The geographical analysis of population of the study area is likely to
bring out the general relationships between man and habitat, which is quite
important to understand the population distribution of mountainous regions
with predominantly rural economy. Of these the physical and cultural factors
106
which mostly act in combination, as they are dependent on each other, give
rise to three population zones in the study area:
(a) Highly populated area
(b) Moderately populated area
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(c) Sparsely populated area
Highly Populated Area: All the river valleys, i.e. Upper Kosi, Lower Kosi,
West Ramganga and middle Gagas valleys and wide ridges (upto an
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elevation of about 1800 mts) have shown a marked concentration of
population. These tract of population concentration are fertile, flat, wellirrigated areas and cover a considerable ¼ of the total area. Due to the
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differences in agricultural potentialities, this region has got sufficient
dissimilarities in the distribution of population which is found in villages of
different sizes. Some cultural elements are also operative here, either in the
forms of transport lines, small scale industrial projects, educational and
medical facilities and small rural service centres.
Moderately Populated Area: The areas of moderate population comprise
all the middle slopes and the upper valley areas. The area covers 1/3 of the
total area which is adversely affected by the hills and forest cover. In this
zone the concentration of tribal population is comparatively high. The
density of this area is 110 persons /km². Village size varies from 200 to 900
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persons with a few villages having a population of more than 1000 persons.
In this region the agricultural density is 122 persons /km².
Sparsely Populated area: The remaining part of the region is sparsely
populated. These areas are densely covered with forests and have a rough
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topography. In some regions, after clearing the forests only, some population
has settled. In this region, rural density and agricultural density is very low
(75 and 95 persons /km² respectively).
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Distribution of Urban Population: There are four urban centres in Almora
district, namely Almora, Ranikhet Cantt, Dwarahat and Almora Cantt. Many
alterations in the local status of towns have come during 1901 till present.
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Almora has been a municipal town since 1901. Ranikhet is the cantt town in
the region, existing since 1901. In 1931 Almora Cantt, being part of Almora
urban agglomeration was added as separate local body, for the first time.
Dwarahat was added as NA town during 1971-81.
Density of Population
It gives a relative picture of the population distribution in a region. It
provides a tool to signify real population pressure upon the resource base.
Density can be measured in context of total area, arable land, cultivated area
etc which hold their individual geographical values.13 Here, population
108
pressure upon the total area of the district and blocks have been taken into
consideration. Density is the most significant index of the habitability of an
area. (Fig 3.3)
General Density or Arithmetic Density: The general density (total
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population and total area) does not depict the real population pressure in the
region due to some negative factors. In the area where the population is
widely dispersed the general density is usually not a very correct
measurement. On the other hand, the urban population which is concentrated
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in a few km², gives an erreneous view of the actual density.
In Almora district, the density of population was 201 persons /km² in
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2001, which has come down to 198 persons /km² in 2011. Takula has the
highest density in the district at 392 persons per km² mainly because of low
area in the block, while Bhikiyasen has the lowest density of 170 persons per
km². The District can be divided into three density zones, i.e.
(a) Low Density Zone (less than 200 persons /km²: Four blocks of the
district come under this zone of low general density, namely Bhikiyasen
(170), Dhauladevi (190), Salt (200) and Syalde (200).
109
110
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(b) Medium Density Zone (200-300 persons /km²): Five blocks come
under
this
category,
namely
Lamgara
(217),
Chaukhutia
(251),
Bhaisiyachhana (269), Tarikhet (279) and Dwarahat (292).
(c) High Density Zone (more than 300 persons /km²): Hawalbagh (327)
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and Takula (392) are the blocks with high general density.
Table 3.3: Block-wise Population Density (2011), persons /km²
Blocks
General Density Agricultural
Density
200
102
447
Chaukhutia
251
335
996
Bhikiyasen
170
101
465
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Syalde
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Density
Physiological
Tarikhet
279
150
983
Salt
200
138
401
Dwarahat
292
206
965
Takula
392
125
1010
Bhaisiyachhana 269
82
840
Hawalbag
327
251
1584
Lamgara
217
219
396
Dhauladevi
190
411
1174
District
198
173
743
Source: Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011
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Agricultural Density: The agricultural density is found with the help of
total persons engaged in agriculture and net cultivated area. It is more
refined and real presentation of population density because it omits the part
of land which is unproductive. . Bhaisiyachhana block has a very low agri-
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density of 82 persons per km². Five blocks of Almora have a low agricultural
density of 100-200 persons per km² of cultivated area. These are Bhikiyasen
(101), Syalde (102), Takula (125), Salt (137) and Tarikhet (150). Three
blocks, namely Dwarahat (206), Lamgara (219) and Hawalbag (251) have
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moderate agri-density between 200-300 persons per km². Two blocksChaukhutiya (335) and Dhauladevi (411) have high agri-density of more
than 300 persons per km². The district on the whole has an agricultural
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density of 173 persons per km² of cultivated land. (Table 3.3)
Physiological Density or Nutritional Density: This is one of the important
and trusted indices of the population concentration, as it is the ratio of total
population and agricultural area. It provides a more realistic view of the
population pressure on the agricultural land and products. In the hills and
forested areas, agriculture is not extensively possible, therefore in these
areas agricultural land is very limited and thus density is high. The district
can be viewed on the basis of physiological density in three category, i.e.
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(a) Low Physiological Density (less than 500 persons /km² cultivated
land): Lamgara (396), Salt (401), Bhikiyasen (465) and Syalde (447)
blocks have less people dependent on the agricultural land.
(b) Medium Physiological Density (500-1000 persons/km² cultivated
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land): Bhaisiyachhana (840), Tarikhet (983), Dwarahat (965) and
Chaukhutia (996) blocks come under this category.
(c) High Physiological Density (more than 1000 persons/km² cultivated
land): Takula (1010), Hawalbagh (1584) and Dhauladevi (1174) blocks
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form the category of highest physiological density in the district.
Age and Sex Composition
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Age and sex represent the characteristics of population. The age
composition is important for understanding the fertility and mortality of a
community. Age differences create social and economic differences. The sex
composition has profound influence on the demographic structure. Since it is
a function of three basic factors, namely sex ratio at birth, sex ratio at death
and sex-selectivity among migrants, it provides a measure of socioeconomic conditions. Therefore it is necessary to understand the age and sex
characteristics of the population which have a greater influence on the
process of development.
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Table 3.4 reveals that all the blocks of Almora district have a higher
proportion of female than male population. This high female ratio is because
of the ‘money-order economy’ of the district. To improve the economic
condition of the family, while the men migrate and take jobs at other places,
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the women stay back at home to look-after the household activities and
agriculture. The lower proportion of female in the urban areas are associated
with the fact that major portion of its population is composed of male
commercial class and immigrated service class.
Blocks
Sex Ratio
1170
Chaukhutia
1156
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Syalde
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Table 3.4: Block-wise Sex Ratio: Almora (2011)
Bhikiyasen
1189
Tarikhet
1127
Salt
1214
Dwarahat
1252
Takula
1148
Bhaisiyachhana
1047
Hawalbag
1076
Lamgara
1102
Dhauladevi
1082
District
1142
Urban
1103
Rural
1145
Source: Census of India
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Table 3.5: Sex Ratio (1951-2011)
Area
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
Almora
1039
1080
1077
1080
1132
1146
1142
Rural
1066
1109
1110
1117
1099
1141
1141
Urban
554
595
617
649
1077
1103
1104
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Source: Census of India records
Age and Sex Composition of Sample Population: The age structure or the
proportion of people contained within various age groups is one of the most
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basic characteristic of population, since it is associated with other
demographic structures, such as birth rate, incidence of migration and
occupational structure etc. The percentage distribution of sample population
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by age and sex in table 3.6 clearly shows the structure.
Table 3.6 indicates that the percentage pf population has been
decreasing in the ascending order of the age group. About 11.29% of the
total sample population falls in 0-5 year’s age group. It increases to 13.82%
in 5-10 year’s age group. The lower percentage in 0-5 year’s group is the
result of high infant mortality and birth control measures. After 5-10 year’s
age group, there is gradual decrease in the percentage distribution of
population. Proportion of female population is higher in the middle age
groups, which reflects the phenomenon of migration among the male youth.
115
The percentage of aged population is very low, especially due to high death
rate.
Table 3.6: Age and Sex composition of Sample Population, 2010-11
No
%
No
%
No
%
0-5
99
11.11
107
11.47
206
11.29
5-10
141
15.82
111
11.90
252
13.82
10-15
115
12.91
121
12.97
236
12.94
15-20
94
10.55
109
11.68
203
11.13
20-25
74
8.30
102
10.93
176
9.65
25-30
67
7.52
73
7.82
140
7.67
35-40
40-45
Total
68
7.63
65
6.97
133
7.29
52
5.84
55
5.89
107
5.87
28
3.14
38
4.07
66
3.62
46
5.16
27
2.89
73
4.00
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45-50
Female
te
30-35
Male
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Age
(yrs)
50-55
40
4.49
22
2.36
62
3.40
55-60
20
2.24
36
3.86
56
3.07
60-65
18
2.02
34
3.64
52
2.85
65-70
7
0.79
15
1.61
22
1.21
70-75
11
1.23
12
1.29
23
1.26
75-80
5
0.56
5
0.53
10
0.55
80-85
4
0.45
-
-
4
0.22
85+
2
0.22
1
0.11
3
0.16
Total
891
100.00
933
100.00
1824
100.00
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
116
The distribution of population by age and sex varies according to the
relative proportion of the total population in different age groups. Fig- shows
that the base of the age and sex pyramid is broad, whereas it tapers towards
the top. It relates to the high fertility and high mortality rates. Within this
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broad-based structure of the pyramid, two parts are not exactly the same.
This is mainly due to the differential characteristics of male and female
population. The rate of decrease of population is comparatively lower among
males upto the age of 20 years. From 20 to 30 years, the percentage of male
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population has fallen down due to high proportion of out-migration. The
high percentage of males from 55 to 60 years is associated with incoming of
retired personnel from army. After 65 years, tip of the pyramid gets
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narrower.
This whole structure underlines a situation of high population pressure
on resources, underemployment and unemployment, declining per capita
productivity and high fertility and dependency ratio. The age and sex
composition can broadly be oriented into three conventional economic
groups, namely economically inactive (0-10 years), active (10- 65 years) and
again inactive group (65 years ).
117
Table 3.7: Percentage Distribution of sample population in age groups
Age Group
Male
Female
Total
%
No
%
No
%
0-10
240
26.94
218
23.36
458
25.11
10-65
622
69.81
682
73.10
1304
71.49
65+
29
3.25
33
3.54
62
3.40
Total
891
100.00
933
100.00
1824
100.00
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No
Source: Field Survey, December, 2010
Table 3.7 shows that out of the total population 25.11% are
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economically inactive children, 71.49% active youths and adults and
remaining 3.40% are aged. But there is variation by sex. This pattern of
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distribution by age group among males is 26.94%, 69.81% and 3.25%
respectively whereas among females it is 23.36%, 73.10% and 3.54%
respectively. In relation to the percentage of female children, male children
account for higher percentage. It shows that males outnumber the females at
0-10 year’s age group, whereas in other age groups, the number of females is
larger than males. In terms of sex ratio, females outnumber the males. Sex
ratio accounts for 1047 females per 1000 males in total.
Table 3.8 manifests that sex ratio at birth is high. In the next age
group, sex ratio is lower because of higher death rate of females before
crossing the age of five years. This decrease can be associated with family
118
negligence of the female child, malnutrition and less care. The sex ratio
increases in the youth age group, manly because of the males migrating in
search of jobs.
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Table 3.8: Sex Ratio of sample population (females per 1000 males)
Males
Females
Sex Ratio
0-5
99
107
1080
5-10
141
111
787
10-15
115
121
1052
15-20
94
109
1160
20-25
74
102
1378
67
73
1089
68
65
956
52
55
1058
28
38
1357
45-50
46
27
587
50-55
40
22
550
55-60
20
36
1800
60-65
18
34
1889
65-70
7
15
2143
70-75
11
12
1090
75+
11
6
545
Total
891
933
1047
25-30
30-35
35-40
Es
40-45
te
Age (years)
Source: Field Survey, December, 2010
Thus overpopulation of female and higher percentage of population
within the bracket of smaller age groups displays a state of poverty in the
119
subsistence rural society. The high fertility rates among rural population
have created the problem of underemployment and unemployment.
Similarly, higher proportion of dependent population exerts pressure on
subsistence living.
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Educational Status and Literacy
Education is one of the important qualities of population. It gives
people a sense of independent judgement and power to distinguish between
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good and bad. It also generates and enhances the problem-solving faculty
and critical awareness. It provides an instrumental help for inducing socioeconomic changes. Educational status renders the level of education,
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whereas literacy denotes the ability to read and write one’s own name in
one’s own language.
In the study area, the proportion of literates in the total population is
81.06% (2011), which is far greater than national average. Male literacy is
93.57%, whereas female literacy is 70.44%. Within the total literate
population levels of education vary considerably depending upon the socioeconomic milieu.
120
Table 3.9: Block-wise Literacy rate in Almora
Literacy 2001
Literacy 2011
Syalde
68.02
74.82
Chaukhutia
75.01
82.51
Bhikiyasen
72.87
80.15
Tarikhet
78.12
85.93
68.40
75.24
75.42
82.96
72.68
79.94
67.47
74.21
Salt
Dwarahat
Takula
te
Bhaisiyachhana
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Blocks
77.38
85.11
Lamgara
68.16
74.97
Dhauladevi
61.59
67.75
District
73.6
81.06
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Hawalbag
Source: Census of India 2011 and Sankhikiya Patrika: Almora, 2011
Table 3.9 shows that Tarikhet (85.93), Hawalbagh (85.11), Dwarahat
(82.96) and Chaukhutia (82.51) blocks have higher percentage of literacy
than other blocks. This is because of their educational facilities. Dhauladevi
and Bhaisiyachhana blocks lag behind with a literacy percentage of 67.75
and 74.21 respectively.
In the overall situation, the female education has suffered much. The
percentage of illiterates is much higher among females. Most of the aged
121
women are illiterate, because the traditional society was very skeptical about
women-education. Just a few years back, most of the women used to be
confined to domestic chores, which did not demand any formal education.
At present, some care is being given for female education, but still both the
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facilities and opportunities for their education are less.
Economic Composition: occupational structures
Economic composition is another important characteristic of
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population which assists to understand the levels of living, stage of growth,
patterns and sources of income generation, economic achievements and
failures, quality of population, education patterns and human capital
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formation etc of a country.14 Employments in different occupations give an
insight into the economic structure. In an agrarian economy, majority of the
country’s labour force are engaged in agriculture and related activities. High
dependency ratio and low level of economic diversifications have, therefore,
been the characteristic features of the economy.
According to census report 2011, the total workers in the district are
201893, constituting about 32.46% of the total population. This percentage
of rural workers is higher than districts Nainital (28.23) and Pithoragarh
(30.73). The distribution of the working population varies from 20.13% in
122
Takula block to 41.55% in Chaukhutia block. Block-wise percentage of
workers and non-workers in the study area is given in table 3.10.
Table 3.10: Workers and Non-Workers (in %) : 2011
Blocks
Total Workers
Total Non-Workers
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% of Total % of Total % of Total % of Total
Population
Working
Population
Population
NonWorking
Population
2.05
6.56
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Syalde
3.43
5.71
2.44
7.82
4.41
7.33
Bhikiyasen
2.65
8.51
3.11
5.18
Tarikhet
3.04
9.74
5.37
8.94
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Chaukhutia
Salt
3.50
11.21
4.68
7.79
Dwarahat
3.46
11.10
4.61
7.62
Takula
3.04
9.74
4.68
7.79
Bhaisiyachhana 1.19
3.82
3.09
5.14
Hawalbag
2.37
7.59
4.95
8.24
Lamgara
1.65
5.30
3.97
6.61
Dhauladevi
1.64
5.24
6.02
10.03
Source: Sample Survey and unpublished data obtained from census office,
Dehradun.
123
Table 3.11: Rural Occupational Structure (in %) 2010-11
Blocks
Cultivators Agri-
Household
Other Workers
labourers Industries
(manufacturing,
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Processing,
Servicing,
Repairing)
I
84.09
Va
III,IV,Vb,VI-X
0.29
1.30
14.28
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Syalde
II
Chaukhutia
83.75
0.85
0.69
14.71
Bhikiyasen
76.51
0.32
1.72
19.01
Tarikhet
67.55
0.40
1.70
30.31
89.16
0.20
0.61
10.02
Dwarahat
75.53
1.43
1.54
21.47
Takula
58.23
2.57
2.58
36.60
Bhaisiyachhana 62.41
0.70
1.71
35.17
Hawalbag
64.56
0.33
2.34
32.76
Lamgara
83.93
0.14
0.69
15.23
Dhauladevi
86.30
0.53
0.62
12.53
District
71.52
0.58
1.28
26.61
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Salt
Source: Sample Survey and unpublished data obtained from census office,
Dehradun.
124
125
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te
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Table 3.11 reveals that the region is predominantly agricultural as
72% of the total working force is engaged as cultivator or agricultural
labourer. Moreover, there are dissimilarities in agricultural workers in
different blocks. Salt (89.16%), Dhauladevi (86.30%), Syalde (84.09%),
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Lamgara (83.93%) and Chaukhutia (83.75%) blocks maintain their entirely
rural character, whereas Takula, Tarikhet and Hawalbagh record
comparatively low percentage as 58.23%, 67.55% and 64.56% respectively.
The percentage of agricultural labourers is highest in Takula (2.57%) and
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Dwarahat blocks (1.43%). (Fig 3.4)
The household industry, manufacturing, processing, servicing and
repairs are the next to the cultivators and marginal workers. Maximum
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percentage of workers in household industry was in Takula (2.58%)
followed by Hawalbagh (2.34%), Bhikiyasen (1.72%) and Tarikhet (1.70%)
blocks and their average percentage was more than the district total (1.28%).
The household industries commonly found in the region are those
traditionally associated with the functional castes like Lohar, Kumhar,
Tomta, Teli, Bhotia etc. The important household industries are woolen
based, agro-based, wooden-based, livestock-based and shoe-making etc.
The category of III, IV, V(b), VI-IX embraces mining, quarrying,
livestock rearing, forestry, hunting and plantation and orchards and allied
activities and engage 28% of the working population. The proportion of
126
workers in these categories is less in Salt (10.02%), Dhauladevi (12.53%),
Syalde (14.28%) and Chaukhutia (14.71%), but it is more in Takula
(36.60%), Bhaisiyachhana (35,17%), Hawalbagh (32.76%) and Tarikhet
(30.31%) blocks. Hawalbagh and Bhaisiyachhana blocks are very near to
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Almora town, which is an important commercial centre in the region. The
main businesses are cloth, grains, general merchants and others. Other
services include public service, educational and scientific services, medical
and health services, water supply and sanitation etc.
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Fertility and Mortality Pattern
Fertility is defined as the reproductive performance, measured by
number of births, of an individual, a couple, a group or a population.15 The
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study area is undergoing demographic transition, characterized by high
fertility and low mortality rates. The quest for reducing fertility is far from
realization while there is an appreciable decline in mortality rate. The
diferential birth and death rates, age of mother at birth, order of births, birthspacing, duration of breastfeeding, infant and child mortality and use of
contraceptives have profound influence on the fertility behaviour of the
people. This scenario puts a hindrance to the economic growth and
development because of population pressure. Therefore, it is necessary to
understand the characteristic features of fertility and mortality.
127
Crude Birth and Death Rates
Crude birth rate in the study area is 33 persons per 1000 population,
whereas crude death rate is only 14 persons per 1000 population. Better
provision of public health and hygiene facilities introduced recently has led
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to the reduction in death rate considerably, but there is no significant change
in the rate of fertility. The general fertility rate defined as number of births in
a year per 1000 women of normal reproductive age has come to 159.3 per
1000. The child-women ratio is also high. The number of infant (0-4 years)
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in relation to the maximum reproductive age of women (15- 49 years) per
1000 is 480.2. Thus high birth rate and low death rate are the chief
demographic features prevailing in the area. (Table 3.12 and 3.13)
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It is obvious from the table 3.12 that the frequency of births in a year
is 61 in which 52.5% is male and the rest 47.5% is female. The proportion of
males at birth is higher than females. This is also true to the aggregate deaths
of males in relation to females (table 3.13). Out of the total deaths of all
ages, 57.7% is that of males and the rest 42.3% is that of females. Among
the males, 33.3% died before reaching the age of five, whereas 6.7%
between 5 to 15 years, 26.7% between 15 to 50 years and 33.3% after 50
years of age. The percentage of deaths among females is relatively lower in
the age group of below five years. Out of the total deaths of females 27.3%
died before reaching the age of five, 18.2% between 5 to 15 years, 9.1%
128
between 15 to 50 years and 45.4% after 50 years of age. Infant death rate
among females is lower than among males, but it is reverse in the childhood
stage, i.e. 5-15 years. So also is the death rate among females higher above
50 years of age than males because of deficiency of nutrients and also
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neglect in later part of life. However, the rate of death of females during the
reproductive age is very low, while that of males in the same age group is
higher.
Table 3.12: Number of alive-children born between 2009 and December
Sex
Male
Es
Female
te
2010
Total
No of Births
Percent
32
52.5
29
47.5
61
100
Table 3.13: Number of Deaths in between 2009 and December 2010
Age
Group
Male
Female
No
%
No
%
5
33.3
3
27.3
5-15
1
6.7
2
18.2
15-50
4
26.7
1
9.1
50+
5
33.3
5
45.4
Total
15
100
11
100
(years)
0-5
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
129
Age of Mother at Birth
Age of mother influences the rate of fertility. There are 321 married
women of reproductive age (15-44 years) in the sampled households in
which 87.5% have borne a child, while 12.5% are infertile. The age of girls
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at marriage ranges from 12 to 29 years in which majority were married
before reaching an age of 20 years. (Table 3.14)
Table 3.14: Percent of Child-bearing Women by Age at Marriage
Age at Marriage
15-20
20-25
Es
25-30
Totl
Percent
63
19.6
te
15 and below
Number
188
58.6
60
18.7
10
3.1
321
100
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
It is clear that 19.6% child-bearing women were married at the age of
15 years and below, 58.6% between 15 to 20 years, 18.7% between 20 to 25
years and 3.1% between 25 to 30 years of age. Upto the age of 20 years
78.2% women were already married. This prevailing early marriage has
initiated high growth rate of population. About 42% of the women gave birth
to their first child before the age of 20 years. Although the minimum age of
marriage is legalized at 18 years for females, the rule is more often broken
130
than maintained in the rural society. Yet changes are due to the awareness of
people and the legal restriction slowly witnessed as 21.8% women were
married after 20 years of age in the sample households. There is variation in
the number of children among child-bearing women. Majority of child-
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bearing women have limited number of births. (Table 3.15)
Table 3.15: Number of Birth and Percentage of Child-bearing Women
Number of Birth
Child-bearing
1
41
2
66
4
14.6
23.5
38.1
58
20.6
58.7
52
18.5
77.2
33
11.7
88.9
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5
Cumulative %
14.6
te
3
Women Percent
6
14
5.0
93.9
7
10
3.6
97.5
8
7
2.5
100
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
It seems that the percentage of child-bearing women decreases with
increasing number of births. About 59% women give upto three births and
the rest 41% have more number of births.
The age of mother at birth increases the potential fertility. Those
women, who become mother at an early age, may give birth to much more
131
number of children than those who become mother at a later age, as shown
in table 3.14.
Table 3.16: Proportion of Births in Order by Age of Mother during
Birth
in
Age of Mother at Birth (in years)
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Birth
Total
Order
15-20 20-25
25-30
30-35
1st
79.05 37.82
9.51
5.64
2nd
18.24 39.54
24.71
8.06
5.56
3rd
2.70
30.04
19.35
5.56
15.38
18.65
te
18.05
4th
4.58
5th
Es
6th
349
Percent
15.86 37.41
45-50
30.12
25.94
25.0
16.67
7.69
12.43
10.65
21.77
22.22
7.69
6.86
1.52
14.52
22.22
15.38
3.43
5.64
16.67
30.77
1.82
11.11
23.08
0.75
8th
148
40-45
23.57
7th
Total No
35-40
263
124
36
13
933
28.19
13.29
3.86
1.39
100
Source: Field Survey, December, 2010
Table 3.16 indicates that out of the total number of ever-born children,
30.12% are of first order, whereas it is only 0.75% at the eighth order.
Maximum number of births takes place in the age of 20-25 years. First birth
is limited to the age group of 30-35 years, second birth of 35-40 years and
132
the remaining births of 40-45 years respectively. The maximum number of
births within 15-20 years is three, upto 25 years four, 30 years six and 35
years seven respectively. Eight births mostly take place above 35 years of
age. But in every age-group of motherhood there is variation in proportion of
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orders of children. Out of the total number of children born by 15-20 year
old mothers, 79.05% are in first order, 18.24% in second order and 2.7% in
third order respectively. This decrease is related to the differential birth
spacing. Early motherhood has more chances to give birth to greater number
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of children.
Birth Spacing
This also strongly influences the rate of fertility. As noted above,
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41.64% child-bearing women give birth to their first child in the age group
of 15-20 years. If the birth interval is small there will be more chances of
pregnancy. The use of contraceptives, some traditional ways of lengthening
space, such as increasing breastfeeding duration and living apart from
conjugal life are also there in the society. However, the differential levels of
consciousness have caused variation in the length of intervals. The
proportions of length of interval between births into different orders provide
a clear picture of birth-spacing in the study area. (Table 3.17)
133
Table 3.17: Proportion of Births in between Successive Birth Orders by
Length of Interval
Length
of
Interval between Birth Orders
Birth Interval Marriage–
1st-2nd
2nd-3rd
3rd - 4th 4th- 5th 5th- 6th 6th-
(years)
1st Birth
Birth
Birth
Birth
Birth
1.0
19.22
16.12 7.47
6.90
10.94 3.23
1.1-2.0
23.84
2.1-3.0
16.37
3.1-4.0
13.88
4.1-5.0
8.90
Twins
17.79
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Birth
17.65
28.57
28.93 31.03 32.76 28.12 18.75 35.29
57.14
7.44
13.22 11.21 15.62 12.50 5.88
14.29
4.96
4.60
7.02
5.17
6.03
3.12
3.23
3.45
4.67
12.50 5.88
0.83
3.23
281
242
174
116
64
32
17
3.64
2.81
2.86
2.79
2.81
3.00
2.48
2.79S.D 2.65
1.31
1.14
1.41
1.46
1.23
0.70
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Total Birth
1.69
8th
Birth
34.71 38.51 39.65 37.50 46.87 35.29
te
5.1
Birth
7th 7th-
7 Mean
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
Proportion of children by length of birth interval differs in case of
each successive pair of birth. From the date of girl’s marriage to her giving
first birth, the average length of interval is 3.64 years with 2.65 standard
deviation. Out of the total births, 19.22% have less than one year interval.
Likewise, 23.84% have from 1.1 to 2 years interval. The proportion
decreases as the length of birth interval increases. The maximum numbers of
children are born after one to two years of marriage. In between first and
134
second births, mean interval is 2.81 of years with 1.69 standard deviation.
There is not much variation in different pair of birth orders. The significant
proportions of children were born in spacing of 1.1 to 3 years interval.
Thus high proportion of children with low inter-birth spacing
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indicates the trend of high fertility rates. Majority of children are born with
less than three years interval. The long interval is related to use of
contraceptives and long duration of breastfeeding.
Infant and Child Mortality
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The incidence of infant and child mortality vitally affects the overall
fertility trend. The high mortality rate increases the demand of more birth for
security. There is variation in infant and child mortality rates due to several
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factors including that of varied lengths of breastfeeding among different
communities.
Out of the total stillborn and died children, 42.34% are infant and the
rest 57.66% are aged between 1- 4 years. Majority of infant deaths took
place between 1-6 months lactation period. Children’s deaths also vary with
lactation period. A significant proportion of all communities’ stillborn and
dead children died after 12-24 months’ breastfeeding. Fertility rates are,
thus, vitally affected by breastfeeding situation.
135
Differential Fertility and Mortality Patterns
High fertility and degree of differences in fertility are related to infant
and child mortality.16 Childbearing women of various socio-economic
groups have different fertility and mortality relationships. Therefore, the
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analysis of these relations in the study area is made on the basis of age at
marriage, education, caste group and landholding size group of the farm
families.
(a) Fertility and Mortality according to Age at Marriage of Women:
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Overall classification of women according to age at marriage is shown in
Table 3.18.
Table 3.18: Fertility and Mortality according to Age at Marriage of
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Women
Age
at No
of
Mean No of Children/Women
Mortality
Marriage(yrs) Women
15
63
Living
Dead
Born
3.27
0.35
3.62
in
9.67
15-20
188
2.55
0.31
2.86
10.84
20-25
60
2.00
0.45
2.45
18.37
25-30
10
1.60
0.40
2.00
20.00
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
Table 3.18 indicates that women married at the age of 15 years and
below have an average 3.37 living children. There is a decrease in the
average number of living children with an increasing marriage-age of
136
women, whereas the number of dead children increases. The increasing rate
of mortality is caused by the growth of nuclear families. Those children who
are bore in nuclear family are uncared for. Due to malnutrition and lack of
care of children, high mortality rate is obvious in an ascending order of the
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age groups during marriage.
(b) Fertility and Mortality according to Parent’s education: Parents’
education, especially that of the mothers’ is a very important variable in the
level of child-care, a situation which vitally affects the infant mortality
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trends and thereby the overall fertility trends. Table 3.19(a) shows that the
average number of living children to illiterate category of husbands is 3.31
per woman, whereas it is 3.10 for simply literates, 2.42 for primary level
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passed, 1.86 for lower Secondary level passed, 2.04 for Secondary level
passed, 2.67 for Higher Secondary and 1.25 for highly educated. The
mortality rates per woman also decreases from 21% among illiterates to
about 10% among Secondary level passed husbands.
According to the educational attainment of women themselves (table
3.19b), there is a moderate number of living children per educated woman.
On an average, both the number of living children and the rate of mortality
decrease in increasing level of educational attainment per woman. There is
no incidence of dead children among highly educated women. Thus, it seems
137
that fertility and mortality rates decrease in increasing level of education of
wife and husband as well.
Table 3.19 (a): Fertility and Mortality according to Husbands’
Education
of No
of
Mean No of Children/Women
Women
32
Dead
Born
3.31
0.88
4.19
Percentage
21.00
Literate
124
3.10
0.45
3.55
12.68
Primary level
29
2.42
0.17
2.59
6.56
Lower Secondary
76
1.86
0.13
1.99
6.53
Secondary level
53
2.04
0.23
2.27
10.13
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Education
Illiterate
Mortality in
Living
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Level
Higher Secondary 3
2.67
2.67
0.00
Highly Educated
1.25
1.25
0.00
4
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Source: Field Survey, December 2010
Table 3.19 (b): Fertility and Mortality according to Wives’ Education
Level
of No
of
Mean No of Children/Women
Mortality in
Education
Illiterate
Women
192
Living
Dead
Born
2.93
0.50
3.43
Percentage
14.58
Literate
93
2.23
0.14
2.37
5.91
Primary level
7
2.29
0.14
2.43
5.76
Lower Secondary
16
1.44
0.06
1.50
4.00
Secondary level
12
1.00
1.00
0.00
1
2.00
2.00
0.00
Higher Secondary
Highly Educated
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
138
(c) Fertility and Mortality according to Women in Different
Landholdings Size Group: Landholdings size seems to be an important
factor influencing the rate of fertility. It is true that larger farms need more
labour input in agriculture than small and marginal farms. They are,
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however, in a position to have hired labour to work in the farm operations by
payments. But smaller farmers equally need more manpower to make out
their livelihood in a state of poverty. Whenever there is a dearth of food for
subsistence, smaller farmers tend to multiply their activities even upto
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uneconomic level. This process of involution demands more working hands
which give impetus to increase fertility. The trend of fertility and mortality
according to women in different landholdings size group is shown in table
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3.20.
Table 3.20: Fertility and Mortality according to Women in Different
Landholdings Size Group
Landholding Size No
of
Mean No of Children/Women
Mortality in
Group
Marginal
Women
48
Living
Dead
Born
2.48
0.52
3.00
Percentage
17.33
Small
83
2.64
0.32
2.96
10.81
Medium
92
2.65
0.38
3.03
12.54
Large
98
2.45
0.24
2.69
8.92
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
139
Table 3.20 shows that the fertility is very high among medium farm
families followed by marginal, small and large farm families respectively.
There is a small difference in the average number of living children per
woman, but the percentage of mortality is very high among marginal farm
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families’ women. The percentage of mortality raises upto 17.33% among
them. It is followed by the cases obtained in medium, small and large farm
families respectively. There is high fertility as well as infant and child
mortality among marginal farm families. Medium farm families also account
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for high fertility and mortality pattern.
Thus, overall fertility and mortality patterns are very much influenced
by different factors such as expansion of nuclear family, low level of female
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education, poor economic condition of socially deprived population and
smallness of landholdings size or landlessness. In relation to mortality the
rate of fertility is higher, but in lower caste group both are equally high.
Migration
The rapid growth of population pressure on resources and consequent
decrease, after a level, in per capita resource productivity and employment
opportunities have enhanced the extent of emigration of population in the
study area. The factors like landlessness and
near landlessness,
underemployment and unemployment and indebtedness are the root causes
of the ‘muscle drain’ to urban centres and even across the border of India.
140
The widespread food deficiency and poverty have increased the trend of
migration than before. The mobility of population ranges from short time to
long time in essence. Those who are staying outside for six and more than
six months are taken into consideration in the present study.
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Volume of Migration
The pace of outgoings is ever increasing due to deteriorating
economic condition of the farmers during recent years. Out of the total
sampled households, 42.7% is involved in migration process (table 3.21).
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As indicated by table 3.21, 63.6% households of Kshetriy and others
fall under migrants households. These are followed by Brahmins and
Scheduled Castes under study. The higher proportion of Kshetries and others
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are related to their traditional attachment with military service. These people
consider that military service is prestigious as well as reliable source of
earnings to meet the subsistence requirements of household expenditure.
Brahmins and Scheduled Castes are also much involved. The decreasing per
capita productivity and underemployment to both skilled and non-skilled
manpower have forced them to migrate in search of jobs. Therefore, the
number of migrants’ household is eventually more in higher caste groups.
The effects of deteriorating agro-economy have also caused large scale
migration of Scheduled Castes who make their livelihood by working at the
141
farms of higher caste groups. But long distance migration of Scheduled
Castes is less.
Table 3.21: Number & Percentage of Migrants by Caste Groups
Number of Households
Percentage
Brahmin
148
36.5
Kshetriya
44
63.6
Scheduled Caste
Others
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Migrants
46
30.4
11
63.6
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
The total number of migrants from different caste groups is 175 which
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is equal to 13.24% of economically active population. They not only migrate
to urban centres within the country but also abroad. Whatever the
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distribution, the volume of migration shows an increasing trend.
Duration of Migration
The flow level of migration has immensely increased in the recent
years. The percentage distribution of migrants by duration of staying
outside, from the date of departure to the present day is shown in table 3.22.
It shows that 47.4% of the total migrants migrated during the last five
years. This incidence was only 21.1% during past 5-10 years period. There is
a marked increase in outgoings in the recent years because of increasing
population pressure on limited land resources.
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Table 3.22: Percentage of Migrants by Duration of Staying Outside
Number
Percent
5 and less
83
47.4
5-10
37
21.1
10-15
25
14.3
15-20
17
9.7
20-25
25-30
Above 30
Total
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Duration (years)
4
2.3
6
3.4
3
1.7
175
100
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Source: Field Survey, December 2010
Purpose of Migration
The decline in per capita productivity has forced large number of
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villagers to purchase marketed foodgrains. Population pressure has not only
demanded additional food but also has created the problem of
underemployment and unemployment. Transfer of surplus labour has led to
subsidize food deficits and other household expenses. Being a maledominated society, it is the responsibility of male household head to meet
expenses. Therefore the head himself or elder sons of the family generally
go outside in search of gainful employment opportunities.
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Selective Migration
Migration is, in fact, both age and sex-specific in nature. Out of the
total number of migrants in preference, 98.3% are males and only 1.7% are
females. The domination of male migration is mainly because of the nature
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of availability of jobs at the destination and the traditional responsibility of
family maintenance on male earners. There are limited numbers of light
industrial establishments in the towns of the district which provide jobs to
female migrants. Therefore, in both long and short distance migration, male
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dominance is obvious. Overwhelming majority of the migrants happen to be
young in age; over 83% being below 30 years. (Table 3.23)
Table 3.23 indicates that 28.6% migrants happen to be below 20
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years, 38.9% of 20-25 years, 16.0% of 25-30 years and 9.1% of 30-35 years
of age group. Only 7.4% were of 35 years and above. The highest
percentage of migrants, i.e. 38.9% was of 20-25 years of age. Migrants are
both married and unmarried. Those already married invariably leave their
family at home. If at all, they take their family only for short duration. This
is again possible only when migrants are from extended families. Nuclear
families have less chance to do so. During survey it was found that 12
married women accompanied their husbands for short duration. These
women are not included as migrants in the present study.
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Table 3.23: Percentage of Migrants by Age Group
Number
Percent
Below 20
50
28.6
20-25
68
38.9
25-30
28
16.0
30-35
16
9.1
35-40
40 and Above
Total
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Age Group (in years)
4
2.3
9
5.1
175
100
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
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Educational status of migrants provides an explanation of the quality
of manpower. It is assumed that migration is mostly constituted by educated
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males in the population. (Table 3.24)
Table 3.24 shows that 4.6% migrants were illiterate at the time of
migration. Out of the total, simple literates constitute 34.9%, whereas
Primary level educated account for 10.9%, Lower Secondary 29.1% and
Secondary 17.1% respectively. The highly educated constitute only 1.7% of
the total. Since the minimum qualification of Lower Secondary level is
required for military service, many youths were qualified upto this level at
the time of their departure. This also explains the students’ dropout and the
maximum percentage of migrants, educated upto Lower Secondary level.
Out of total, only 20.5% had Secondary level and above education. Overall,
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95.4% migrants are literate which signifies the higher mobility of literate
population.
Table 3.24: Educational Status of Migrants (in Percentage)
Number
Percent
Illiterate
8
4.6
Literate
61
34.9
19
10.9
51
29.1
30
17.1
3
1.7
Primary level
Lower Secondary
Secondary level
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Senior Secondary
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Level of Education
Highly Educated
3
1.7
Total
175
100
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
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Measures of Birth Control / Family Planning
High population pressure among other factors is highly instrumental
in creating socio-economic and environmental problems. Migration can not
solve the problems of over-population, especially when the scope of
employment opportunities gets shrunk at the destination. Therefore, birth
control measures are the only option to check the threats of population
explosion. In fact there are two types of devices of birth control, such as use
of contraceptives and other mechanical devices and practice of different
preventive measures. Here, it is eventual to measure the people’s perception
towards the popular concepts about population control. (Table 3.25)
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Table 3.25: Perceived Concepts regarding Population Control (in %)
Concepts
Responses
No
NA
Family Planning is essential
79.0
20.3
0.7
Migration can control population growth
15.0
74.7
10.3
Enhanced food production can control population growth
64.3
27.3
8.3
Late marriage is a measure to control population growth
92.0
4.3
3.7
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Yes
Source: Field Survey, December 2010
The multiple responses to four different concepts indicate the
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consciousness of residing population towards birth control. Family planning,
food production and late marriage are perceived by more than 50%
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respondents. Among these, delayed marriage is the foremost effective
measure of birth control in the perception of the people. Separation of
husband due to migration being a short term solution is perceived by only
15.0% respondents. Thus, late marriage followed by family planning and
increased food production come in order as effective measures of population
control. Still local people believe that high fertility is not a problem but it is
the supply of food production which has created the problem. However this
concept ranks in third position after family planning and late marriage.
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Use of Contraceptives
The mechanical contraceptive devices are the means of modern
invention of birth control. Although pills, condoms etc are in use, vasectomy
and laparoscopy are the permanent ways of sterilization. In the study area, at
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least one person from 27% households has undergone permanent family
planning. Out of the total sterilized couples (80), 61.2% are the husbands.
This shows that vasectomy is more popular than laparoscopy. Women are
considered as a major part of agricultural labour force and are, therefore,
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given less preference to undergo means of family planning. At present, the
deteriorating agro-economy and increasing cost of rearing children have
initiated them too.
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Practice of Preventive Measures
Besides the use of contraceptives, some traditional preventive
measures of fertility are still persistent in the society. Late marriage,
withdrawal and abstinence, celibacy, lengthening breastfeeding period etc
are traditionally practiced in order to control the birth. The responses of
household-heads towards six different measures are ranked in table 3.26.
Table 3.26 indicates that late marriage is perceived as the best
measure of birth control. It is followed by withdrawal and abstinence, use of
contraceptives, celibacy and checking infant mortality respectively. Except
use of contraceptives, other five measures are preventive in nature and are
148
practiced in the study area. With increase in educational level, there has been
remarkable progress in the implementation of preventive measures than
permanent sterilization.
Table 3.26: Response towards Measures of Birth Control
Use of Contraceptives
Mean Score of Responses Rank
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Measures
4.06
III
4.99
I
3.12
V
Withdrawal and Abstinence
4.45
II
Celibacy
3.47
IV
1.70
VI
Late Marriage
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Check Infant Mortality
Lengthening Breastfeeding
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Source: Field Survey, December 2010
In summary, demographic structure of the study area is characterized
by high dependency ratio and fertility and low mortality. There is overpopulation in relation to endowment of resources. People are getting more
aware of the population problem and are increasingly getting conscious to
reduce fertility to keep up the balance between population and resources for
sustained growth and development of the area. Population pressure has
already gone beyond the threshold level of sustenance. High fertility and
child mortality pattern, especially among lower caste groups aggravate the
problem. But, gradually people are getting sensitive towards population
explosion and its effects on local economy. Therefore, various measures of
149
birth control are perceived and adopted to prevent the future generations fro
scarcity.
Language and Religion
As many as 15 dialects are prevalent in the study area. The
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multiplicity of dialects is more apparent than real because as many as 80.5%
of the population speaks only one language- Hindi. The rural population of
all blocks in the study area has two spoken languages- Hindi and Kumaoni.
Most of the villages generally use only the Kumaoni. They speak Hindi only
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with the persons who do not know the Kumaoni language. Only 1-2% of the
population speaks Urdu and Punjabi, especially in urban centres.
Table 3.27: Religious Composition in Almora
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Religions
Population
Percentage
Total
Rural
Urban
total
Hindu
612994
568117
44877
98.57
Muslim
7283
3126
4157
1.17
Christian
942
297
645
0.15
Sikh
483
320
163
0.07
Buddhists
181
145
36
0.03
Jain
33
30
3
0.005
Others
11
11
0
0.001
Total
621927
572046
49881
100
in
Source: Sankhikiya Patrika, Almora 2011
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Religious beliefs do play very important role as the tribals and others
have significant attachment with the settlement. Table 3.27 reveals the
grouping and concentration of main religious groups, i.e. Hindus, Muslims
and Christians etc in the study area. The Hindus form an overwhelmingly
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large percentage (98.57%) of the population. Muslims rank as the second
important religion with 1.17% proportion in the total population. Other
religious groups, the Sikhs, the Jains, the Christians and the Buddhists
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comprise the remaining 0.26% of the population.
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●
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Singh
(eds),
Population
Growth,
Environment
and
development: Issues, Impacts and Responses, VaranasiEnvironment and Development Study Centre, pp 269-304.
151
3. Pitt, D C (1986) – “Crisis, Pseudocrisis or Supercrisis, Poverty, Women
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9. Official Portal, Census Office of India
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Am. Gr. Pp 43-94
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John Wily and Sons, New York, p 77
13. Ibid, pp 94-95
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14. Ghosh, B N (1985) – “Fundamentals of Population Geography”, New
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16. Kesarwani, B R (1989) – Fertility and Differential Fertility, new Delhi:
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