The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
OxfordHandbooksOnline
TheDeclineoftheNeolithicandtheRiseofBronzeAgeSociety
KristianKristiansen
TheOxfordHandbookofNeolithicEurope(Forthcoming)
EditedbyChrisFowler,JanHarding,andDanielaHofmann
OnlinePublicationDate: Nov
2014
Subject: Archaeology,ArchaeologyofEurope
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199545841.013.057
AbstractandKeywords
ThischapterexploresthehistoricaltransitionfromtheNeolithictotheBronzeAgebetweenthefourthandthethird
millenniaBCandhighlightssomemajorqualitativeorstructuraldifferencesbetweenthetwo.Itarguesthatthisnew
socialformationrestructuredthepoliticaleconomyaroundanewsetofinstitutions,givingrisetomorecomplex
societiesatagloballevel.Thechapterfirstexaminesthehistoricalconditionsorforcesthatledtothedeclineof
theNeolithicandtheriseoftheBronzeAgeinprehistoricEuropebycomparingseeminglysimilartellsocietiesin
bothepochsintheCarpathianbasinbeforeidentifyingthenewinstitutionsoftheBronzeAge,includingtheregional
economicdivisionoflabour.Asbronzewasuniversallyadopteditimpliedregularlong-distancetradeinmetal,
whichcreatedanewglobalizedeconomythatdidnotexistduringtheNeolithic.
Keywords:Neolithic,BronzeAge,socialorganization,family,property,metallurgy,politicaleconomy,Europe,Carpathianbasin,trade
Theoreticaloutline
InthiscontributionIproposethatthereexistedworldhistoricalepochsduringtheprehistoryandearlyhistoryof
westernEurasiawherecommunities,evenwhennotdirectlyconnectedtoeachother,sharedbasicconditionsthat
enabledandconstrainedtheirevolutionarypotential.TheNeolithicandtheBronzeAgerepresentsuchworld
historicalepochs,anditisthereforepertinenttoraisethequestion:whatwerethehistoricalconditionsorforces
thatledtothedeclineoftheNeolithicandtheriseoftheBronzeAge?InraisingthisquestionIproposethatthereis
aqualitativedifferencebetweenNeolithicandBronzeAgesocialformationsinprehistoricEurope,which
fundamentallychangedboththeirworldviewsandtheirpoliticaleconomies.Consequently,oncemetallurgywas
introducedandbecameintegratedintheeconomy,theworldwouldneverbethesame,andaNeolithic
subsistencewasnolongerpossible.This,however,isdisputedbysome(KienlinandZimmermann2012;Kienlin
2012),andIshallthereforeexplicitlymakeacomparisonbetweenseeminglysimilartellsocietiesintheNeolithic
andtheBronzeAgeintheCarpathianbasintomakemypointclear.Alsothetransitionneedstobediscussed,as
thetermChalcolithicorCopperAgeisoftenusedtocharacterizemuchofthefourthmillenniumBCinthisregion.I
shallarguethattheadaptationofmetallurgyandnewideasaboutpropertyandinheritanceinspiredbythe
expandingurbansocietiesinMesopotamiaanditshinterlandenabledthistransformation.
MytheoreticalpointofdepartureisthusacombinationofWorldSystemtheory,heresummarizedintheconcept
‘historicalepochs’,andapoliticaleconomyapproach(EarleandKristiansen2010).Iconsequentlyemployascalar
approachthatwedsanunderstandingofthepoliticaleconomyoflocalcommunitieswiththelargerhistoricalforces
whichindirectlygovernedtheirexistence,evenifthiswasbeyondtheirknowledge.InaccordancewithMarx,
historyisshapedunderconditionsinheritedfromthepastandthereforenotofourownchoosing,andyetthe
accumulatedforceofmultipleindividualchoicesmaychangethedirectionofthathistory,whenconditionsareripe.
Thereforeweneedtounderstandthoseconditionsthatgovernandmotivateeitherstabilityorchange:inshort,the
politicaleconomy.
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
AccordingtoKristiansenandEarle(inpress):
apoliticaleconomyapproachseekstounderstandthelinkagebetweenthesociety’seconomy,power,
andinstitutionalstructureasitunfoldsbothvertically(complexity)andhorizontally(networks).Insimple
terms,thisapproachidentifiesthedifferenthorizontalandverticalsocialgroupsandtheirassociationswith
contrastinginterests.Fundamentalistounderstandthepotentialfordifferentsocialsegmentstocontrolin
parttheflowsofresourcesthatareusedtosupport(finance)thepoliticalstandingofdifferentsocial
segments.Thisabilitytocontroleconomicflowsinbothsubsistenceandwealthdependedonthecreation
ofsocialinstitutionswithspecificculturalformationsmostimportantlyinvolvingpropertyrightsandthe
formationofanewtypeofwarrioraristocracy/institutiontoprotectthem.Thisapproachisbasedona
Marxistanalysisgeneralizedtotheneweconomiccontextsofprehistory(seeFriedmanandRowlands
1977;Kristiansen1998:chapter3;EkholmandFriedman2008;Earle2013).Tothisweaddananalysis
andinterpretationofthesocialinstitutionsthatwerenewtotheBronzeAgeinordertosecurelongdistancetradeandpoliticalstability,butalsothepotentiallydisruptiveforcesthatmaydestroysuch
politicalnetworks.
InthefollowingthistheoreticalandinterpretativeframeworkwillbeusedtoexplorehowNeolithicandBronzeAge
economiesandsocialsystemsdiffered.However,thisdemandsfurthertheoreticalelaboration,notleasthow
differentformsofsocialcomplexityoperate.
ComplexityinNeolithicandBronzeAgepoliticaleconomies
Thestudyofcomplexityislinkedupwiththeoldquestionofhowpowerandinequalitycomesabout.Underwhat
circumstanceswillamajorityofpeoplehandovertheirpowertoaminorityofpeople(Earle1997,Flanneryand
Marcus2012)?BothNeolithicandBronzeAgesocietieswerecomplex;thequestionishowtheydifferintheir
complexity.Itobviouslydependsonhowonedefinescomplexity.Idefinecomplexityasthestructuredand
institutionalizeddistributionofpower.Accesstopowerthusbecomesincreasinglyunequalwhencomplexity
increases(example:elitesversuscommoners).Complexityisbothverticalandhorizontal,andtheformsof
integrationinvolvedinthesearrangementsdefinethelimitsandpotentialofpower.Interactingsystemsare
thereforetheobjectofanalysis,justasweneedtoemployascalarapproachthatallowsustomovefromlocalto
globalandback.
Wecandistinguishbetweentwoformsofcomplexity:centralizedanddecentralized(Kristiansen1984,1998,
Figure18;KristiansenandLarsson2005:Chapter8.1).Thesearetheirmainattributes:
•Centralized:hierarchicalstructurearoundmajorcentres;powerandownershipconcentrated;leadershipand
wealthconcentrated—astaplefinancesystemcontrollingresourcesessentialtosubsistence;vertical
cosmology.
•Decentralized:complexitywithoutmajorcentres;powerandownershipdistributedspatially;leadershipand
wealthmovable—awealthfinancesystemdrivenbyacquisitionofprestigegoodsandgiftexchanges;
horizontalcosmology.
Thetwoformswerealwaysintertwined,butwithoneortheotherdominant.
WiththisasastartingpointIshallbrieflyexplorehowNeolithicandBronzeAgecomplexitywaslinkedtodifferent
politicaleconomiesintheirintegrationofverticalandhorizontaldifferentiation.IshallmainlyrefertolaterNeolithic
societiesofthefifthandfourthmillenniumBC(cf.Heyd2012).IntheNeolithicweseetheformationofsomelarge
settlementswithhighpopulationfiguresincertainregions;however,thesewerenotsystematicallyconnected,and
inthelong-termtheycollapsed,ratherthanexpanded.Hereliesamajordifferenceincomplexitycomparedtothe
BronzeAge.Twofactorsweredecisive:essentialrawmaterialcouldbeobtainedlocally,withtheexceptionof
someprestigegoods.Therewasnodevelopmentofpermanenthigher-levelinstitutionsinchargeoftradeand
allianceformation.Therewasconsequentlynodevelopmentofinterregionaleconomicdependencyanddivisionof
labourofthekindobservedduringtheBronzeAge.
WemaythusdefinemostlateNeolithic/CopperAgesocietiesasregionalpoliticaleconomiesthatwereabletobuild
upandcontrolratherlargepopulationsinareasofhighproductivity.GoodexamplesaretheTripoljemega-sites,or
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
thetellsettlementsineastcentralEuropeandtheBalkans,orthemega-sitesinSpainandPortugal,withfortified
settlementsinterspersedbyhuge(severalhundredhectare)settlementswithenclosureditches,suchasValencina
delaConception(GarciaandMorillo-Barroso2013;Marquez-RomeroandJiménez-Jáimez2013).Amongtell
settlementsineast-centralEuropewetypicallyfindatwo-tiersettlementstructure,suchasthePolgár-Csőszhalom
siteinHungaryintheTizsaregion.Acentraltell(2–3ha),witharitualcircularstructureand—inmyinterpretation—
chieflyhouses,issurroundedbyalarge25-hasettlementpresumablyofcommoners(Raczkyetal.2011,Figure2
andFigure9).Somemegalithiccommunitiescannowbedemonstratedtohaveexploitedanddrawninlivestock
fromnon-megalithicareaswithineconomiesoperatingataregionalscale(SjögrenandPrice2013).Thesemay
haveinvolvedadegreeofcentralization.Certainformsofprestigegoods,suchasjadeaxes,weredistributedover
largeregionsinEurope,withatypicalfall-offcurvefromthecentre(Klassenatal.2011,Abb.7,9,and18),
indicatingprestigegoodexchangeratherthantradeandthereforenottheabilitytocontrolotherregional
economies/chiefdoms.ThereforeweshouldrathercharacterizetheselaterNeolithicregionaleconomiesas
territorialchiefdoms,spanningfromsimpletocomplex.Thisisbasedonananthropologicalmodelinwhich
chiefdomsarerankedsocietieswherepowerisinstitutionalizedandhereditarywithinchieflylineages;competition
andsocialmobilityexistsinsuchcommunities,althoughthereisoftenadivisionbetween‘chiefs’,‘commoners’,
and‘unfree’persons.
WhenwecomparemobilityinNeolithicandBronzeAgesocieties,wefindthatmobilitywasadominantfeatureof
both,butincreasedintheBronzeAge(Müller2013b,Tab.3),especiallyduringtheearlyBronzeAge.Onlythe
pioneerearlyNeolithicperiodcanshowasimilardegreeofmobility.ItislikelythatBronzeAgepopulationfigures
weresubstantiallyhigherthanthoseintheNeolithicduetothefactthatsettlementswerenowcontinuously
occupied,andencompassedmuchlargerareas(Müller2013b,Figure,8and9;Rassmann2011).Thisalsoallowed
long-distancetradenetworkstodevelopandbesustainedbetweenmanystablecentresofinhabitation.This
definesamajorstructuraldifferencecomparedtotheNeolithic,wheretradeandexchangenetworksremained
regional.Contrarytothis,BronzeAgemetaltradewasregularandorganized/institutionalized,anditwas
interregional—universallysoinEuropebyc.1600BC.Fewminingareasproducedthebulkofmetaltobe
systematicallydistributedvialong-distancetradetoallcommunities,yethugequantitiesofcopperwerecirculated
onanannualbasis.WemaythusdefineBronzeAgepoliticaleconomiesasinterregionalanddecentralized,
spanningfromrankedtostratifiedsocietiesinFried’sterminology.Theywerepartofawidespreadmetaleconomy
whereregionaldivisionsoflabourplayedacrucialrole,andwherechieflyinstitutionsweresustainedbytribute
andwarriorretinues.Beforeweprobemoredeeplyintothesestructuraldifferences,letustakealookatthe
decisivetransformationfromlaterNeolithictoBronzeAgesocialformations.
ThedeclineofNeolithiceconomiesandtheexpansionofnewdecentralizedeconomies:Corded
WareandBellBeakers
Morethan10yearsagoJanuszKrukandSaunasMilisauskas(1999)publishedaninspiringbookontheriseandfall
ofNeolithicsocieties.HeretheypointedtoaglobalcrisisintemperateNeolithiceconomiesaround3000BC,which
insomeregionsledtoarenewedexpansionofnon-Neolithiceconomies,suchasPittedWare,andtothe
expansionofpastoralYamna/CordedWaregroupsthatalsointroducedsomemetalworking(Hansen2011;Heyd
2011,2012).Subsequently,thisdeclinehasbeenconfirmedusingthousandsofC14datesasameasureof
population/settlementdensity,whichinnorthernandwesternEuropeshowsamarkeddeclineafter3000BC,witha
fewexceptions(Shennanetal.2013).Oneconclusiontobederivedfromtheseobservationsisthattheexpansion
ofanewsocialformationofYamna/CordedWaregroupswashelpedbythecrisis,whichhadthenseriously
diminishedthepowerofNeolithiccommunities.InthisrespectYamnaandCordedWarerepresentedtheexpansion
ofaBronzeAgesocialformationintoformerNeolithicterrain,wheremostgroupswouldliveonamixedstone/metal
economyforanothermillennium,andwhereforsomecenturiesoldandnewculturalidentitiesandoppositions
weremaintained(CzebreszukandSzmyt2011).HowdidthisNeolithiccrisisortransformationcomeabout?
InthewesternsteppeinthefifthtofourthmillenniumstratifiedChalcolithicsocietiesweredevelopingintheBalkan–
Carpathianregion,onlytocollapseorbetransformedduringthelaterpartofthefourthmillenniumBC(Chernykh
1992,Chapter2;Sherratt2003).Theyadoptedcopperproductiononalimitedscale,butwiththepotentialto
expandexchangenetworksandultimatelychangetheeconomy.However,theywerenotabletotransformeither
economyorexchangenetworkinthelongrun(Müller2013a;Chapman2013).Insteadacombined
ecological/economiccrisissetinaround3000BC,butbeginningevenearlieraroundtheBlackSea,whenthe
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
mega-settlementsoftheTripoljeculturegraduallycollapsed.
StretchingfromtheRomanianBlackSeacoasttothenorth-eastoftheDniester–DnieperRiverstheproto-urban
communitiesoftheTripoljeCulturecreatedabarriertowardsthewestduringthisperiod.ItrepresentswhatMallory
(1998)hascalledthefirstofthreefaultlinestobepassedinordertoexplaintheexpansionofIndo-European
languages.Butmoreimportantlytheyprovidethedemographicfoundationforthelaterpeoplingofthesteppeand
thelightsoilsofcentralandnorthernEurope.Theseproto-urbancommunitieswereorganizedaroundfortified
settlementswithtwo-storeyhousesarrangedinconcentriccircles,thelargestsettlementsbeingfrom100–400ha,
andcontaining5,000–15,000people(Videjko1995;Chapman2012).Eachcommunitywithsatellitesettlements
wouldholdfrom6,000–20,000people,andalocalgroupofseveralcommunitiesfrom10,000to35,000people.
Theirinteractionwithsteppecommunitiesandlaterabandonmentortransformationintopastoralgroupsfromthe
laterfourthmillenniumonwardsisstillamatterofdebate(Dergachev2000;Chapman2002;Manzura2005),butit
openedupanopportunityforawestwardexpansionintocentralandnorthernEuropeofthenewsocialand
economicpractices(JohannsenandLaursen2010).ItculminatedintheformationoftheCordedWareCulture
shortlyafter3000BC(CzebreszukandMüller2001),whoserapidexpansionisreflectedinitsritualcoherenceover
vastregions(Fuhrholt2011,Abb.10).Somehavecalledthisa‘barbarization’ordeclineoftheNeolithic(Krukand
Milisauskas1999;Rassamakin1999,125ff,154),butitrepresentedamajortransformationfromcentralizedto
decentralizedeconomies.
Theexpansionofthismobileagro-pastoraleconomywasrapidandsometimesdramatic,asevidencedina
recentlyanalysedmultipleburialfromSaxony-Anhalt,theresultofamassacreonasmallfamilygroupof13
individuals(Meyeretal.2009;Haaketal.2008).DuringtheearlyandmiddleNeolithicperiodstherewerestilllarge
forestreservespreservedinEurope,althoughmainlyonlightersoils.However,duringtheearlythirdmillenniumBC
theseareaswerecolonizedbyexpandingpastoralherdersandwarriorswithanapparentlynever-endingappetite
fornewpastures,whorapidlyburneddowntheforeststocreategrazinglandsfortheiranimals,asevidencedin
pollendiagrams(Andersen1995;1998;Odgaard1994;Kremenetski2003).Theexpansioncouldhavebeen
helpedalsobyclimaticchanges(Paschkevych2012).Asland-usewasextensiveitdemandedmuchlargertracts
ofopenlandtofeedpeopleandanimalsthaninamoresedentary(centralized)agrarianeconomy,andtofacilitate
communicationandtravelstheyemployedox-drawn,four-wheeledwagons(Burmeister2004).Themobilelifestyle
isalsoexemplifiedbytheuseofmats,tents,andwagons,whicharesometimesfoundinburials(Ecsedy1994;
Shislina2008,Figures27and28).Strontiumisotopeevidenceofmigrationofindividualsisbeginningtoemerge
andsustainarchaeologicalinterpretations(Gerlingetal.2012;Irrgeheretal.2012;deJongetal.2010).Inwestern
Jutlandthedecimationoftheforestduringlessthanonehundredyearsandthecreationofopengrasslandand
heathisduetoamassiveimmigrationofanewpopulation,theSingleGraveCulture,withaneweconomyand
socialorganizationthatdemandedopenlandfortheirgrazingherds(Kristiansen1989).
Thenewcomerspracticedsomecultivationofcereals,especiallybarley(RobinsonandKempfner1987),butthe
economywasbasedprimarilyonanimalproducts,asreflectedindiet(Kolaretal.2012),andtheyexpanded
throughacombinationofwarfareandrecruitmentofnewmembersthroughclientships(forgedthroughgiftsand
ethnicincorporation)andothermeansofsocialdominance.Forinstance,languagewasreplacedinsomeareas
duetomassmigrations(Anthony2007;Kristinsson2012),asinwesternJutland.Smallhousesorhutsappeared
duringthelaterstageoftheCordedWareandSingleGraveCulture(Liversage1987;Mülleretal.2009).
ComplexChalcolithicsocietiesalsoemergedintheIberianPeninsulawithaconcentrationofpopulationlivingin
hugesettlements,somefortified.TheystretchedfromZambujalattheTagusestuaryinPortugaltosouth-eastSpain
andLosMillares,tonamebutthebest-known.Huge,denselypopulatedsettlementsandcausewayedenclosures
werealsolocatedintheregion,asthroughoutmuchofcontemporaryEurope(GarciaandMorillo-Barroso2013;
Marquez-RomeroandJiménez-Jáimez2013).ThesecomplexcentralizedsocietiesinIberiacollapsedand
transformedintosmallerexpanding,maritimeBellBeakergroupsinthesecondquarterofthethirdmillenniumBC,
andtheybroughtwiththemnotonlynewmetallurgicalskills,butalsoskillsinboat-buildingandmining(Case2004;
Laubaune2013;O’Brien2004).TheirexpansionwasbothtowardthewesternMediterranean,tonorthAfricaand
Sicily(Guillaineetal.2009),andnorthwardtoFranceandnorth-westernEurope(Prieto-MartinezandSalanova
2009;Prieto-Martinez2012).FromherecommunitiesusingBellBeakersmovedintocentralEurope(Heyd2007),
andmixedwithCordedWaregroups,creatingaProto-Celticlanguageintheprocess.Butmoreimportantlythey
createdanewmetallurgicaleconomythatwasgraduallyadoptedthroughoutEurope,alongwithmoreintensive
agriculture(Lechterbecketal.2013).TheyalsocrossedthechanneltotheBritishIsles(Needham2002;2005,
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
Figure3),representedbythefamousAmesburyarcherandhiscompanions(Fitzpatrick2011),andinIrelandby
theRossIslandminingcommunity(O’Brien2004).This‘outofIberia’scenariofortheoriginsofBellBeaker
expansionhasrecentlybeensupportedbyextensivestudiesoftoothmorphologyintwothousandBellBeaker
burialsinseveralregionsofcontinentalEurope(Desideri2011),amongotherevidence(Czebreszuk2004;Nicolis
2001;FokkensandNicolis2012;PrietoMartinezandSalanova2013).
BellBeakergroupsexpandedalongthewesternMediterraneanandalongtheAtlanticfaçadebeforetheymoved
inland(butneverfurthereastthanHungary),andtheyalwayssettledinsmallpockets.Theyweretravelling
artisansthatwerewellreceivedbecauseoftheirskills(Priceetal.2004;VanderLinden2007;Heyd2007),but
theywerealsoademographicforcelookingfornewplacestosettle(VanderLinden2012).Throughhybridization
betweentheCordedWare/SingleGraveCultureandtheexpandingBellBeakerCulturethereemergedahybrid
BeakerCulture(Needham2005,Figure3).Thisnewcultureexperiencedarapidexpansionthattransformed
societyinmuchthesamewayastheCordedWareandSingleGraveCulturehadtransformedtemperateEurope
300yearsearlier.
ThenewinstitutionsoftheBronzeAge:theoriginofthefamily,personalpropertyandgender
divisions.
AsIhavedemonstratedthereismountingarchaeologicalandscientificevidencethatcentralizedLate
Neolithic/CopperAgesocietieswerereplacedbyexpansionist,decentralizedsocietiesbythethirdmillenniumBC.
Thebackgroundtothishistoricalchangewasinpartlinkedtotheriseofproto-statesocietiesandurbanlifein
MesopotamiaandtheNearEastthatmarkedthebeginningoftheBronzeAge.Consequentlytheredevelopednew
needsfortheseproto-statestoestablishrelationswiththeouterworldtogetaccesstoanumberofessentialgoods
locatedoutsidetheirownterritories,suchascopper,tin,and—lateron—alsohorses.Theso-calledUrukexpansion
ofthemidtolaterfourthmillenniumBC(Algaze1989;Stein1999;Aubet2013,Chapter6)createdthesenewlinks
thatcirculatedcopperfromtheCaucasusinexchangefornewtypesofprestigegoodsandtechnological
knowledge(Courcier2010;Dolukanov1994,326ff.;Sherratt1997).Fromthisinteractionthereemergednew
rankedchiefdomsintheCaucasusbythemid-tolaterfourthmillenniumBC,calledtheMaikopCulture,whoburied
theirchieflylineagesinlargekurgansorbarrowswithrichgravegoods(Rezepkin2000;2010).Butothersocial
institutionswereadoptedaswell.
Theearlycity-statesofMesopotamiahaddevelopednewmeansfortradeandexchangethatdemandednew
conceptsofpropertyanditstransmission.Thisinturnentailedaneweconomicandlegaldefinitionoffamilyand
inheritance(Diakonoff1982;Postgate2003;Yoffee1995).Thesenewconceptswereselectivelyadaptedtoa
differentandlesscomplexsocialandeconomicenvironmentinAnatoliaandtheCaucasus,aswellastheAegean
(Rahmsdorf2010).TheroyalkurgansandMesopotamian/IranianimportsoftheMaikopCultureintheCaucasus
(Sherratt1997:chapter18;Ivanova2012)representednewinstitutionsbaseduponanewconceptofranklinked
tomovable,personalproperty,mainlyintheformofprestigegoodsincludingmetalandherdsofanimals.Thisnew
socialorganizationwasrituallymanifestedinanewtypeofkurganwithindividualburialsandrichpersonalgrave
goodstosymbolizethenewstandingofpersonalizedpropertyandpower.Itwasquicklytransmittedtosteppe
societieswhereitcaughtonandwasweddedtoanewexpansivepastoraleconomyofmobilewealthofherdsof
animals(Kohl2001and2007;Rothman2003;Kristiansen2007).
Ithusproposethattransmissionofanewfamilystructurefromthecity-statesofthesouth(theUrukexpansion)
withnewdefinitionsoffamily,propertyandinheritancehelpedtofacilitatethesocialformationofanewmobile
agro-pastoralsocietyinthestepperegionandbeyond,alsoincludinganIranianhinterland(Ivanova2012).It
constitutedthemonogamousfamilygroupasacentralsocialandeconomicinstitutionbasedonapatrilineal
kinshipsystem.Itfavouredtheaccumulationofmobilewealththroughexpansionandtheformationofexternal
alliancesystems(KristiansenandLarsson2005,Chapter5),andmobilewealththatcouldbecarriedalongand
eventransmittedbetweengenerations.Thenewfuneraryritualofindividualburialsfurnishedwiththeseverysame
symbolsofwealthandcoveredbybarrowsrepresentedtheritualizedinstitutionalizationofthesenewprinciplesas
theywerenowalsotransferredtothelandofdeath,whenpropertyhadtobetransmittedandredistributed.
Anotherimportantinstitutionthatwasintroducedfromtheearlycity-statestotheircloserperipheriesinAnatolia
andtheCaucasuswasthatoforganizedwarfareunderroyalorchieflycommand.IntheEurasiansocietiesofthe
thirdmillenniumBCthemaleherder-warriorbecameanewideal.Thiscanbeattributedtotheinstitutionofchiefly
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
leadershipwithlowlevelsofinstitutionalizedorheredityinequality(Vandkilde2011;Reinhold2012).Itwas
materializedinthewidespreadroleofthecarefullyexecutedwaraxeinpreciousstone,copper,silver,orgold,
latersupplementedwiththecompositebow.Butthecontoursofamorecomplexdivisionofsocialrolesand
institutionwerealsoemerging.Specialists,suchasthemetalsmith,begantoappearinburials,andritualized
priestlyfunctionswerealsodemonstratedingravegoods,fromthesteppetoCentralEurope.Amorecomplex
societyofwarriors,priests,craftspecialists,andherders/farmerswasemerging,althoughyetinembryonicform
(Hansen2002;2011;Müller2002;Shislina2008;Schwarz2008).Theexpansionofthiskindofsocietywas
facilitatedbythedemographicsurplusthatemergedwhenthelargeTripoljesettlementsoftensofthousandsof
peopleweredissolvedduringthemidtolatefourthmillenniumBCandhadtofindanewwayoflivingindispersed
familygroups.
Clicktoviewlarger
Figure1 .ModelofbasicmaterialandinstitutionalcomponentsofwesternEurasiansocietiesofthethird
millenniumBC.
Fromthenewinstitutionalizedrolesofleadershiplinkedtowarriors,priests,andcraftsmen,andthenewrulesof
familyandkinshiptocontrolpropertyandmobilewealth,therealsofollowednewandstricterdefinitionsofgender
roles(HarrissonandHeyd2007,Figures45–48;seeFig.1).
Figure1presentsamodelofthissocialorganizationanditsbasiccomponents.Themostimportantofthesewas
thefamilybarrowortumulus,whichbecametheritualizedextensionofanewkinshipsystemwherethe
transmissionofmobileproperty(herds)playedacrucialrolethroughinheritanceandpartnerships.Thebarrow
thusdefinedrituallythefreeman,hisfamily,andhisproperty,anditalsodefinedthemalewarriorasheadinga
newinstitutionofchieftainship.Maleandfemalegenderswerestrictlyandrigorouslydemarcatedinburialritual
throughtheorientationofthebody,layingontheleftorrightside.Thisritualinstitutionremainedstablethroughout
westernEurasiaduringseveralhundredyears,anditspeaksofasocialandritualcommonalityofvast
geographicalproportions,butalsoofahighlyregulatedsociety.
Therecanbenodoubtastotheimportantroleofgender,althoughmaleburialsalwaysoutnumberfemaleburials.
Mobileherdingsocietiesoftenexhibitastronglygendereddivisionoflabour,andthisweseereproducedinburial
ritualsthroughoutthethirdandsecondmillenniaBCinEurasia.Inanagro-pastoralsocietyofherdingbasedupon
propertyofanimalsandtheirproduce,rulesoftransmissionandofinheritancebecomeimportant.Thereforethere
hadtobespecialists—whetherchiefsorotherpersons—inchargeofmaintainingandperformingacorpusof
ritualizedrules.
Tosummarize,duringthethirdmillenniumBCthereemergedanewsocialandeconomicorderinwesternEurasia,
supportedbymajorpopulationmovements.Thechangewasthereforenotonlysocialbutalsodemographicand
genetic,asrecentevidence,althoughstillsparse,suggeststhatthehaplogroupsthatwereintroducedby
Tripolje/Yamna/CordedWareandBellBeakergroupsweretransmittedtomodernEuropeans(Nikitinetal.2010;
Brandtetal.2013).BythemidtolatethirdmillenniumBCcommonritualandsocialinstitutionswereemployedfrom
theUralstonorthernEuropewithinthetemperatelowlandzoneaspartofwhatPhilipKohl(2003,21)referstoas
‘aninterconnectedworld’.
Whatisthedifference:NeolithicandBronzeAgetellsocietiescompared
Backgroundtotheproblem
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Whatarethemajorqualitativedifferences—ifany—betweenmorecomplexNeolithicsocieties,suchastell
settlements,andmatureBronzeAgetellsocieties?Whileageneralconsensusexistsamongresearchersthat
BronzeAgesocietiesweredifferentiatedintermsofhierarchyandcomplexitydistinctlyfromNeolithicsocieties,
recentlysomehavequestionedifthesedifferencesaresimplyofdegreeratherthanofkind(Kienlin2012).Yet
despiteconsiderablequantitativecontinuitybetweentheNeolithicandBronzeAgeofEurope,developingprestige
goodsexchangesandcommoditytrade,especiallyinmetal,causedsignificantinstitutional(qualitative)
restructuring.Usingacomparativeanalysis,wecanrecognizethatsubstantialvariationexistedboththroughtime
andacrossspaceintheNeolithicandBronzeAges.Althoughsometimescreatinganimpressionofsimilar
organizationalcomplexity,therealitywastwosetsofsocietiesarticulatedtoverydifferentpoliticaleconomiesand
socialformations,notleastwhentakingintoaccountthespatialdimensionsofsocialorganization.
Scalesofinteraction
NeolithictellsocietiesmayprovidemanypointsofsimilaritytoBronzeAgetellsocieties,whentheyareconsidered
inisolationasalistingoftraits.LocalpopulationsduringtheNeolithiccouldbesubstantial;however,theywerenot
embeddedinregularnetworksofinternationalmetalsupplies.ItisonlybytheBronzeAgethatpopulationfigures
rosesignificantlyoverNeolithiconesandthatsettlementsandopenlandbecamecontinuous.Thisdifferencehas
beenwelldemonstratedinseveralrecentstudies(Müller2013b;Rassman2011,Abb.4and5).Asdescribedby
AndrewSherratt(1997),Neolithiccommunitieswerelinkedbyregionalexchangeinbasiccommoditiessuchas
flint,andperiodicallyinterregionalconnectionswereestablishedthroughmigrationsthatmightleadto
technologicaltransfer.Long-distanceconnections,however,wereoftenshort-lived(Müller2013a;Chapman2013).
Theyweretypicallybasedonselectprestigegoodsandthesecouldencompasslargerregions,followinga
traditionalfalloff-curveofexchange(Klassenetal.2011,Abb.7,9,and18).ThusNeolithicpoliticaleconomies
werebasedalmostexclusivelyupontheexploitationandcontroloflocalresources.Whenmoreexoticgoodswere
tradedoverlargerregionstheyshowacharacteristicfall-offpatterninabundancethatcontrastswiththeBronze
Agetrade.NowhereduringtheNeolithicandCopperAgedowefindpermanentlyorganized,long-distance
(‘international’)tradenetworksofthekindthatprovidedallBronzeAgecommunitieswithmetalandotherwealth
fromafewsourceareasonaregularbasis.Thiscontrasthasbeenmostexplicitlydemonstratedbyrecentnetwork
analysisfromBulgaria(MerkyteandAlbek2012,Figure2and3).AllBronzeAgecommunitiesweredependenton
metalfortheirsocialidentity,warriorweaponry,andbasicsubsistenceeconomyfromtheMiddleBronzeAge
onwards.AcrossEuropeandintoAsia,copperandtinhadtobeprovidedonaregularbasisfrommineshundreds
oreventhousandofkilometresaway.Thisinternationalflowmustthenhavebeenconnectedwithreciprocalflows
ofexportsthatapparentlyincludedsalt,cattle,wool/textiles,amber,andjet,andthelistprobablygoesonto
includeskinsofwildanimals,slaves,horses,andothercommodities.Wethereforeproposethattheemergent
politicaleconomyshiftedtowardsaworldsystemoftrade,transformingtheveryinstitutionalnatureofsociety.
TakingapoliticaleconomyapproachtotheprehistoryoftheCarpathianBasin,westartwithtworeasonable
expectations.First,accordingtothespecificlocationintheBasin,localsocialgroupswerearticulateddifferently
withthedominantpoliticaleconomy.We,therefore,expectafundamentalsocialandeconomicvariabilitytobe
manifestedduringbothperiods.Second,asinternationaltradeinmetalandotherwealthitemspickedup,the
institutionalcharacterofsocietyshouldbetransformedfundamentally,althoughthespecificstructureofsociety
willdifferfromplacetoplace.
ThepatternofBronzeAgetellsintheHungarianbasindocumentsthisfundamentalchangefromtheNeolithictothe
BronzeAge(Remenyi2012;SzeverényiandKulcar2012;Uhner2012).Ratherthanbeingconcentratedinthe
lowlandagriculturallandsalongtheTisza,asdocumentedfortheNeolithic,theprimarydistributionoftellssees
themlineupasbeadsalongtheDanube.ArecentintensivesurveyofsettlementalongtheBentaValleyjustsouth
ofBudapestlocatedveryfewNeolithicorCopperAgesettlements,andnotells;bycontrast,intheBronzeAge,a
majortellsettlementandasecondarytellrightabovetheDanubedevelopedrapidly(EarleandKolb2010).Along
theDanube,settlementswerethusformedinvacantorvirtuallyvacantareas.Why?Theselocationsalongthe
Danubemakelittlesenseforagriculturebecausetheriverwouldhavetruncatedaccesstohalfthecircular
catchmentareaavailabletoavillagelocatedcentrallywithinitsagriculturalland.Infact,thetellsandtheir
associatedsettlementswereplacedwheretheycouldhavedominatedthemovementofwealthalongthemain
riverrouteforinternationaltradeintheBronzeAgeofCentralEurope.Likewise,tellsaregroupedalongthefoothills
oftheCarpathianswheretheycontrolledthelarge-scaleextractionandpossiblytradeinsalt,andperhapsalso
Page 7 of 19
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
horsebreeding(Dietrich2012).Admittedly,tellsarefoundinboththeNeolithicandBronzeAgeperiodsandinboth
periodstheyalmostsurelylinkedgroupstospecificplacesthatdefinedpropertyrights.Thecontrastinglocations
betweenthetwoperiods,however,showadistinctiveshiftinwhatisowned(orcontrolled)withadramaticshiftin
thenatureofthepoliticaleconomyandthestructureofsociety.Ownershipofagriculturallandforstaplefinance
wouldhavebeenpre-eminentfortheNeolithicincontrasttoownershipofpassageroutessignificantforthe
internationaltradeinmetalintheBronzeAge.
Theshiftfromland-basedexchangeintheNeolithictohigh-endinternationaltradewithboatsalongtherivers
createdclearbottlenecksthatlocalpopulationscontrolledtoextractmetalasitmovedthroughtheirterritories
overlookingtheriver(Earle2013).ThetelllocationsontheDanubeallowedforaregularrevenuesourceinforeign
wealth,whichwouldhavetransformedpoliticalstructureandidentitycategories.IntheBronzeAgecemeteries,
only5%oftheburialsincludedbronze,anditappearstoindicateaspecialclassofindividuals.Inthemetalhoards
thatappearatthesametime,theconcentratedwealththattheyrepresentedtookonacriticaldefining
characteristicforsociety’sinstitutions.Byaddingweaponsandhorsestotheculturalinventory,awarriorelite
apparentlyaroseasadominantsocialsegment.Itisimportanttorealizethatwedonotviewsuchwarriorsasallpowerful;thepowerofachiefisalwayscontestedlocallybyaheterarchicalmixasseen,forexample,byseveral
sizeable,contemporaneousagrariansettlementsintheBentaValley(EarleandKolb2010).Whilerecognizingthat
powerwouldalwayshavebeencontingent,thepositionoftellsandtheadditionofstatus-definingmetalwealthand
weaponsdemonstrateafundamentalinstitutional(qualitative)transformationinBronzeAgesocietyfromits
predecessorsinHungaryandbeyond.
Furthertotheimplicationsofregularlong-distancetradeinmetalandothercommodities
TheBronzeAgebecameamoremobileworldforthesimpleeconomicreasonthatcopperandtin,orbronzein
finishedorsemi-finishedform,hadtobedistributedthroughouttheknownworldfromafewsourceareas.
Systematiccommoditytradeincopperandtin(BartelheimandStäuble2009;Shennan1993;Bell2012)andin
woollentextilesandsalt(Harding2011;HardingandKavruk2010;Kernetal.2009;Kowariketal.2010;Lassen
2010;Monroe2009)formedthelifebloodofaninternationalBronzeAgepoliticaleconomythatoverlayand
integratedthecontinuingstapleeconomiesofEuropeandbeyond.Thecontrolofcopperandsaltminesandthe
subsequenttradeinthesecommoditieshadthesameeconomicsignificanceasthecontrolofandtradeinoiland
gasresourceshastoday.
DuringtheBronzeAgesuchtradewasprobablycouchedinpoliticalallianceswhereprestigegoodsplayedan
importantroleinforgingsuchrelationships—whetherinBarbarianEuropeorintheNearEast,asexemplifiedinthe
‘Amarnadiplomacy’offourteenthcenturyBCEgypt(cf.CohenandWestbrook2000).Onepreconditionforthe
operationofthiseconomicandpoliticalsystemthatwasbasedonadialecticbetweenstapleandwealthfinance
(Earle2002)wastherapiddevelopmentofnewmaritimetechnologiesduringthelatethirdandearlysecond
millenniumBC,whichforthefirsttimeallowedsafeseajourneysoverlongerdistancesandprovidedlargerships
thatcarriedbulkcargoesacrossopenwaters(Kristiansen2004;Needham2009).Theseboats,however,could
neverhavetravelledsafelywithoutcarryingwarriorsfortheirprotection,muchasisillustratedbytheanalogous
tradebythemedievalVikings.LikewisethechariotthroughoutEurasiacametosymbolizeanewspeedytransport
forwarfarethathadlong-termhistoricalconsequencesinthebreedingofhorsesfortransport(Kelekna2009).
Thesetechnologicalrevolutionsexpandedthepotentialforlong-distancemobilityandinteractiononasystematic
basisfromthebeginningoftheBronzeAge,andbycombiningsea-andland-basedjourneysnewregionscould
suddenlybeconnected.Thevolumeoftradeexpandedboththescopeofcommoditytransportandthedemands
forspecialists—inshipbuildingandnavigatingatsea,andtheconstructionofwagonsandtrainingofhorsesfor
landtransport.Newspecializedsocialgroupsemergedalongwithanewinstitutionalframeworktosupportthem,
andsuchspecialistsexpandedthecognitivegeographiesofBronzeAgecommunitiestenfoldormore.The
archaeologicalreconstructionofsuchatradenetworklinkedbystrategicmarriages(KristiansenandLarsson2005,
Figure107)demonstratesthatspecificgroupswithspecificswords,suchasoctagonallyhiltedswordsandflange
hiltedswords,wereabletomoveandtravellongdistances.Thismovementcannowalsobesupportedby
strontiumisotopeanalysis,suchasatNeckarsulm,acemeteryofmales,mainlywarriors,whereonethirdwere
non-local,andthusprobablyhadtravelledtotakeservicewithaforeignchief(WahlandPrice2013).
TheregularconnectivitybetweenBronzeAgecommunitiesmeantthatknowledgeaboutfarawayplacescouldbe
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
obtainedandcontrolled.Craftsmencouldhavebeenenticedbylocalleaderstomoveacrossgreatdistances,and
tradersbecamenewspecialiststhatprovidedknowledgeandorganizationalskillstoconnectdistantplacesand
theirgoods.WarriorsbecamewidelysoughtafterasmercenariesintheeastMediterraneanduringtheLateBronze
AgefromthefifteenthcenturyBConwards,asiswellattestedintextsandonstelae,notleastinEgypt(Morkot
2007).Suchproposedmovementofwarriorsexplainshownewswordtypeswouldspreadrapidlyfromthe
MediterraneantoScandinaviaprobablywithinafewyears(Sherratt2003,2009;Hughes-Brock2005).Thusthe
combinationoftradeinmetalandpossiblyinarms,aswellastravellingtradersandwarriorgroupsandtheir
attachedspecialists,createdaninterconnected‘globalized’worldwithouthistoricalprecedent.
Comparativeanalysisconcluded:whatwasnewtotheBronzeAge
Regionaleconomicdivisionoflabour
Becausetheproductseverycommunityneededorcravedwerelocatedindifferentregions—tininCornwalland
Galicia,copperinavarietyofplaces,amberintheBaltic,saltintheAlpsandtheCarpathians—fromatleastthe
MiddleBronzeAgeonwards,aninterregional/internationaltradesystememergedtodistributetheseproductsin
largeenoughquantitiesthroughouttheknownworldtosatisfylocaldemandsfarawayfromsourceareas.Because
someproductssuchasamberandtinlocatedinnorthernEuropewereneededintheMediterranean,theseregions
wouldsoonprofitfromacompetitiveadvantage,andbecamerichinmetalandotherimportedproducts.Forthe
firsttimeweseetheformationofaneconomicdivisionoflabourbetweenregions,whichhadheavyimplicationsin
thepoliticaleconomyandledtotheformationofnewsocialinstitutionsandmorecomplexandrankedsocieties.
However,complexityandpowertookonnewformsdifferentfromthoseinthepalacesocietiesandcity-statesin
theMediterraneanthatwereabletocontrolandtaxalargerterritoryandcouldusewritingtokeeptrackof
transactions(de-personalizedcontrol).
Decentralizedcomplexity
Powerresidedinsocialnetworksthatextendedbeyondtheimmediatelocalresourcearea,andwasunderwritten
bypersonalbondsratherthanwrittentreatiesandcontracts.Participationinthemetaltradeandinothernewforms
oflong-distancetradeinwool/textilesandsaltwouldhavedemandedthecreationofpoliticalallianceslinking
politiestogether—sometimesinconfederations—inordertoprotecttradersandtheirproducts.Participationinsuch
institutionalizednetworks(providingwealthfinance)andtheformationofinstitutionalizedwarriorgroupsenabled
localchiefsandcentrallylocatedtellstomobilizelocalresources(staplefinance)bycontrollingthedistributionof
metalforbothsubsistenceandprestigegoods.
Newweaponsandwarriorinstitutions
Toprotecttrade,warriorswereneeded,andtheBronzeAgewitnessedtheformationofawholenewsetof
weapons(swords,lances,protectivebodyarmour)thatforthefirsttimeledtotheformationofmorepermanent
warriorgroupsandretinues,whichamongotherthingsisevidencedbysystematicusewearonswordsand
lances,andtraumaonskeletons(Kristiansen1984;2002;Harding2007;Harrisson2004;Horn2013;Uckelmann
andMödlinger2011;Vandkilde2011).Thesenewweaponsweremuchmoredeadlyandefficientthananything
precedingthem,andthewarriorsalsodemandedregulartrainingtomastereffectiveswordsmanship.Inshortthe
swordsintroducedanewinstitutionofwarrioreliteswithretinuesthatcouldbemobilizedandhiredasmercenaries
whenneeded.Thisnewpanoplyofweaponswastobeincontinueduseuntilhistoricaltimes(Kristiansen2013),
anditbecameaninstitutionthatcouldbemobilizedbychieflyleaders,butwhichcouldalsooverthrowthem.
Newmeansoftransportandnewopenlandscapes
Participatinginsuchexpansiveintradeputfurtherdemandsoninfrastructure.Somesettlementswerelocalized
alongimportantwaterways,asinHungary,oralongimportantoverlandroutes,asinDenmark(Holstand
Rasmussen2013).Wealsowitnesstheformationofcontinuouslyopenlandscapesthatallowedtraveland
transporttotakeplacealongstructuredtracksconnectingsettlementsforhundredsofkilometres.Inaddition,we
seetheformationofanewmaritimeeconomyalongthecoastlinesofScandinaviawithitsownrituallanguageof
rockartandcairnsfacingthesea(Kristiansen2004;Ling2008;2012).Similarmaritimeeconomiesarosealongthe
Atlanticfaçade,andsoonallowedmaritimelong-distancetradeaneweconomicrole(Needham2009;Rowlands
Page 9 of 19
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
andLing2013).
ExternalandinternalsourcesofpowerfromtheNeolithictotheBronzeAge
DuringtheNeolithicweseecomplexsocietiesemerge,andinsomeareaslargepopulationsintell-likesettlements.
Theirinternalorganizationwascomplexandbaseduponanorganizedandregulateduseofthelandscapeandits
resourcesinastaplefinancesystemsupportingterritorialchiefdoms.Someofthesewereobviouslycomplexbut
couldnotbesustainedinatemperateenvironment.Regionaleconomicandculturalbordersalsoconfinedthe
distributionofgoods.TherewereinitialattemptsduringtheCopperAgetodevelopametal-based,international
economy,whichfailed.ItwouldseemthattheNeolithiceconomyremainedNeolithicpreciselybecauseitcouldnot
breakoutofitslocalizedregionaleconomies,groundedinstaplefinance,andthereforeinthelongrunbecame
vulnerabletooverpopulationanddegradationofthelocalresourcebase,leadingtocollapseandmigrations.
DuringtheBronzeAgeaninterregionalmetaleconomydevelopedthatstimulatedotherformsofinterregionaltrade
andtravel,thusallowingformoreleewayingrowthanddeclineaspeoplemovedbetweenlocalandregional
polities.Powernowresidedprimarilyinthetradeeconomyofdecentralizedpoliticalnetworks,aswealthfinance.
BronzeAgesocietieswerethusmorevulnerabletoexternalchangesinproductionanddemandofmetal,andto
internalcompetitionandwarfareoverthecontroloftraderoutes.Thisshiftintheoverallbalanceofthepolitical
economyandtheoriginofpowerfromstaplefinancetowealthfinance(withmanydegreesofvariation)makesit
justifiedtocharacterizetheNeolithicandtheBronzeAgeintheirmatureformasworldhistoricalepochswitha
fundamentallydifferentoutlookandworldview.
Conclusion
InthiscontributionIhighlightedwhatIconsidertobesomemajorqualitativeorstructuraldifferencesbetween
NeolithicandBronzeAgesocieties.Thehistoricaltransformationbetweenthetwoworldhistoricalepochstook
placeduringthetransitionbetweenthefourthandthethirdmillenniaBC(HansenandMüller2011;Hansenetal.
2010;SmithandRubinson2003),asitpavedthewayforanewtypeofsocialorganizationbasedonnewnotions
offamily,andofpropertyanditstransmission,coupledtotheintroductionofnewmetallurgicalknowledge.
However,ittookanothermillenniumbeforethisnewsocialformationunfoldeditspotentialinEurope,which
happenedonlywhenbronzebecameaneconomicfoundationandthusrestructuredthepoliticaleconomyaround
anewsetofinstitutions,leadingtomorecomplexsocietiesatagloballevel.Itmaybesuggestedthatthelater
Neolithic/Chalcolithicmega-sitesinbotheasternEuropeandtheIberianpeninsularepresentedanattempttocarry
onaNearEasternevolutionarytrajectorytowardsurbanizationandstateformationwhichfailed.Andpartofan
explanationforthisfailureisperhapstobefoundincomparisonswiththeBronzeAge,wheninstitutionalizedtrade
networksneededtosustainlargerpopulationsinthelong-termdevelopedalongwitharegionaldivisionoflabour
andresources.
AdiscussionaboutdifferencesbetweentheNeolithicandtheBronzeAgeisthereforeuseful,becauseithighlights
somefundamentaltheoreticalandinterpretiveissuesaboutthenatureoflaterEuropeanprehistory.Ihave
criticizedthosewhoprefertoviewNeolithicandBronzeAgesocietiesasbasicallysimilarfordisregardingthe
economicroleofinteractionandcommoditytradeduringtheBronzeAge,despiteapparentsimilaritiesinsocial
organization.Likewisetheroleofbronzeweaponsandofwarriorretinuesdefinedanewsocialinstitutionwith
capacitiestocontrolandconqueronascaleunknownintheNeolithic.Thus,whileNeolithicsocietiescouldform
impressiveterritorialchiefdoms,theywerenotgroundedinaglobalsystemofsocialinstitutionsthatenabledthe
systematicextractionoftributeandthecommandofwarriorretinues,whichcharacterizedtheBronzeAge.Mature
BronzeAgesocietiesfromtheseventeenthorsixteenthcenturyBConwards(Melleretal.2013)weretherefore
muchclosertolaterIronAgesocieties,andonanevolutionaryscaletheyarerathermorelikearchaicstates,or
stratifiedsocietiesinMortonFried’sterminology(Fried1967).Theinabilitytoseethisstructuraldifferencebetween
NeolithicandBronzeAgesocietyisoftenbaseduponatypologicalmisconceptionofsocietiesasdefinedbya
descriptivelistofarchaeologicaltraits,whicharethenusedtodrawdirectparallelsbetweenNeolithicandBronze
Agetellsocieties.Whatiscriticalishowthosetraitsareorganized(instituted)aspoliticalsystemsthatstructure
socialsegments,inparticularpowerarrangements.Evenmorecriticalistounderstandthegeographicalscaleof
theeconomy,andthusthebalancebetweenwealthandstaplefinance.Thisbalancechangeddramaticallyduring
theBronzeAge,whichaccountsforthequalitativedifferencesthatseparatedthetwohistoricalepochs,with
correspondinglydifferentworld-viewsandpowerstructuresasaresult.
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The Decline of the Neolithic and the Rise of Bronze Age Society
IwishtothankTimothyEarleforhelpandinspirationincomparingNeolithicandBronzeAgetellsocieties.Iamhere
drawingonourjointarticle,currentlyinpress(KristiansenandEarleinpress).
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KristianKristiansen
KristianKristiansenisProfessorofArchaeology,DepartmentofArchaeologyandAncientHistory,UniversityofGothenburg,
Sweden.
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