ARTICLE
11
MODERN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY
Historians may date the beginning of the modern era to the beginnings of the industrial
revolution in England during the eighteenth century, the American or French Revolutions
(1776 and 1789, respectively), European colonization of the world, or even to the
“rational” end of the Baroque style of architecture. Others begin with the Age of
Enlightenment, defined as the philosophical movement characterized by the belief in
human reason (sometimes referred to as humanism) and by innovations in educational,
political, and religious doctrine – espoused by such notables as Descartes, Newton, and
Voltaire. Still others date the Modern era to the post medieval period, with the advent of
humanitas interests of the Renaissance. Regardless of its definition, the beginning of
the modern era encompassed the economic, industrial, and social revolutions of the
eighteenth century that transformed the world. This transformation de-emphasized the
cultural, political, and religious influences that had dominated architectural design.
Ironically, the most significant event influencing architectural design at the beginning of
the modern era was the archeological interest in ancient Greece. This led to the Eclectic
Style or Eclecticism, often referred to as Historicism. Styles often included the Greek
suffix “-ism” as they were now described in terms of doctrines, as a system of practice,
or as theories. Another phenomenon of the modern era was the fragmentation of
practiced architectural design styles. During the prior eras one architectural style was
dominant but during the modern era architects used a large number of differing styles, a
practice often labeled pluralism.
The industrial revolution replaced the use of hand power with power-driven machines.
Automated machines replaced manually intensive agricultural techniques thereby
dramatically increasing the production of food, with fewer workers. Industry was
concentrated in factories, which were soon concentrated in cities fueled by the labor of
the former agricultural workers. Improvements in medicine and hygiene increased the
average life span. These events led to a tremendous global population explosion with
an increasing percentage of people migrating to the cities in search of employment and
food. As urban populations swelled in size and prosperity, architects were required to
design structures to accommodate the new employment, government, mercantile,
residential, social, and transportation needs of an ever-growing urban population. It was
natural that architects should look to industrial methods to solve these problems.
Architects began analyzing buildings more rationally and stripped away excess
ornamentation and unnecessary spaces to create buildings that in their elevations and
plan reflected the function of the building, “architecture parlent”. The industrial revolution
fostered the growth of democratic principles and the rise of a prosperous middle class.
Artists and designers now catered to the influential middle class as their former reliance
on the aristocratic class diminished. The industrial revolution also had its share of
negatives such as the creation of great disparities in wealth, human rights violations,
industrial pollution, political corruption and scandals, unhealthy working conditions, and
urban overcrowding.
The industrial revolution evolved into a scientific revolution, which evolved into the
present day computer or information revolution. These revolutions led to a disconnect
between the end product and the means of production for a majority of the population.
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For example, few people experience any direct contact with the land and processes
involved in agricultural or meat production. Many might actually believe that fruits and
vegetables grow at the supermarket because they have never left the city and visited a
farm, and how many meat eaters have ever experienced the slaughter involved in
producing the steak they routinely purchase at the supermarket? During the past two
centuries, the Age of Invention dramatically improved the human quality of life, although
a majority of individuals now live in an artificially created urban environment. Significant
improvements include the following: air travel, automobiles, central heating, electricity,
gas-light, mass production, mass transit systems, personal computers, television,
telecommunications, and running water to the home. This disconnect becomes more
pronounced everyday. For example, short of turning on the switch or pressing the power
button, how many people posses even a rudimentary understanding of the simple
electrical process of turning on a light or a computer? The changing importance society
placed on institutions was reflected in the types of buildings that were considered the
most important and typically the tallest. Initially the church was the tallest and most
important building, but it was replaced by the government building, which was replaced
by the office building. Consumerism had replaced religion as the dominant force in
society. Architects had to satisfy a new client, the modern person who demanded a
modern house with all the modern conveniences.
ECLECTICISM
To some extent architects have always looked back to previous styles of architecture for
inspiration or have eclectically borrowed from a variety of architectural expressions in
their work; the same can generally be said for all creative professionals. During the mid17th century, the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio created an architecture style
(Palladianism) based on the geometry, symmetry and values of the formal classical
architecture of the Ancient Greek and Romans, briefly outlined in Article Ten.
Palladianism became popular in Britain, however the outbreak of a civil war cut short its
growth until the middle of the eighteenth century when architects again focused on
ancient Greece, although they soon began to include other historical architectural
periods and styles. Eclecticism (often referred to as Historicism) is the architectural style
characterized by the mixture of these historical styles with modern elements, the ultimate
aim of combining the specific excellence of many styles to increase the design’s
comprehensive quality. The Eclectic Style consisted of a variety of sub-styles or other
names depending on their influence including the Greek revival, neo-Byzantine, neoGothic, neo-Moorish, neo-Renaissance, neo-Romanesque, rationalism, or revivalism.
The measured drawings and sketches of ancient buildings brought back by
archaeologists played an important part in the Eclectic movement as architects found
these invaluable in their efforts to carefully duplicate many historical motifs exactly. As
Eclecticism gained acceptance in the architectural community, historical styles became
easily recognizable, easily understood by society, and were spectacularly reproduced.
Often as a means to show their knowledge, architects aimed to choose the appropriate
historical style based on the building’s function. Based on their perceived historical
significance; Gothic was suitable for educational and religious buildings, the Greek style
signified government buildings, the Romanesque style stood for justice and the republic,
and the Venetian style demonstrated economic might. It was around this time that
architecture as a profession in the present sense began, and it was seemingly in part
because of architect’s ability to produce from a range of past styles or designs. This led
to the development of the École des Beaux-Arts as described in Article Four.
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The most famous and influential examples of eclectic architecture include the following:

Church of Sainte-Geneviève (Panthéon), Soufflot, Paris (France), 1755-1790 –
based on the design of the Greek cross combined with the fresh use of a
colonnade with Corinthian columns. An example of synthetic Eclecticism, the
use of a variety of styles combined in a single building.

Virginia State Capital, Jefferson, Richmond (Virginia), 1785-1789 – modeled after
the Roman temple Maison Carrée because this type of style reflected the Roman
republican self-government style of the United States. An example of
associational Eclecticism, the style was associated with Roman republic.

Altes Museum, Schinkel, Berlin (Germany), 1822-1830 – neo-Classical design
based on the building’s function within a detailed Greek building.

New Palace of Westminster or Houses of Parliament, Barry and Pugin, London
(England), 1836-1870 – Gothic Revival plan built to demonstrate the strong
national character of the English.

Paris Opéra, Garnier, Paris (France), 1861-1875 – design based on a superior
analysis of the building’s interior functions including the social gathering in front
of the famous great staircase. The great architects of the Renaissance and the
Baroque inspired the design, which is called “Second Empire Baroque.”

Allegheny County Courthouse, Richardson, Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania), 18851887 – designed in the Romanesque style (called “Richardson Romanesque”),
influenced numerous American architects.
MODERNISM
Architects were experimenting with the new industrial materials and manufacturing
processes, such as cast iron, plate glass, wrought iron, and mass production of modular
pieces. New types of buildings were created to respond to the new functional demands
of circulation, commerce, entertainment, governance, living, and production. A variety of
new building types such as covered public markets, exhibition halls, high-rise office
buildings, hospitals, public housing, and railroad stations appeared as a result of the
industrial revolution. Many of these structures were complex and had to be larger than
any other constructed since Roman times. Architects looked to new industrial methods
based on scientific principles to solve these problems. The great architects were now
more engineers (and scientists) than artists, consequently the greatest masterpieces of
the industrial style were so because of their great engineering achievement. Some
architects did successfully combined Eclecticism and industrial design in their buildings.
Ornamentation was considered independently from the structure or space and was often
simply just added to an engineering project.
This movement led to the development of the Chicago School of architecture and
eventually to the rise of the skyscraper. The school was a group of Chicago architects
active between 1880-1910 who were known for major developments in skyscraper
design and for experiments in a modern architectural style especially appropriate for
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business and industrial buildings. William LeBaron Jenney has been regarded as the
father of the Chicago school but its two best-known members were Louis Sullivan and
John Wellborn Root. Along with the idea of architectural truth, simplicity of form and the
rejection of ornamentation, they believed that the forms of modern architecture should
imitate modern technology, that their design should be machine-like. Sullivan’s famous
mantra “Form follows function” was a direct byproduct of these beliefs. Skyscrapers
were possible because of two technological developments: the invention of the elevator
and the structural metal frame. The structural frame permitted the construction of highrise buildings that could be covered with a variety of veneer materials, such as masonry,
terra cotta and later glass – in curtain-wall systems. The elevator permitted occupants to
reach the upper floors without the physical stress associated with climbing many flights
of stairs.
The Art Nouveau (new art) movement was an attempt to abandon the historical
constraints of Eclecticism. Its proponents designed structures with free-flowing forms
and ornamental motifs often derived from natural forms, not from any historical artifact.
With an emphasis on plastic design, some buildings appeared as if they were pure
sculpture. A major aspect of Art Nouveau was the mass-production of art objects for the
less fortunate working class, further espoused during the Art Deco movement of the
twentieth century. In retrospect, the Art Nouveau was just a protest movement against
Eclecticism that quickly disappeared. There were other movements that had a similar
fate, although the Arts and Crafts movement influenced later periods.
The most famous and influential examples of modernist architecture include the
following:

Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, Labrouste, Paris (France), 1838-1850 –
successfully combined Eclecticism and industrial design in one building, the
beaux-arts movement.

Crystal Palace, Paxton, London (England), 1851 (destroyed 1936) – exhibition
hall constructed with prefabricated wrought iron and glass elements. Fine
engineering solution to the problem of enclosing a large number of people.

Brooklyn Bridge, Roebling, New York (New York), 1867-1883 – engineering
solution to the problem of spanning great distances. Established the structural
basis for modern suspension bridges.

Home Insurance Building, Jenney, Chicago (Illinois), 1883-1886 (demolished
1931) – only ten stories in height, the first building with a metal skeleton as such
classified as the first skyscraper.

Auditorium Building, Adler and Sullivan, Chicago (Illinois), 1887-1889 – multipurpose building including an opera house, offices, and part hotel. Features
excellent acoustical design.

Eiffel Tower, Eiffel, Paris (France), 1889 – originally built as a temporary exhibit
for the Paris Exhibition. Engineering solution to the problem of reaching great
heights.
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
Guaranty Building, Adler and Sullivan, Buffalo (New York), 1895 – skyscraper
design fully realizing the principles of the Chicago School. The exterior
ornamentation delineated a well-defined base, body, and capital the three
representing internal building functions.

Carson, Pirie, Scott Department Store, Sullivan, Chicago (Illinois), 1899-1904 –
the most modern building of the Chicago School constructed with a metal frame,
large windows (Chicago windows), and modern decoration.
THE MASTER BUILDERS
The modern era has been characterized by a dramatic increase in the world population.
This has led to a similar increase in the number of newly constructed buildings, the
number of architectural styles, and the number of influential architects. Of all these
architects, four personalities have universally been recognized as the most influential
architects of the twentieth century; the master builders. Listed alphabetically, these four
architects include Walter Gropius (1883-1969), Charles-Édouard Jeanneret or Le
Corbusier (1887-1966), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969), and Frank Lloyd Wright
(1869-1959).
Many, including the author, consider Frank Lloyd Wright to be the greatest architect of all
time. Born in Wisconsin in 1869, Wright’s career can be divided into two general time
periods: 1) his work completed before 1910 and 2) his work completed between 1936
and 1959. Partially educated at the University of Wisconsin, although he did not receive
a degree, Wright began his career working for the relatively unknown architect J.L.
Silsbee, who specialized in the design of simple yet elegant homes. Wright then worked
for the famous architectural office of Adler and Sullivan before opening his own
architectural practice in 1896. Initially only known in the Chicago area, he spent the
years prior to 1910 developing his Prairie School style, so called because his projects
were initially built on the great prairies of the Midwest. Wright designed houses and
other buildings that emphasized horizontal lines responding to flatness of the
midwestern prairie. They were also characterized by their organic design philosophy
and open spaces that flowed uninterrupted through an asymmetrical design. Wright was
intricately involved in the design of the considerable ornamentation and interior detailing
for all of his projects, often including custom flooring and furniture. In 1910 an exhibition
of Wright’s work in Berlin illustrated his effective use of the open plan and its flow of
space, which were later adopted by many influential German architects. Between 1910
and 1935 Wright’s commissions were relatively light but he did start to incorporate massproduced elements like concrete blocks and modular design into his projects. Wright
was beginning to move away from his Prairie style toward an architecture that included
concrete and glass exteriors. In an effort to change his work situation and promote his
own greatness (Wright enjoyed boasting of his accomplishments), he opened up his two
design centers, Taliesin East in Wisconsin and later Taliesin West in Arizona. Many of
the apprentices trained at Wright’s design centers, including Richard Neutra and
Rudolph Schindler, later achieved successful architectural careers. Wright was finally
beginning to receive international recognition for his extraordinary design skills, which
led to a dramatic increase in the number and quality of his projects. Beginning in 1936
with the Kaufmann House, a design whose greatness stunned the profession, and
continuing nonstop until his death in 1959, Wright’s body of work was truly extraordinary
and unmatched by any other architect. All readers are strongly urged to visit any of
Wright’s works, it will likely be a religious experience for all future architects.
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In 1907 the German Walter Gropius began his architectural career in the Berlin offices of
Peter Behrens. Behrens was an influential industrial designer who wanted to integrate
higher artistic standards with the often uninspiring and ugly industrial buildings that were
prevalent in Germany. In the process, he also hoped to increase Germany’s influence
throughout the world. Two of the other four master builders also worked for Behrens,
Charles-Édouard Jeanneret and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. In 1909 Gropius formed an
architectural firm when he partnered with Adolf Meyer. They continued the work of
Behrens and began designing functional warehouses not entirely unpleasant to the eye,
by reducing their structural emphasis and increasing the use of expansive glass panels.
Gropius was progressive in his social thinking and was deeply concerned about the
proper development of an industrial architecture and the need to provide responsible
affordable housing. Gropius’ career was interrupted by World War I but soon after the
war Gropius was invited to establish the first Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany. The
Bauhaus was a German school of design established in 1919, relocated in 1926 to new
buildings in Dessau (designed by Gropius and Meyer), which was closed in 1933 as a
result of Nazi hostility. The school was characterized by an emphasis on the functional
design in architecture and the applied arts. By combining art with technology, the
Bauhaus established the basic ideals for modern design. Buildings were designed with
concrete or steel frames set back from the translucent exterior wall of glass, with liberal
use of interior cantilevered floors adding to the transparent feeling of the building. The
primary design concept was the creation of an enclosed space rather than the closed-in
feeling associated with the massive structural support typical of industrial design. The
Bauhaus preached that the modern person required a modern house and that through
the effective use of technology and mass production techniques, architects could
affordably provide this house. Before the outbreak of World War Two, Gropius
immigrated to the United States to work with Harvard University’s School of Design. The
Bauhaus was one of the most influential movements in modern design.
The German Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, frequently referred to by his shortened last
name Mies, also worked under the influential industrial designer Behrens. Behrens
taught Mies that architecture was an expression of technical knowledge and power and
that proper architectural detailing required precision in its design and application.
Gropius’ concern about the proper development of industrial architecture also strongly
influenced Mies. Mies decided to concentrate his efforts on creating industrially perfect
buildings emphasizing construction detailing, open planning, spatial composition,
expression of the structural system, with a sense of elegance. Buildings were designed
as a single space and divided it into smaller areas through the placement of vertical
planes or partitions. Mies would often use the best available materials, which were
assembled by the best craftspersons. Mies left Germany in 1937 and became Professor
of Architecture at the present-day Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. He
continued to develop his ideas of open planning incorporating the latest technological
achievements while always concentrating on simplicity and clarity in design. His famous
axiom “less is more” summarizes his design philosophy. Mies had a huge impact on and
trained many future influential architects.
Le Corbusier, originally born in Switzerland as Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, began his
career in the Paris office of Auguste Perret, from which he learned the potential of
reinforced concrete design. He also worked under Behrens and was influenced by
Gropius’ concern of the need to provide affordable responsible housing. Cubist painting,
which emphasized the reduction of forms to their natural geometrical equivalents, also
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strongly influenced Le Corbusier. He began writing essays on socially responsible
architecture noting that the functional requirements of modern architecture had yet to be
clearly stated. He proposed the construction of affordable housing using standardize
architectural parts, much like automobiles were mass-produced on the assembly line
and referred to houses as machines for living. Le Corbusier expanded these ideas in his
urban planning designs. After extensive touring through the eastern Mediterranean, Le
Corbusier established his five points for a new architecture including: 1) lifting the
building off the ground, 2) replacing supporting walls with thin columns creating an open
interior plan, 3) complete freedom in the design of the building’s exterior, 4) employing
continuous bands of glass, and 5) providing a roof terrace for healthy living. Later in his
career Le Corbusier’s ideals underwent radical changes and his buildings became more
rugged and structural, often labeled “brutal”. Many critics consider Le Corbusier the
most influential architect of the mid-twentieth century throughout the world.
The most famous and influential architectural examples from the master builders include
the following:

Larkin Building, Wright, Buffalo (New York), 1904 (destroyed 1950) – four story
brick office building built around a sky lighted atrium with freestanding stairwell
towers. A landmark of modern design.

Unity Temple, Wright, Oak Park (Illinois), 1906 – first important structure built
with cast-in-place concrete. Its interior space integrated abstract decoration,
intersecting concrete beams, and natural lighting through the use of skylights
creating a wonderful experience for its users.

Robie House, Wright, Chicago (Illinois), 1909 – the prairie house at its finest.
Designed with strong horizontal elements creating a connection with the land, the
upper level is recessed and protected from the street.

Fagus Factory, Gropius and Meyer, Alfeld-an-der-Leine (Germany), 1911-1912 –
a shoe last factory using a steel frame design with expansive windows. The
design almost appears as a translucent glass block.

Bauhaus, Gropius and Meyer, Dessau (Germany), 1925-1926 – constructed
entirely per the design ideals of the Bauhaus. Probably more important for its
design ideals than actual construction.

German Pavilion, Mies van der Rohe, Barcelona (Spain), 1929 – open-air
pavilion emphasizing the precision of German industry. Constructed of carefully
assembled precious materials, a true monument to Germany.

Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier, Poissey (France), 1929 – the model for his five points
for a new architecture.

Kaufmann House or Fallingwater, Wright, Mill Run (Pennsylvania), 1936 – most
well known custom home, built in a rural setting directly over a waterfall and
completely integrated with its surroundings. Considered the most important
architectural project of the twentieth century.
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
S.C. Johnson and Son Administration Building, Wright, Racine (Wisconsin), 1936
– large office building containing Wright’s most famous interior space, a wideopen space with natural illumination provided by translucence glass tubes
supported by the innovated “mushroom” shaped columns.

Unité d’Habitation, Le Corbusier, Marseilles (France), 1947 – multi-purpose
apartment house designed with prefabricated apartment units. Often criticized
for its machine-like approach, later influential in the application of affordable
public housing.

Farnsworth House, Mies van der Rohe, Plano (Illinois), 1946-1950 – a single
volume white house constructed between a raised floor and flat roof with
exquisite details. Exterior was entirely glass perfecting the “Less is more”
mantra.

860 Lakeshore Drive Apartments, Mies van der Rohe, Chicago (Illinois), 19481951 – steel and glass apartment towers constructed with the latest industrial
production techniques. Became the prototype for future steel and glass towers
worldwide.

Capital Complex, Le Corbusier, Chandigarh (India), 1951-1958 – combination of
architecture and urban planning. Includes the Assembly Building, the
Secretariat, and the Supreme Court, each an important work of architecture in
their own right.

Nôtre-Dame-du-Haut, Le Corbusier, Ronchamp (France), 1955 – sculptured
reinforced concrete building. Through the use of various window locations and
sizes, created a study in the application of colors and light.

Seagram Building, Mies van der Rohe, New York (New York), 1958 – further
development of the steel and glass tower by concealing the structural system
behind the glass exterior.

Guggenheim Museum, Wright, New York (New York), 1959 – designed as a
continuous helical pedestrian ramp around a sky lighted circular atrium.
Experiencing the space was almost as impressive as the displayed artworks.
THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE
A significant phenomenon of the twentieth century was the creation of the global village,
the home of all nations and peoples living interdependently. Influential ideas were
transmitted around the world at an accelerating pace, ultimately culminating with the
instantaneous transmission of the Internet. A worldwide culture was forming that
required its own universal architecturally style, the International Style (or International
Modernism or simply the modern style). In 1928 a group of modern European
architects, called the Congrès Internationax d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM), began a
series of conferences in Switzerland to discuss the state of international architecture and
related design and political philosophies. They believed that modern architecture design
was a rational scientific process whose ultimate goal was the maximizing of economic
efficiency utilizing industrial manufacturing processes, because they believed
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architecture could be analyzed as an industrial process. CIAM was also a proponent of
social utilitarianism, providing the most supportive and healthy architecture for the
largest number of people possible, with efficient costs. During an exhibition held at the
new Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 1932 entitled “The International Style:
Architecture Since 1922”, the architectural historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock and the
architect Phillip Johnson published a catalogue of the exhibition entitled The
International Style, where the movement received its permanent name, although the
term was initially coined by Alfred Barr a few decades earlier. Their catalogue,
illustrated with 140 plans and photographs of the most recent work of American and
European architects, is still in print. Because the International Style was free from
historical constraints and most “illusions” from the past, the avant-garde in central
Europe eagerly embraced it. It was universally adopted after the Second World War,
especially in Western Europe, Great Britain, and the United States.
The International Style was characterized by its asymmetrical design employing boxy
cubic shapes with flat roofs and smooth flat plane undecorated surfaces, often painted
white. The function of the building’s exterior was for weather protection and to provide
natural lighting. Consequently, ornamentation was viewed as non-essential so all
moldings and ornaments were eliminated and replaced with large expanses of glass
held in steel frames, often in the form of long horizontal bands or curtain-walling.
Modern society required free planning designs to accommodate ever-changing needs
that were made possible by the adoption of steel-framed or reinforced concrete postand-slab structures, thus enabling the free placement of partitions because they were
not part of the structural system. Because International Style architects believed
technology could solve every conceivable problem, they concluded that the International
Style was appropriate for any location in the world. Homogeneity in design could
successfully replace individuality as long as it was properly applied. The International
Style had its greatest impact on the design of office building, specifically skyscrapers. In
fact, when the word modern is used to describe a developing country, it generally refers
to the building of high-rise buildings in its capital city. Le Corbusier, Gropius, and Mies
were all proponents of the International Style in a majority of their works (previously
described), although Le Corbusier later moved away from the style.
The most famous and influential examples of the International Style include many of the
works of the great masters plus the following:

Lovell Beach House, Schindler, Newport Beach (California) 1925-1926 –
reinforced concrete framed structure elevated above the beach with cantilevered
floors for ocean views. This building was, rather infamously, left out of the
International Style exhibit

Rockefeller Center, Reinhard and Hofmeister, Harrison and Macmurray, and
Hood and Fouilhoux, New York (New York), 1932-1939 – urban center of office
skyscrapers and multi-purpose buildings, designed by several architectural firms
during the great depression.

Equitable Building, Belluschi, Portland (Oregon), 1944-1948 – concrete building
with flush windows set in modular aluminum exterior spandrels. The first sealed
air-conditioned building in the country.
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
Eames House, Eames, Pacific Palisades (California), 1945-1949 – constructed of
standardized mass-produced industrial components.

Johnson House or the Glass House, Johnson, New Caanan (Connecticut), 19451949 – simple steel and glass box created a single space that was divided by
cabinets and a brick core containing the bathroom and fireplace. A pure Miesian
design by one of his most devout followers.

Kaufmann Desert House, Neutra, Palm Springs (California), 1946-1947 –
designed for the client of Wright’s Fallingwater, the house utilized the latest
technology constructed with precision and elegance.

Lever House, Skidmore, Owens and Merrill (led by Gordon Bunshaft), New York
(New York), 1951-1952 – skyscraper influenced by Mies van der Rohe, although
it did not use the maximum amount of the site permitted by zoning ordinances.
Some famous and influential examples of the Modernism Style include the following:

United States Air Force Academy, Skidmore, Owens and Merrill (led by Walter
Netsch), Colorado Springs (Colorado), 1956 – seven huge steel and glass
structures built horizontally on the side of a hill. Repetitive design was criticized
as inhuman.

Capital City, Niemeyer and Costa, Brasilia (Brazil), 1956-1963 – application of
the International Style in the construction of a new Brazilian capital. Created two
towns, the government district and the less fortunate residential district.

Ford Foundation Building, Roche-Dinkeloo, New York (New York), 1963-1968 –
steel and glass structure with two rows of offices separated by a full-height glassenclosed interior garden.

John Deere and Company, Eero Saarinen, Moline (Illinois), 1963 – horizontal
steel and glass structure perfectly blended with its suburban setting.

John Hancock Tower, Skidmore, Owens and Merrill (led by Bruce Graham),
Chicago (Illinois), 1965-1970 – 100-story steel and glass tower with dramatic
external bracing to resist wind loads. Designed as a city within a building with
self-contained parking, residential, shopping, and working facilities.

Centres Georges Pompidou, Piano and Rogers, Paris (France), 1971-1977 –
industrial design turned inside out so that the structure’s technology is outside of
the building.

Pennzoil Plaza, Johnson and Burgee, Houston (Texas), 1972-1976 – designed
by one of the foremost International Style architects, Johnson moved away from
the traditional box shape with tapered roofs creating a unique building identity.

High Art Museum, Meier, Atlanta (Georgia), 1980-1983 – a sculptural return to
the International Style after it had fallen from favor.
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
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Bank of China, Pei, Hong Kong (China), 1982-1990 – skyscraper with triangular
bracing and design in response to the local typhoons.
The most famous and influential examples of Expressionist Modernism architecture
include the following:

Town Hall, Aalto, Säynätsalo (Finland), 1949-1952 – constructed of brick, wood,
and copper roofing, designed around a central courtyard to complement its
forested town location.

Sydney Opera House, Utzon, Sydney (Australia), 1957-1973 – symbolic design
linking the city with the ocean through the shape of sails. Despite poor internal
acoustics and tremendous cost overruns, the symbol of modern Australia.

Dulles International Airport Terminal, Eero Saarinen, Chantilly (Virginia), 19581962 - features a suspended roof in the shape of a hammock supported by tilted
tapered columns.

Jonas Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, Kahn, La Jolla (California), 19591965 – design for a research complex including a community center, housing,
and laboratory – all meticulously designed concrete structures.
POST MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Post Modern architecture refers to all architecture of the late twentieth century that
rejected the constraints of the modern or International Style. That architecture was
viewed as boring and uninviting. The new breed of architects desired buildings that
merged artistic creation with functionality. The restrictions of conventional designs and
old structural ideas were challenged to the mentality that almost “anything goes.” Two
influential books laid the foundation for the Post Modernists, the Canadian Jane Jacob’s
The Death and Life of Great American Cities and Robert Venturi’s Complexity and
Contradiction in Architecture. Jacob criticized urban planning policies which he believed
led to the financial and moral decay of the city, thereby rejecting the International Style’s
believe that one size fits all. Venturi describes an approach to architecture that includes
complexities, contradictions, and a return to historical allusion in design.
The label Post Modern is currently too comprehensive or widely used to have a more
specific meaning, although many architectural philosophers have devised a specific
meaning for the term combined with terms describing other architectural movements that
reject modern design. Some of these include brutalism, deconstructivism, expressionist,
high tech, pluralism, and vernacular architecture. Humanists claimed that architecture in
the machine age was better suited for machines than for people, thus the primary focus
of Post Modern architecture should be the people and their environmental needs.
Repetitive International Style buildings were placed around the world but the critics
responded that each should be a unique design solution to unique problems found
around the globe. Much what was called modernism was not truly the International
Style, but rather a crude version called “literal functionalism” or “Orthodox functionalism”
– architects attempting to copy the masters, but failing miserably. To its critics, the end
of the Modernism can be pinpointed to the dynamiting of the Pruitt-Igoe Housing
Complex in St. Louis, once considered an ideal application of the International Style to
public housing, at 3:32 P.M. on July 15, 1972. Because the housing complex’s design
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did not adequately address its tenant’s social needs, they all left leaving a hotbed of
crime thereby illustrating the failure Modernism.
Modernism had significant shortcomings in its application, many resulting because its
buildings did not consider the cultural, environmental, political, and social factors
affecting the site. For example, is it appropriate to locate a steel and glass tower in the
middle of a desert, a white structure in a jungle setting, or a building symbolizing
economic power in a poor country that had tremendous difficulty feeding its citizens?
International Style buildings were located to achieve maximum economic efficiency but
often ignored such mundane human desires as maximizing their tenant’s comfort and
pleasure, such as maximizing their views and minimizing their utility bills, both of which
eventually had a tremendous impact on the building’s long-term economic survival.
International Style buildings were also designed as capitalist tools to maximize initial
profits with little consideration for the materials durability or maintenance requirements.
This is similar to the prevalent notion in the American automobile industry during the
1950s and 1960s as automobiles were only built to last three or four years, which
required the purchase of a new automobile thereby maximizing the industry’s profits.
Technology rather than design logic was relied upon to solve any problems. Instead of
designing energy efficient buildings, architects would design all-glass buildings (with
single panes) that required expensive cooling and heating systems, thereby increasing
the owner’s energy bill. Many International Style buildings did not age very well as flat
roofs were utilized in climates where it was impossible to properly seal them against
melting snow, and walls of plate glass windows that soon blew out were constructed in
high-wind areas. Often the primary function of the building changed. To the dismay of
many International Style architects, many times the building accommodated the new use
better than its original use.
Architects chose a multitude of alternate approaches to combat the technological deadend which they believed the International Style had become, many more than is possible
to adequately cover in this brief overview. The following list of examples of Post Modern
architecture should serve as a starting point for all interested readers. A recommended
approach is to search by architect and review collections of their works. The list of
projects includes at least one architectural project for most of the well-known architects
in the Post Modern era.
The most famous and influential examples of Post Modern architecture include the
following:

Vanna Venturi House, Venturi, Philadelphia (Pennsylvania), 1962 – designed as
a revolt against the rational order of modernism with internal spaces designed
based purely on function.

Sea Ranch Condominiums, Moore, Lyndon, Turnbull and Whitaker, Sea Ranch
(California), 1964-1966 – residential complex built so that each unit had its own
unique character.

Centres Georges Pompidou, Piano and Rogers, Paris (France), 1971-1977 –
industrial design turned inside out so that the structure’s technology is outside of
the building.
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
Pennzoil Plaza, Johnson and Burgee, Houston (Texas), 1972-1976 – designed
by one of the foremost International Style architects, Johnson moved away from
the traditional box shape with tapered roofs creating a unique building identity.

Portland Building, Graves, Portland (Oregon), 1978-1982 – concrete public
building in the form of a “billboard” that reflected the neoclassical design of the
Portland City Hall.

AT&T Building, Johnson and Burgee, New York (New York), 1978-1983 –
skyscraper with the classic base, body, and capital clearly delineated by
ornamentation and pattern, reminiscence of Adler and Sullivan’s Guaranty
Building.

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Gehry, Bilbao (Spain), 1993-1997 – titanium
surfaces of bizarre shapes that exert a magnetic attraction to the structure.
Widely considered the most significant building in the world of the last 25 years.

Petronas Towers, Pelli, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), 1998 – pair of tapered
skyscrapers constructed with a geometrical plan based on Islamic principles.
When constructed at 1,483 feet in height, classified as the world’s tallest building
by the “Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat”. Has since been replaced
by the Burj Kahlifa Tower in Dubai.
THE 21st CENTURY
The 21st Century is still in its infancy but some architects and buildings have stood out as
the “best” or “most important” or whatever term is used to describe those that have
captured the public’s attention. There are countless lists describing the Top Ten
Buildings or Ten Greatest Architects – with so many choices it’s impossible to choose
such a small number but the nature of this article demands that I do just that. I believe
almost all modern architectural critics would agree that all of the following architects
(listed in alphabetical order) are great: Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, Daniel Libeskind,
Oscar Niemeyer, Jean Nouvel, Renzo Piano, Moshe Safdie, and Tom Wright. Are there
others? Of course! Interested readers should just do a google search and create their
own personal list. Naturally the same logic, some would say lack of logic, will be utilized
to create a similar list of buildings.
Two design movements are influencing the architecture of the future: environmentally
sustainable or green architecture, and critical regionalism. The former was covered in
detail in Article Seven under the Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design. Critical
regionalism creates an architecture that employs modern design principles with a
foundation in the region’s cultural and geographical context. A mass produced structure,
such as a fast food restaurant, can employ the same building technologies, but must be
varied to the local clientele and geography.
The most famous and influential examples of 21st Century architecture include the
following:

Walt Disney Concert Hall, Gehry, Los Angeles, 2003 – a bold, large scale civic
building of a CAD-produced design that was a Gehry signature in the late 1990s
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and early 2000s. A controversial design that is considered a masterpiece of just
a “crumbled piece of paper”.

Museum of Islamic Art, Pei, Doha (Qatar), 2008 – monumental blocks of
traditional Islamic architecture on a man-made island.

California Academy of Sciences, Piano, San Francisco, 2008 – undulating green
roof incorporating innovative LEED design including enclosed rain forests.

Maxxi National Museum of 21st Century Arts, Hadid, Rome (Italy), 2009 – flowing
concrete and steel design focusing on providing natural light.

Absolute World, Burka Architects, Mississauga (Ontario, Canada), 2010 – pair of
twisting 50 story towers offering a unique plan for each floor.

Burj Kahlifa, Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, Dubai (United Arab Emirates), 2010 –
the world’s tallest building combining traditional Islamic architect with Frank Lloyd
Wright’s theoretical mile-high building.

Guangzhou Opera House, Hadid, Guangzhou (China), 2010 – performing arts
center combining organic and man-made design features.

Metropol Parasol, Mayer-Hermann, Seville (Spain), 2011 – large wooden trellis
(in the shape of a tree canopy) covering a central market, museum, and
restaurant.

Gardens by the Bay, Grant Associates, Singapore, 2012 – large garden project
including a vast array of flora in imaginative conservatories.

The Shard, Piano, London, 2012 – 87-story glass tower in the shape of a narrow
transparent pyramid.
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ARCHITECTURE
Southern California has a rich history of architectural variety that was a result of its
almost perfect weather, blend of cultures, and often stunning natural landscape. People
migrated to the region to get away from their old traditional lifestyle and were very open
to trying new things. Architects experimented with nonconformists designs not really
caring what architectural critics thought. Artistic designs combined with technology
flourished in the early 1900s as Charles and Henry Greene popularized the Arts and
Crafts Movement, Irving Gill created buildings utilizing modern concrete, Frank Lloyd
Wright was building concrete block houses and Art Deco became popular. The vast
open landscape led to a much less dense urban design in comparison to those found in
Chicago and New York. Transportation systems were created, such as the Los Angeles
Railway yellow cars and the Pacific Electric Red Car line, which dictated the shape of
the metropolis and began the infamous urban sprawl the region is known for. The most
significant technological influence was the automobile which dramatically increased the
urban sprawl and buildings designed for the automobile, particularly drive-through
restaurants and drive-in movies.
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The First Transcontinental Railroad (know originally as the Pacific Railroad and later as
the Overland Route) was completed in 1869. This route connected San Francisco with
the existing rail network serving the eastern part of the country at Council Bluffs, Iowa
and led to a massive migration to the west coast. The Second Transcontinental
Railroad, which terminated in Los Angeles, was completed in 1983 by the Southern
Pacific Railroad. As more railroads were completed, price wars broke out offering cheap
rail fares leading to a population boom.
The 1940s was the beginning of a rapid expansion of the area’s industry and population.
Because of its proximity to the Pacific War, Southern California helped prepare the
country for war with an abundance of aircraft plants, military bases, and naval shipyards.
Defense contractors looked for more efficient methods to deliver their products which led
to increased use of newer materials, such as aluminum and plastics. After the war, the
population of the area increased dramatically creating a huge demand for affordable
housing, business construction and transportation infrastructure. Massed produced
housing, typically associated for the military, soon became the norm. Large department
stores and eventually shopping malls appeared as did massive industrial complexes.
The first freeway in the western United States (the Arroyo Seco Parkway) open in 1940,
the port of Long Beach became a major trading terminal, and a new post war vernacular
called “Googie” was created for the automobile driver through its eye catching designs
and bold signage designed to gain the attention of the driver rather than the pedestrian.
Many coffee shops and fast food restaurants were design in the Googie idiom.
In the 1950s Southern California industry expanded particularly in the aerospace and
automobile industries and by the mid-1960s, the region was the global capital of
aerospace and high-tech industries. Movie production was already popular but the
brand new television industry needed a home. Combined with excellent year round
weather, entertainment and the opening of Disneyland made the area the largest tourist
destination in the country. Many whimsical buildings were created, such as Bob’s Big
Boy, the Donut Hole, and the arches of McDonald’s in response. By 1964 California was
the largest state in population in the country. The state began creating significant civic
buildings such as the Dorothy Chandler Music Center, Los Angeles Airport Theme
Building, Union Station, and a multitude of Universities. During the past twenty years,
buildings such as the Getty Center, the Walt Disney Concert Hall and Caltrans District 7
Headquarters have made the region international known as a center of architectural
creativity. Multinational influences, particularly from Mexico and the multitude of Asian
countries whose populations have resettled in the area, continually shape the
architectural landscape.
The most famous and influential examples of Southern California architecture include
the following:

Bradbury Building, Wyman & Hunt, Los Angeles, 1893 – 19th Century vision of
architecture in the year 2000.

David B. Gamble House, Greene & Green, Pasadena, 1908 – regarded as the
masterpiece of the Arts and Crafts movement focusing on craftsmanship and the
use of natural materials.

Dodge House, Gill, West Hollywood, 1916 – very early expression of regional
Modernism; Spanish influences mixed with Modern abstraction.
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
Watts Towers of Simon Rodia, Rodia, Los Angeles, 1921-1954 – collection of 17
interconnected towers constructed of steel reinforcement. Substantial folk art
environment entirely designed and constructed by one man over a 30+ year
period.

Lovell Beach House, Schindler, Balboa, 1922 – overlooked International style
masterpiece with expressionist influences.

Ennis House, Wright, Los Angeles, 1924 – constructed of inter-locking pre-cast
concrete blocks influenced by ancient Mayan temples.

Lovell Health House, Neutra, Los Angles, 1929 – the first steel frame house in
the United States. Also on of the earliest examples of sprayed-on concrete.

Museum of Contemporary Art, Gill & Venturi (expansion), La Jolla, 1941, 1996
expansion – noted residence which was remodel to include modern art.

Kaufmann Desert House, Neutra, Palm Springs, 1946 – designed to emphasize
a connection to the desert landscape – one of the most important examples of
the International Style of architecture applied to a single family home.

McDonald’s Restaurant, Meston, Downey, 1953 – one of the earliest examples of
the iconic chain designed as a subdivision of futurist architecture, the Googie
style.

Stahl House, Koenig, Hollywood, 1960 – also known as Case Study House #22
is considered a representation of modern architecture in Los Angeles.

LAX Theme Building, Pereira & Luckman, Williams, Becket, Westchester, 1961 –
resembles a flying saucer that has landed on four legs, Googie style.

Salk Institute, Kahn, San Diego, 1965 – concrete structure with carefully planned
symmetrical vistas overlooking the Pacific Ocean.

Geisel Library, Pereira, UCSD Campus, La Jolla, 1970 – concrete and glass
structure shaped like an inverted pyramid or flowering tree. Named after
Theodor Seuss Geisel aka Dr. Seuss.

Pacific Design Center Blue Building, Pelli, West Hollywood, 1975 – long mega
scaled building clad in bright blue glass, known as the “Blue Whale”.

Gehry Residence remodel, Gehry, Santa Monica, 1979 – significant early Gehry
work expressing a multitude of his bold and then unorthodox aesthetic
approaches.

Crystal Cathedral, Johnson & Burgee, Garden Grove, 1981 – the largest glass
(reflective) building in the world containing one of the largest musical instruments
in the world, the Hazel Wright Memorial organ.
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
Westfield Horton Plaza, Sand Diego, Jerde, 1985 – a five-level outdoor shopping
mall using diverse geometry and colors. Influenced the design of future urban
shopping centers.

Getty Center, Meier, Los Angeles, 1997 – hilltop complex inspired by the 1920s
era modernism. Reached by a tram from an underground parking garage, the
center is noted for its gardens and views.

Caltrans District 7 Headquarters, Los Angeles, Morphosis, 2004 – futuristic and
environmentally friendly design incorporating many mechanical green
architecture features.

United Oil Gasoline Station, Kanner Architects, Los Angeles, 2009 – designed to
reflect the area’s reliance on the freeway with sweeping roofs found in postwar
Los Angeles.

High Tech High, Studio E Architects, Chula Vista, 2009 – modular design high
school emphasizing openness in design and sustainability.

Robert Paine Scripps Forum for Science, Society and the Environment, Rabines,
La Jolla, 2009 – ocean front center design to appreciate the natural environment.