『地球社会統合科学研究』4 号 1 ～ 12
Integrated Sciences for Global Society Studies
No. 4 ，pp．1 ～ 12
The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood’s Recruitment Strategies:
Economic Activities and Social Services
モハメド
シャミ
Mohamed Chami Mkouboi＊
Abstract
Egyptian people? What is the impact of those activities
on the EMB’s recruitment strategies or mechanisms
This paper outlines and highlights the economic
since the 1930s? How can we evaluate the contribution
and social services provided by Egyptian Muslim
made by the provision of economic, welfare and social
B r o t h e r h o o d （E M B） t o t h e E g y p t i a n s o c i e t y .
services to the overall appeal of the EMB? To answer
Furthermore, this study attempts to examine the
the above-mentioned research questions, Section 1
political impact of those activities within the Egyptian
presents the historical background which facilitated
society in favour of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood’s
the use of economic activities, and social and welfare
political struggle. The study divides the result into
services, as an efficient tool for recruitment purposes.
economic activities, and social and welfare services.
Section 2 presents and explains the methodology.
In the case of economic activities, the study claims
Section 3 surveys the relevant literature while Section
that the EMB mainly engaged its activities through
4 presents the results of the study by providing
its non-member sympathizers while the social and
a detailed explanation about the involvement of
welfare services are mostly visible in the health and
EMB’s economic, social and welfare provisions in
the educational sectors. The visibility of the social and
its recruitment within the Egyptian society. Finally,
welfare services has been described by some scholars
Section 5 presents the conclusion to this paper.
as a turned blind eye from the government authorities
toward the group’s robust social welfare sector.
＊
PhD’ student in Political Science, Kyushu University.
Research Fields: Middle East Politics, the Egyptian
Introduction
The main objective of this paper is to present and
examine the economic, welfare and social assistances
Muslim Brotherhood.
１．Background
provided by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood（EMB）
It has been argued by many scholars that the rise
toward the Egyptian society as one of its strategic
of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood（EMB）as the
activities which lies behind the EMB’s political
main opposition actor to the Egyptian authorities was
influence. In a ranking of factors which contributed
closely related to the economic and social conditions of
to building the support structure of the EMB in
the Egyptian society. The emergence of the economic
Egypt, this factor would rank third in terms of overall
and social activities is the result of more than 80
impact after the role played by the ideology and the
years of poor economic performance on the part of the
organization’ sources. Nevertheless, the provision of
government. The start of the Egyptian economic crisis
economic, welfare and social assistances remains a key
was noticed by domestic and international experts in
factor in any discussion of EMB recruitment strategies.
2004. According to the famous Egyptian economist
This paper will shed light on this factor by providing
Ahmed Al-Sayed El-Nagar, the Egyptian economy
detailed answers to the following questions: What do
achieved less growth during Mubarak’s regime for the
we know about the provision of economic activities,
first time in half a century. El-Nagar states that in the
welfare and social services by the EMB toward the
1950s, the economic growth rate was 6% and in the
1
Mohamed Chami Mkouboi
early 1960s, it reached 8.3%, but later decreased to 4%
structure of the organization. Furthermore, highlighting
in 2004（Al-Anani 2007, 2）
. In addition, according to
and evaluating the role played by the economic
the International Monetary Fund（IMF）
, the Egyptian
activities and the social and welfare services would
external debt reached about 31 billion USD in 2005
help scholars to understand the theory building and the
compared to 26 billion USD in 2001. In the case of
political impact of these undertaking activities.
domestic debt, this reached 471 billion USD at the end
of March 2005. The latter amount represented 94%
of the Egyptian GDP at the time（Al-Anani 2007, 2）
.
２．Methodology
Furthermore, in Egypt, the inflation rate reached higher
As a mainly qualitative study, the research described
levels in 2004 and 2005, hovering around 11-12%. This
here embodies also both quantitative and qualitative
inflation rate is the highest it has been in a quarter
perspective. This is because the study is about
century under Mubarak’s regime（Al-Anani 2007, 55）
.
evaluating and analyzing primary sources and selective
secondary sources. In the case of the secondary
Correspondingly, the readers may want to know the
sources, several scholarly works have been examined
significant impact of the Egyptian economic crisis from
in order to focus on the empirical and field research
2004 on the Brotherhood’s recruiting advantages. First,
before identifying the result of the study. In addition,
we might look at the social and economic consequences
as the research topic of the master study at Kyushu
behind this situation. For instance, the crisis created
University from 2010 to 2012 was about analyzing the
a pessimistic climate among Egyptians toward the
EMB’s political approach, the author could investigate
government. The need for political change became the
and have access to selective primary and secondary
people’s slogan as they sought a new political order
sources used in this study during the PhD course
capable of helping to reduce poverty, marginalization,
started from October 2012. Furthermore, the memo of
deprivation and unemployment（Al-Anani 2007, 55）.
the EMB’s founder, called ‘Rasa’il Hassan Al-Banna’
In fact, according to the IMF, in 2005 there were 30
played a great role to highlight the results of this
million Egyptians living under the poverty line（on less
particular paper. Furthermore, through personal emails,
than 2 USD = 239.346 JPY a day）. Huge corruption,
the leading scholar of the Middle East studies, Khalil
the political and economic failures with high inflation,
Al-Anani was kind enough to respond to questions,
the increase of living cost, especially after liberalising
especially about the most reliable scholarly books or
the exchange rate in 2003, all made people worry
journals for analysis purposes.†
about their future. Furthermore, the unemployment
rate reached 30% in 2003（Al-Anani 2007, 56）
.
†
The Project on Middle East Political Science
（POMEPS）is a collaborative network that aims to
Under the above circumstances, it seems that EMB’s
increase the impact of political scientists specializing
economic and social assistance played a great role to
in the study of the Middle East in the public sphere
attract at least low-income Egyptians who did not get
and in the academic community. POMEPS, directed
any kind of assistance from successive governments.
by Marc Lynch, is based at the Institute for Middle
For these reasons, we might understand the role
East Studies at the George Washington University
played by private sector firms and services offered by
and is supported by the Carnegie Corporation and
the organization within the Egyptian society. However,
the Henry Luce Foundation. For more information,
in another published paper, I suggested that the
see http://www.pomeps.org.
Brotherhood’s economic and social assistances are not
the main factor behind the EMB’s mobilization. This
study assumes that the economic and social services
are the third most important strategies used by the
EMB to recruit members and attract sympathizers,
after the ideological impact and the organizational
2
３．Literature Review
As far as the literature review is concerned, Mitchell
（1969）noted that,
The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood’s Recruitment Strategies: Economic Activities and Social Services
“In its industrial and commercial operations, the
campaigns such as the parliamentary election of 2005.
Brotherhood sought not only to prove the viability
Nevertheless, the same author stated that 75% of those
of Islamic economic theory but also to provide itself
whom he surveyed, on the reason behind choosing the
and the membership with profitable earnings. In
Brotherhood’s candidates in the 2005 parliamentary
its labour activity, the society（the Brotherhood）
election, voted for the organization because of their
sought not only to demonstrate the feasibility and
religious beliefs（Al-Anani 2007, 75）. This data shows
desirability of harmonious labour-management
that even though the provision of economic and social
relations within an Islamic framework, but also,
services play a great role, it is not the primary reason
and perhaps more importantly, to establish itself as
for the EMB’s political power.
the spokesman for the needs and expectations of
the vast and inarticulate body of Egyptian labour, a
Newly published studies originating in the
fact of great significance in its claim to authority on
Georgetown University Workshop clearly identify
the Egyptian political scene”（Mitchell 1969, 274）
.
that the literature on Islamist economic activities and
social services is heavily weighted toward Egypt and
Mitchell（1969）emphasized two main factors behind
the Greater Cairo area more specifically. A lot more
the Brotherhood’s purpose to engage itself in economic
attention gets paid to the EMB’s activities than to
and social activities. First is the Islamic theory which
what George Washington University’s Atia（2014）
claims that Islam is the solution of all problems. Second
describes as a “plethora of organisations providing
is the organization’s political tactics to present itself
social services in the name of Islam”（Lynch 2014, 4）
.
as the alternative to corrupted authorities. These
Again, this statement hints at the potential influence
two reasons have been discussed by some other
of the social services provided by the Brotherhood to
scholars; however, like others, Mitchell（1969）did not
Egyptian society without demonstrating and comparing
highlight how far the economic and social services
with other features of the same organization, which is a
changed Egyptians’ voting behaviour in favour of the
common flaw weakness of scholarship on this subject.
Brotherhood compared to other variables such as
their ideology and political agenda, their organizational
Indeed, scholars often highlight the EMB’s economic,
structure or their engagement with media and public
welfare and social services to the Egyptian people
communication strategies.
without evaluating and positioning its impact compared
to other variables. For example, we may agree that in
Flor Khalil al-Anani（2）“the Muslim Brotherhood’s
the U.S, media plays a great role in influencing many
position as the most prominent opposition group in
Americans to vote for the Democratic Party. However,
Egypt especially during the era of Hosni Mubarak was
compared to the fund support contribution to the party,
often mentioned in the literature immediately followed
the Democratic Party’s ruling agenda or its mainstream
by a reference to mosque-based charity and community
foreign policy might be the most powerful variable
service work allegedly used to buy loyalty of the poor
factor among others in terms of mobilizing Americans
masses that were felt abandoned by the incapable
to vote for the Democrats. Therefore, the author of
government”（Al-Anani 2014, 21）
. Al-Anani stated that
this study examined the economic, welfare and social
the impact of economic and social service activities on
services provided by the EMB to the Egyptian society
the recruitment of members and supporters could be
in a comparative perspective as one of the most
explained by three factors. The first two factors relate
important factors in explaining the EMB’s political base.
to the high rate of unemployment and the deprivation
and poverty found in Egyptian society. Egyptian
society perceived a need for political change. The third
factor assumes that the organization’s economic plans
and continued commitment to reducing poverty and
the unemployment rate featured heavily during election
The Impact of Economic Activities and
Social Services on EMB’s Political Power
within the Egyptian Society
It is difficult for scholars to provide an accurate
3
Mohamed Chami Mkouboi
statistical account of the EMB’s economic activities and
（1969）stated that the EMB was to take 2.5% of the
its social services, since the organization was under
capital and profit of the company annually for purposes
severe restrictions imposed by successive governments.
of zakat**. The enterprise was to pursue ‘investment
However, certain media have estimated speculated
activity’ when funds became accessible from the sale
‡
that the size of the organization’s investment in
of stocks at ‘wholesale prices’ in agreement with the
Egypt reached seven billion Egyptian Pounds（EGP）
‘requirements of the Brothers’ and selling at ‘suitable
equals to 917,648,398.24 USD. The following section
prices’. Profit would be distributed yearly on the
presents and examines the EMB’s total budget for
following schedule: 10% for the directors’ fees, 20%
economic activities and social services. The objective
for the reserve fund, and 50% for the shareholders（p.
is to examine the contribution of these activities to
275）
.
furthering the EMB’s political goals.
§
（2007, June 14）. 7 billion EGP is the Brotherhood’s
‡
investment in Egypt. Wafd’s Newspaper.
According to his book, Mitchell noticed that “The
primary source for the life of Banna（EMB’s founder）
and the first few years of the EMB’s history was
his autobiographical material collected and compiled
４. １　Economic Activities
from the pages of the Society’s newspapers and
magazines”（Mitchell 1969,1）. The author of this
This study defines ‘economic activities’ as all
particular paper has a copy of the collection and
financial, commercial, trade, industrial or budgetary
his memoir but in Arabic language. However, as
activities which involve the use of money. Detailed
Mitchell’ source is in English, I prefer to deal with
information about the EMB’s economic activities is
his source beside the Arab’s version for verification
provided by Mitchell（1969）
, among other scholars . In
purposes.
his book “The Society of the Muslim Brothers”, Mitchell
（1969）stated,
** “Zakat is the 3rd of the five pillars of Islam. If one
possesses a certain level of wealth, called Nisab,
payment of Zakah becomes obligatory. So, at current
“In 1938, the Society embarked on its first major
rates, if the total of one’s assets like cash, gold, silver,
venture, the founding of the company for Islamic
shares etc is £250, one should pay 2.5% as Zakah on
transactions（sharikat al-mu’amalat al-islamiyya）.
all assets.
The original announcement declared the company
Islamic Aid uses 100% of Zakah and other donations
to be an attempt to provide the means for gain
to help make immediate and long-term improvements
within the framework of Islamic principles. Initial
to the lives of people affected by poverty, war and
capitalization was to be £E4,000 divided into 1,000
disaster by providing people with food and water;
shares of £E4 each; stock could be purchased in one
healthcare and the skills and means to help start
payment or over a period of time not to exceed
earning a decent living”（Islamic Aid 2012）.
forty months at a minimum of period of time（PT）
10 monthly. Management was to be in the hands
According to the same author,
of a board of directors composed of a chairman,
“The first sale of stock was rapidly completed
treasurer, and seven other members; members of
and the company expanded from its initial capital
the board had to have at least five shares in the
value of £E4,000 to £E20,000 in 1945. In 1946,
company, and the chairman and treasurer at least
a new issue of stock was advertised which was
ten”（Mitchell 1969, 275）
.
to increase the capital to £E30,000. In 1947 the
company was combined with another enterprise
Thus, the company is not fully owned by the EMB,
called the Arabic Company for Mines and Quarries
but belongs to both the organization and its individual
（al-sharikat al-‘arabiyya li’l-manajim wa’ lmahajir）
members. This arrangement can be better explained
which had a capital value of £E60, 000. The various
by looking at the division of annual profit. Mitchell
activities of the two groups included moving and
4
The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood’s Recruitment Strategies: Economic Activities and Social Services
trucking, automotive repairs, and the production
the EMB’s members had to keep a low profile when
of cement, tiles, and gas cooking equipment. In
carrying out their business activities. For example, Al-
1947, the quarrying end of the merger decided to
Shater was arrested and sentenced on three occasions
modernize traditional techniques and placed orders
in the past, spending 2, 7 and 10 years respectively in
in Europe for equipment for cutting and polishing
detention. He is currently serving a fourth sentence,
marble. The equipment was sent, but remained on
since July 2013 as a result of the military coup he
the docks of Alexandria and deteriorated during
carried out together with other key members of the
the crisis of 1948 which brought an end to the
EMB including the General Guide（leader）
, Mohammed
economic activity of the Society. After its return to
Badie. These suppressive actions from the government
legality in 1950, the Society sued the government
inspired the organization to focus on social services
for its losses. A larger enterprise, earlier in
rather than economic activities because the first is
inspiration but later in fruition, was the Society’s
more helpful to the Egyptian society directly compared
printing press（Mitchell 1969, 275-6）
.
to the economic activities.
As an experienced organization in the field of
Al-Anani（2007）noticed that the EMB’s wealth is
providing social services to the Egyptian society,
divided into ３ categories: First, there are the private
some of the active members became businessmen
companies entirely owned by the organization and
and pursued commercial, financial, and other service
which directly generate profit for the EMB. Second,
activities inside Egypt. Adly （2 0 1 4） stated that
there are the private companies owned by members of
these businessmen also have access to commercial
the Brotherhood but in which the EMB itself does not
and financing networks outside Egypt when the
have shares. Third, there are mixed private companies
Brotherhood was banished from Egypt in the fifties
owned by both the organization and some EMB
and sixties, starting out in the Arab Gulf and extending
members（Al-Anani 2007, 56）. However, these three
to other countries such as Turkey in the eighties and
categories are considered as EMB owned companies
nineties. With these economic activities, the EMB
by many Egyptians. Nevertheless, EMB entrepreneurs
became famous among many scholars in the domain
are not limited to people inside the Brotherhood’s
of its social services for recruiting purposes. The most
organization, but also extended to networks of
famous example of a successful Egyptian businessman
businessmen known for their Brotherhood leanings or
active in the EMB is Khairat al-Shater. He acted as the
sympathies such as Abdelrahman al-Seoudi†† .
Brotherhood’s deputy supreme guide and succeeded in
accumulating a fortune of 80 million Egyptian pounds
In addition, Adly（2014）stated that “what sets these
（EGP）equal to 10,482,720.00 USD. His companies
businessmen apart is that their activities are mostly
once employed about 1000 people in Egypt（Al-Anani
focused in the commercial, financial, and service sectors,
2007, 57）
. Hassan Malek, who is known as the EMB’s
such as the wholesale and retail sales. This may be due
richest millionaire, led the Malek Group, which runs
to the fact that access to assets such as land or divested
the Egyptian branches of a Turkish furniture company,
public-sector companies needed for activities such as
Istikbal, a clothing brand called Sarar, and other
industry, construction, or tourism have historically
companies. According to Al-Anani, Malek’s wealth
been limited to the network of people close to the
reached 250 million EGP equal to 32,894,733.79 USD
state during Mubarak’s regime. This has left others
（Al-Anani 2007, 57; Hansen et. al, 2012）
. Furthermore,
to focus on less capital-intensive activities and the
Malek used to employ about “500 workers whom
service sectors’ enterprises which also lend themselves
the majority is the EMB’s members” （Al-anani
to reduce the risk of confiscation or retrieval of these
2007, 57 my translation）. There are other successful
funds in case of a clash with the authorities. While they
EMB businessmen. However, as we have previously
may remain targets, by not holding wealth in fixed
suggested, the continuous clash between the authorities
assets like land or concentrated in larger companies,
and the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood meant that
Brotherhood’s businessmen may more easily relocate
5
Mohamed Chami Mkouboi
or hide their assets to reduce the risk of seizure”（Adly
country. Accordingly, Mitchell（1969）stated, “In his
2014）
. Hidden business provision might be monitored
early reform messages, Banna made public health an
by sympathizers instead of the EMB’s members
important part of social reform concentrating especially
themselves. This explanation suggests that the EMB is
on the dissemination of information and the increase
not necessarily influenced and supported by the EMB’s
of facilities and personnel to tackle the vast national
members, but sympathizers instead.
health problem” （p.2 8 9）. This problem continued
to devastate a large amount of the population who
Abdelrahman al-Seoud is considered as one of the
wished to get healthcare from the public hospitals. The
most successful businessman often connected to
Brotherhood intervened through its already established
the Brotherhood; however, he denied several times
rover units. “The purpose of these units was to provide
that he doesn’t belong to the Muslim Brotherhood.
physical training and athletics to supplement members’
However, the authority treats him as a member of
spiritual and intellectual training”（p. 174）. Based
the Brotherhood.
on this experience, the rovers were the first groups
††
from the organization to become involved in providing
４. ２　Social Services and Welfare
healthcare:
The term ‘social services’ might be defined as a
T he first societal groups used to disseminate
system that is organized by the local government to
hygienic knowledge and bring medical care to
help people who have financial or family problems. In
the countryside were the rovers. Local rover
the case of ‘welfare’, it might be interpreted as the
units undertook the actual work of cleaning up
general health, happiness and safety of a person or any
the streets and alleys of the villages, encouraged
practical of financial help that is provided, often by the
villagers to use hospitals and clinics and provided
government, for people need it. Combining both terms
simple first aid. These activities were part of a
results in the definition of social services as a means for
general ‘social programme’ established for the
the achievement of welfare. In this regard, the study
rovers in 1943 in revulsion against the filth and
examines and analyses the social services provided by
the sanitation and health problems of the mass of
the（EMB）to the Egyptian society. Al-Arian（2014）
Egyptians, rural and urban. Although this kind of
noticed that the EMB’s involvement in social services
activity gradually passed to the medical section
posed a big challenge to the Egyptian authorities: “The
of the Society, the rovers continued to be a useful
rise of social welfare institutions demonstrates that the
medium for dealing with the medical problems
Muslim Brotherhood emerged as a direct competitor to
of the villages. It will also be recalled that Banna
the state in the provision of services. Coupled with that,
offered the services of the rover groups to the
the continued existence of an insular organizational
ministry of health during the epidemics of 1945
structure supervised by the Muslim Brotherhood’s
and 1947 to serve in the stricken areas where
Guidance Bureau gives the appearance of a non-state
needed（Mitchell 1969, 289-290）.
entity that seeks to displace the regime and impose its
vision of a decidedly Islamic state”（Al-Arian 2014,8）.
Furthermore, the creation of a medical section within
The next section mainly presents and examines the
the organization facilitated the task beside the rise
most influential social services provided by the EMB:
of the EMB’ members majoring from medicine. “The
health and education services.
medical section, although conceived independently,
was very rapidly made part of the larger ‘welfare and
４. ２. １　Health Services
social services section’ organized in 1945 to take the
place of the former ‘social assistance office’. The new
From the beginning of the EMB’s social activities, the
section was organized ‘independently’ of the EMB in
founder of the EMB considered health services to be a
order, to benefit from government aid. In 1946, the
priority in order to address the health problems in the
Society registered 102 welfare agency branches with
6
The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood’s Recruitment Strategies: Economic Activities and Social Services
the Ministry of Social Affairs. In 1948, it claimed 500
advantage of the greater political openness of Sadat’s
branches all over Egypt”（Mitchell 1969, 290）. The
regime, the Brotherhood tried to reopen its social
EMB’s organizational structure shows a section of
services. In doing so, it promoted a new generation
‘services’. Under this section, there is a sub-medical
of leaders. Al-Arian（2014）mentioned that “Many
section; this latter section is still considered among the
of the leaders of this movement were students at
busiest sections within the organization.
Cairo University’s College of Medicine where, as part
of their medical training, they treated patients in a
In addition, there was intensive work inside the
wing of Qasr al-Aini Hospital that housed prisoners
medical section to increase the number of dispensaries,
seeking medical care. It was during the course of
clinics, hospitals and so forth. In view of the importance
those interactions that young leaders like Abdel
of the medical section, Mitchell noticed:
Moneim Aboul Fotouh, Essam el-Errian, and Helmi alGazzar would come to meet veterans of the outlawed
“ This largely educational programme of the
Muslim Brotherhood for the very first time”（p.8）.
Society was augmented in November 1944 by the
This new generation helped advance the role of the
establishment of a ‘medical section’ by the doctors
health services. Since then, scholars started to pay
in the organization. Its objectives were defined
attention to the political agenda pursued by Islamist
as the establishment of dispensaries, clinics, and
social activities. In this regard, Al-Arian（2014）noticed
hospitals, the intensification of the programme
that “By the 1980s, scholars had begun to tackle the
for ‘spreading the message of hygiene and the
question of militant violence and the revolutionary
raising of the health level of all classes by all
potential of these same movements in the wake of the
means available. The first dispensary was opened
so-called “Islamic resurgence.” However, as the Muslim
at that time in the offices of the leading doctor
Brotherhood’s presence in society became “normalized”
member （Muhammad Ahmad Suleiman）, and
during Anwar Sadat’s regime, the authority turned a
within a month it was transferred to the Society’s
blind eye toward the group’s development of a robust
headquarters. In 1946 the clinic moved to its own
social welfare sector. Consequently, a new wave
building near the headquarters and added to itself
of scholarly studies focused on the role that these
a pharmacy headed by a registered pharmacist.
institutions play in the promotion of Islamic activism”
This clinic, which soon professed to be a small
（p.7）.
hospital, claimed to have treated 21,677 patients in
1945; 29,039 in 1946, and 51,300 in 1947. From the
The health services provided by the Brotherhood
time of its opening, smaller clinics were started
were improved during Hosni Mubarak’s regime.
wherever possible, and by 1 9 4 8 the medical
Since the new regime was attempting to adopt a
section had an annual budget of £E3,000. While
democratic façade, it allowed the organization to
most of the equipment and materials of the clinics
gain more infrastructural ground and attain physical
and dispensaries was confiscated in 1948, activity
visibility through their clinics, hospitals and mosques’
was resumed in 1950. In 1953, it was claimed that
presence. Its members joined professional syndicates,
each province of Egypt had at least one dispensary
gained ground in universities, and began to expand
and sixteen clinics in Cairo had treated over
their social welfare apparatus with more emphasis
100,000 patients”（Mitchell 1969, 290）
.
on the healthcare sector（Abdelrahman 2011, 12）.
However, by the turn of the 1990s, the EMB’s freedom
However, as part of the suppressive tactic against
to operate in Egyptian society was again disrupted
the EMB, in January 1954, the government of the Free
when Mubarak’s regime saw that the Brotherhood had
Officers’ revolution formally took over all the clinics
begun to use their achievements for political purposes,
then operating; what happened to them was not clear
and to mobilize their lower middle class supporters（or
until the emergence of new political order headed by
beneficiaries）against the regime’s strategic policies
Anwar Sadat in 1981（Mitchell 1969, 290）. Taking
（Abdelrahman 2011, 12）. According to Abdelrahman
7
Mohamed Chami Mkouboi
（2011）
, “the strength of the EMB became apparent in
called the Muslim Brotherhood during my tenure”（Al-
1992 when the Brotherhood members were the fastest
Arian 2014）. “His strategy to fulfill that promise has
respondents to the earthquake that killed 378 and
centered on breaking the perceived base of the Muslim
injured 3,300”（p.12）
.
Brotherhood’ support across the Egyptian society.
Over the course of the past years, the government
In the aftermath of the earthquake and subsequent
has taken unprecedented measures to dismantle the
recovery, the EMB came to the attention of people on
network of all kind of social services institutions run
the ground as well as worldwide news agencies. The
by the Muslim Brotherhood and its sympathizers”（Al-
regime realized that the Brotherhood organizational
Arian 2014,7）. Accordingly, as the public health was
capabilities far surpassed those of the government and
always a crucial game pawn between the State and the
that their social welfare apparatus was there to stay
Brotherhood, Sisi’s regime is currently suppressing this
（Abdelrahman 2011, 12）
. Consequently the government
domain as well as other important sectors such as the
clamped down on Mostashfa AlMarkazy in Madinat
EMB’s education services.
Nasr（hospital）
. It was a multi-million dollar charity
hospital project that government forces occupied and
destroyed. “Mostashfa AlMarkazy gained state permits
４. ２. ２　Education Services
to build a three-story clinic in 1996 but the government
Over its history, Egypt has known several changes
backtracked in 2000, and revoked the permits. The
in its education system. However, Ottoman Pasha
Muslim Brotherhood claimed it was because of election
Muhammad Ali（1805-1848）is credited with having
disputes, but the state maintained that it was due to
created the modern Egyptian dual education system
improper documentation. In 2006, the courts granted
backed by Islamic and secular references. The
the Brotherhood permits to begin constructing its
reason for combining the secular and the Islamic
seven-story hospital only for the building work to be
curricular was eventually inclined to the European
halted in 2009 and for two already built floors to be
models of education. In addition, foreign advisors
destroyed”（Abdelrahman 2011, 13）
. However, that did
in the ministry of education played a great role in
not stop the Brotherhood from continuing their social
devising the educational structure. The goal was
welfare programs, as well as from focusing on building
to develop intelligent, balanced citizens who would
up the group’s membership and expanding its presence.
support the Egyptian growth in all aspects（Larink
The EMB’s persistence to continue its healthcare
2013）. However, Ali’s plans were seen as a threat to
activities show the importance of this sector. However,
the British economic strategy. The latter colonizers
the availability of the EMB’s doctors played a great
changed the education system to a feeble model.
role in maintaining this particular activity. It has been
According to Paula Larink, the British educational
declared by certain researchers that in 1998, about
model in general had a negative impact on the average
70% of Egypt’s medical doctors were EMB members
Egyptian citizens, with a population of 7 million to
or sympathizers. However, as it is difficult to get an
11 million between 1882 and 1907 respectively. The
academic source to confirm this figure, one should not
leadership of the day did not invest in the educational
deny the fact that the EMB’s medical doctors make up
domain, neither in quantity nor quality. Literacy rates
a large number in Egypt due to the organization’s focus
plummeted to 5% of the population in 1922, causing an
on encouraging student members and sympathizers to
obvious deleterious impact on societal development as
join medical faculties.
a whole（Larink 2013）.
During the current regime, Abdel Fattah al-Sisi,
Under this educational shortage, the Brotherhood
who became president after the coup of July 3, 2013
founded in 1928 had the opportunity to involve itself
has operated largely based on logic of suppression
in the education domain, as supporters of literacy and
against the EMB. During his presidential campaign,
filling out the gap inherited from a history of neglect.
Sisi audaciously pledged that “there will be nothing
First, the EMB tackled the educational system “by（1）
8
The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood’s Recruitment Strategies: Economic Activities and Social Services
propaganda and agitation for reform of the existing
Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center
school system, and（2）the founding of supplementary
2011）. In order to expand its educational institutions,
or alternative educational facilities”（Mitchell 1969,
the EMB could establish its affiliated schools
284）
. Moreover, education in the eyes of the EMB did
throughout the entire country of Egypt. Accordingly,
not only give emphasis to Islamic science, “but also
it has been stated that “The Muslim Brotherhood
on education to patriotism, love of one’s homeland,
currently has schools in all of Egypt’s provinces, as
and love of the entire Muslim nations. This, according
well as various other education services（after-school
to the movement, requires the development of a
activities, summer camps for adolescents, professional
sense of social responsibility, a desire to fight the
training and evening classes, supplementary lessons
ills of society（poverty, ignorance, crime, etc.）, and
for children, and more）that provide an alternative to
an aspiration to create a model society based on the
the official/state controlled education”（The Meir Amit
principles of Islamic justice and brotherhood”（The
Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center 2011）
.
Meir Amit Intelligence 2011, 19）. “The movement
heavily emphasizes the issue of education（‘tarbiya’ in
Nonetheless, “the EMB’s involvement in supporting
Arabic）and preaching, which, with its welfare activity,
and establishing schools had no significant impact on
comprise the pillars of the preaching（‘Da’awah’ in
reducing illiteracy among Egyptians. In fact, during
Arabic）of the Muslim Brotherhood, aimed at changing
the after 1952 revolution of the Free Officers, nearly
the Muslim nations”（The Meir Amit Intelligence 2011,
7 5% of the population over the age of ten were
19）. Therefore, the movement started to organize
illiterate, 90% of them were female”（Larink 2013）.
its own facilities by inaugurating a mosque in 1931
For these reasons, many social welfare programs
followed by the establishment of a school for boys and
were opened and benefitted many Egyptians due to
another for girls（Mitchell 1969, 287）
.
the new educational policy initiated by Jamal Abdel
Nasser’s regime. ‘Free education for all’ was an
As the Society （Brotherhood） expanded, the
important constituent ideal of Jamal Abdel Nasser’s
establishment of schools has been expanded throughout
governing plan. This system also gave a chance for the
the country; however, it remained a largely informal
Brotherhood to establish many schools in collaboration
and unsystematically organized effort. In May 1946,
with Jamal Abdel Nasser’s new regime. “In 1953 a
“the committee for the founding of primary and
friendly student of the Society surveyed the Cairo-Giza
secondary schools for boys and girls was established;
area and found 31 schools, mostly kindergarten and
in the following month a committee for cultural care
night schools with about 3,500 students”（Mitchell 1969,
was established to aid the already existing education
289）. Nevertheless, during Nasser’s brutal suppression
committee”（Mitchell 1969, 287）. These three bodies
on the EMB’s social services in 1954, followed by the
were primarily responsible for the Society’s educational
official ban of the organization in the same year, almost
activity. In 1948, Banna claimed that each of the 2,000
all of the EMB’s social activities were ended due to
branches of the EMB in Egypt had one or more types
the crackdown or were operated underground until
of schools attached to the organization （Mitchell
Nasser’s death in 1970.
1969, 284-9）. “In 1951, Hassan al-Hudaybi, the second
general guide after Banna’s death in 1949, issued a
With a shift in power, Anwar Sadat’s regime
call to create at least one school for preaching in each
from 1970 to 1981 attempted to open up again the
Muslim Brotherhood administrative office, and in 1953
political situation and liberalize the economic policies
the movement established its preaching academy in
constrained by Nasser’s regime. Sadat’s new program
its Cairo headquarters”（The Meir Amit Intelligence
was called, ‘Open Door Policy’. The latter policy did
and Terrorism Information Center 2011）. The aim of
away with the guaranteed government employment
such institutions was to train professional preachers
policy that many college graduates enjoyed, resulting
to compete with traditional and government-employed
in high levels of unemployment for graduates. Many
clerics for the hearts of the Egyptian public（The Meir
new educational institutions opened in the 1970s while
9
Mohamed Chami Mkouboi
professors looked for better wages in other countries.
With this open environment, “Political scientists and
４. ３　Informal welfare services
Middle East scholars have been keenly aware of the
“Besides its medical and educational services, the
more general growth of Islamic groups in Egypt and
welfare and social services section was also concerned
elsewhere in the region since at least the early 1970s”
to help in money poor families, especially those
（Mansun 2001, 490）
. This Islamist growth was visible
without breadwinners, the aged, the homeless, and the
in the Egyptian universities where the rise of the EMB
orphaned. In some of the branches ‘social treasuries’,
student movements was vibrant（Al-arian 2014）. The
to which members contributed monthly, sometimes
EMB “engaged in many educational activities, such as
supported these activities; mostly the situation was
establishing primary and secondary schools for boys
less formalized, and aid（usually in the form of food,
and girls, as well as technical schools for workers, and
clothing, and soap） was distributed on religious
Qur’anic classes and basic skill classes for the illiterate.
holidays either by the branch or by leading members
Through education, the Brotherhood recruited many
of the particular community who was ‘influenced’ by
members from among its students, who eventually
the Society”（Mitchell 1969, 290-1）.
became recruiters for the organization, starting from
their families and schools and moving outwards into
the society”（Aknur 2013, 14）
.
Conclusion
This paper is mainly about presenting and
In Egypt, student unions play a great role in their
highlighting the economic and social services provided
affiliated political parties. Subsequently, “the EMB’s
by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood to the Egyptian
student leaders demonstrated a strong commitment to
society since 1931. Furthermore, this study attempted
popular activism as well as political engagement. They
to examine the political impact of those activities within
swept student union elections and developed programs
the Egyptian society in favour of the Egyptian Muslim
that offered students subsidized textbooks, free medical
Brotherhood’s political struggle. The study divided
care, safe modes of transportation, and even religious
the result of the analysis into economic activities and
pilgrimage trips” （Al-Arian 2014,8）. By the early
social and welfare services. In the case of economic
1980s, the same spirit was adopted into the revived
activities, the study claims that the EMB engaged in
Muslim Brotherhood with the admission of thousands
hidden political activities through its non-membership
of young Egyptians into its ranks under the leadership
sympathizers, while the social and welfare services are
of General Guide Umar al-Tilmisani （1 9 7 2-1 9 8 6）.
visible in the health and the educational sectors. To
Those efforts continued into the subsequent decades
answer questions about the political involvement, the
with the Muslim Brotherhood’s entry into professional
author found that the economic and social services play
associations and its development of social welfare
a great role in attracting many Egyptians to support
institutions, and its increasing political engagement with
the organization, especially the lower income class.
the state（Al-Arian 2014,8）. This was the case with
However, we do not claim that these services are the
Hosni Mubarak’s regime, after Sadat’s assassination on
principal reason behind the EMB’s political success.
October 6, 1981. Hosni Mubarak’s education policies
This is to say that other potential arguments such as
were intended to create advancements in all areas of
the ideology and agenda, and also the organizational
education, with his plan called “The Grand Revival”.
structure, might surpass the economic and social
Under Mubarak’s suppressive tactics, until his removal
services’ influence. Accordingly, further field research
from power on February 12, 2011, the EMB intensified
is necessary to highlight the main argument of this
its social welfare activities, including its educational
paper through figures and statistical data.
services. In the case of educational services, the
current government under General Abdel Fattah Sisi,
has already closed down 77 EMB schools from 15
Egyptian provinces（Alborsanews 2014）
.
10
Acknowledgment
I express my warm thanks to my supervisors:
The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood’s Recruitment Strategies: Economic Activities and Social Services
Yamao Dai, Matsui Yasuhiro and Chisako T. Masuo
-The Word Press Experts.
for their valuable comments. I would also like to thank
http://sites.miis.edu/educationinegypt/
my classmates for their comments too. Furthermore,
［９］Lynch, Marc. 2 0 1 4 . Did We Get the Muslim
I thank Kyushu University for providing me the
Brotherhood Wrong? George Washington
facilities being required and conductive conditions
University.
for my master and PhD studies. Monbukagakusho
http://pomeps.org/wp-content/uploads/ 2014 / 10 /
and Mitsubishi Corporations are generous to sponsor
POMEPS_Studies_ 9 _SocialServices_web.pdf
respectively my master and PhD studies at Kyushu
［1 0］Mitchell, Richards. 1 9 6 9 . The Society of the
University, Japan. My family is always with me for all
Muslim Brothers. London, UK: Oxford University
steps I am taking in my entire life; thanks very much
Press.
for your patience and generosity.
［11］Mona, Atia. 2014 . Pious Neoliberalism. George
Washington University.
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11
Mohamed Chami Mkouboi
エジプトのムスリムブラザーフッドのリクルート戦略：
経済活動と社会サービス
モハメド　シャミ
要旨
本論文では、政府と対立するエジプトのムスリムブラザーフッド（EMB）がエジプト社会に対してもた
らした経済的、社会的サービスを概観し、説明している。その上で、エジプトのムスリムブラザーフッド
の政治活動が、エジプト社会にもたらした政治的な影響の分析を試みている。本論文では、その結果を経
済活動と社会福祉サービスに分類する。経済活動においては、EMB は主に非メンバーの支援者を通じて
活動しているため目立たない一方で、保健と教育分野における社会福祉サービスにおいては、目に見える
形で活動が行われている。こうした社会福祉サービスの可視化は、政府が EMB の多くの社会福祉分野活
動に対して、見て見ぬふりをしている証拠であると一部の学者によって説明されている。
12