Louisiana Law Review
Volume 76 | Number 1
The Voting Rights Act at 50: The Past, Present, and
Future of the Right to Vote
A Symposium of the Louisiana Law Review
Fall 2015
Tempering Society's Looking Glass: Correcting
Misconceptions About the Voting Rights Act of
1965 and Securing American Democracy
Orville Vernon Burton
Repository Citation
Orville Vernon Burton, Tempering Society's Looking Glass: Correcting Misconceptions About the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and Securing
American Democracy, 76 La. L. Rev. (2015)
Available at: http://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol76/iss1/7
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Reviews and Journals at DigitalCommons @ LSU Law Center. It has been accepted
for inclusion in Louisiana Law Review by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons @ LSU Law Center. For more information, please contact
[email protected].
7HPSHULQJ6RFLHW\¶V/RRNLQJ*ODVV&RUUHFWLQJ
0LVFRQFHSWLRQV$ERXWWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
DQG6HFXULQJ$PHULFDQ'HPRFUDF\
Orville Vernon Burton
7$%/(2)&217(176
,
,QWURGXFWLRQ
+LVWRULFDO1HFHVVLW\RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
'LVIUDQFKLVHPHQWDQG)HLJQHG,JQRUDQFHLQWKH6RXWK
$ 7KH(DUO\6WUXJJOHIRU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ3ROLWLFDO3RZHU
% 7KH5LVLQJ7LGHRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ9RWHU
3DUWLFLSDWLRQ'XULQJ5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ
& 7KH3RVW5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ'LVPDQWOLQJRI
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ9RWLQJ5LJKWV
7KH7H[DV([SHULHQFH
D 7KH:KLWH3ULPDU\
E 'LVFULPLQDWRU\/LWHUDF\DQG3ROOLQJ3ODFH
5HTXLUHPHQWV
F 3ROO7D[
7KH1DWXUHRI'LVIUDQFKLVHPHQWLQWKH-LP
&URZ6RXWK
,, 7KH3URYLVLRQVRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
$9LVLRQDQGD9LFWRU\
$ 7KH9LVLRQRIWKH$FW
% 7KH+LJKOLJKWVRIWKH$FW
& $Q,QFRPSOHWH9LFWRU\
,,, 7KH,PSDFWRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIRQWKH
%URDGHU&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQW)URPWKH6WUHHWVWRWKH
&RXUWKRXVH
$ 7KH5ROHRIWKH0HGLDLQWKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQW
% 7KH0HGLDDQGWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
&RS\ULJKWE\259,//(9(5121%85721
7KH$XWKRUWKDQNVWKHHGLWRUVRIWKHLouisiana Law ReviewIRUWKHLUZRUN
RQ WKLV $UWLFOH DQG DOVR WKDQNV $QGHUVRQ 5RXVH $OH[DQGUD %HWKOHQIDOY\ -
0RUJDQ.URXVVHU$UPDQG'HUIQHU3DXO)LQNHOPDQ1DWDVKD.RUJDRQNDUDQG
3HWHU(LVHQVWDGW3DUWRIWKLV$UWLFOHLVWDNHQIURPWKLV$XWKRU¶V([SHUW5HSRUW
IRUWKHFDVHU.S. v. Texas1RFY6'7H[
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
,9 7KH'LVWRUWLRQRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
7KURZLQJ$ZD\WKH+LVWRU\%RRNV
$ )UDFWXULQJWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
% &RQJUHVVLRQDO0HQGLQJ
& 5HQHZHG&KDOOHQJHV
' %HKLQGWKH9HLORI,JQRUDQFH
9 7KH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI7RGD\&RQWLQXLQJ
&KDOOHQJHVDQGD5HQHZHG&DOOIRU9RWHU(TXDOLW\
$ 7KH7H[DV([SHULHQFHZLWK9RWHU,GHQWLILFDWLRQ/DZV
7KH7H[DV9RWHU,GHQWLILFDWLRQ/DZLQ,WV
+LVWRULFDO&RQWH[W
7KH7H[DV9RWHU,GHQWLILFDWLRQ/DZLQ,WV
0RGHUQ&RQWH[W
&RQFOXVLRQ
,1752'8&7,21
,QWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWGHFODUHGDQHQGWRWKHUDFLDOGLVSDULW\LQ
PLQRULW\ YRWHU UHJLVWUDWLRQ DQG WXUQRXW QXPEHUV WKDW H[LVWHG LQ WKH -LP
&URZ6RXWKDQGMXVWLILHGHVVHQWLDOHOHPHQWVRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
:LWKWKDWGHFODUDWLRQWKH&RXUWUHGXFHGDFHQWXU\ORQJVWUXJJOHIRU
YRWHUHTXDOLW\WRDPHUHGHEDWHRYHUVSHFLILFSROLF\FKRLFHVFORXGHGE\
³GHFDGHVROGGDWDDQGHUDGLFDWHGSUDFWLFHV´)RUWKH&RXUWWKHKLVWRU\RI
GHMXUHUDFLDOGLVFULPLQDWLRQZDVFRPIRUWDEO\LQWKHSDVWDQGWKHIHGHUDO
JRYHUQPHQW ZDV QR ORQJHU MXVWLILHG LQ VLQJOLQJ RXW VWDWHV WKDW ZHUH
WUDGLWLRQDOO\ WKH PRVW HJUHJLRXV GHQLHUV RI FLYLO ULJKWV 7KH &RXUW¶V
KLVWRULFDOREVHUYDWLRQLVQRWRQO\ZURQJLWUHSUHVHQWVDQLQFUHDVLQJO\OD[
DWWLWXGHWRZDUGWKHKLVWRU\RIWKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQWDQGWKHRQJRLQJ
VWUXJJOHIRUUDFLDOHTXDOLW\DWWKHEDOORWER[$PRUHFRPSOHWHDQGQXDQFHG
YLHZ RI WKLV KLVWRU\ RU PRUH VSHFLILFDOO\ WKH KLVWRU\ RI RQH RI WKH
6KHOE\&QW\Y+ROGHU6&W±
See id.
See id. DW ± ³,I &RQJUHVV KDG VWDUWHG IURP VFUDWFK LQ >6HFWLRQRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI@SODLQO\FRXOGQRWKDYHHQDFWHGWKH
SUHVHQW FRYHUDJH IRUPXOD ,W ZRXOG KDYH EHHQ LUUDWLRQDO IRU &RQJUHVV WR
GLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQ6WDWHVLQVXFKDIXQGDPHQWDOZD\EDVHGRQ±\HDU±ROGGDWD
ZKHQ WRGD\¶V VWDWLVWLFV WHOO DQ HQWLUHO\ GLIIHUHQW VWRU\ $QG LW ZRXOG KDYH EHHQ
LUUDWLRQDOWREDVHFRYHUDJHRQWKHXVHRIYRWLQJWHVWV\HDUVDJRZKHQVXFKWHVWV
KDYHEHHQLOOHJDOVLQFHWKDWWLPH%XWWKDWLVH[DFWO\ZKDW&RQJUHVVKDVGRQH´
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
PRYHPHQW¶V JUHDWHVW YLFWRULHV²WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW RI ²LV
QHHGHGWRJXDUDQWHHFRQWLQXHGSURJUHVVWRZDUGDPRUHLQFOXVLYH$PHULFDQ
GHPRFUDF\
2QHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWJRDOVRIWKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQWZDVWR
HQVXUHYRWLQJULJKWVIRU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVOLYLQJLQWKH6RXWKZKRZHUH
DOPRVWFRPSOHWHO\GLVIUDQFKLVHG1HDUO\DFHQWXU\DIWHUWKHUDWLILFDWLRQRI
WKH)LIWHHQWK$PHQGPHQWWKHYDVWPDMRULW\RI6RXWKHUQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
KDGQRPHDQLQJIXOLQIOXHQFHRQWKHHOHFWLRQRISXEOLFRIILFLDOV7KLVUHDOLW\
FUHDWHGDYLFLRXVF\FOHRIPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQDQGPLVUHSUHVHQWDWLRQWKDWRQO\
IHGHUDO DFWLRQ FRXOG UHPHG\ EHFDXVH WKH ZKLWH PDMRULW\ LQ PDQ\
MXULVGLFWLRQVEHFDPHHQWUHQFKHGLQWKHLUSROLWLFDOGRPLQDQFH7KXVDQ\
RSSRUWXQLW\ IRU YRWHU HTXDOLW\ ZRXOG KDYH WR FRPH IURP RXWVLGH WKHVH
FRPPXQLWLHVZKHUHSUHMXGLFHDQGSROLWLFVQHJDWHGDQ\FKDQFHRIFKDQJH
IURPZLWKLQ6XFKDQRSSRUWXQLW\ZRXOGQRWEHUHDOL]HGXQWLOWKHSDVVDJHRI
WKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
7KH VXFFHVV RI WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW RI UHSUHVHQWV RQH RI WKH
JUHDWHVWDFKLHYHPHQWVRI$PHULFDQGHPRFUDF\7KH$FWSXWDQHQGWRD
QXPEHURIIDFLDOO\QHXWUDOWDFWLFVWKDWWKH6RXWKXVHGWRVWLIOHWKHSRZHURI
WKHPLQRULW\YRWLQJHOHFWRUDWHVXFKDVOLWHUDF\WHVWVSROOWD[HVDQGWKHXVH
RIVHSDUDWHEDOORWER[HV%\HOLPLQDWLQJVXFKREVWDFOHVWRYRWHUHTXDOLW\
WKH $FW SDYHG WKH ZD\ IRU LQFUHDVHG YRWHU SDUWLFLSDWLRQ DPRQJ $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQV ZKLFK LQ WXUQ OHG WR LQFUHDVHG PLQRULW\ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI3XE/1R6WDWFRGLILHGDV
DPHQGHGDV86&$††WR:HVW:HVWODZWKURXJK3/
See infra3DUW,,
,QIDFW6RXWKHUQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVKDGEHHQODUJHO\GLVIUDQFKLVHGVLQFH
WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ See 5,&+$5' 0 9$/(//< 7+( 7:2
5(&216758&7,216
86&2167DPHQG;97KH)LIWHHQWK$PHQGPHQWSURYLGHVWKDW³7KH
ULJKWRIFLWL]HQVRIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVWRYRWHVKDOOQRWEHGHQLHGRUDEULGJHGE\WKH
8QLWHG6WDWHVRUE\DQ\6WDWHRQDFFRXQWRIUDFHFRORURUSUHYLRXVFRQGLWLRQRI
VHUYLWXGH´Id.†
See infra3DUW,&
See infra3DUW,
See generally 67(9(1 ) /$:621 %/$&. %$//276 927,1* 5,*+76,1
7+( 6287+ ± GLVFXVVLQJ WKH SROLWLFDO VWUXJJOH IRU $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQHQIUDQFKLVHPHQWLQWKH6RXWKEHIRUHWKHSDVVDJHRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV
$FWRI
See infra3DUW,,&
See infra3DUWV,&,,
See %HUQDUG*URIPDQ/LVD+DQGOH\The Impact of the Voting Rights
Act on Black Representation in Southern State Legislatures/(*,6 678' 4
Q
Id.DWWEO&4 35(66 $0(5,&$1 32/,7,&$/ /($'(56 ±
DW
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
'HVSLWH ZKDW WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW¶V RSLQLRQ LQ Shelby County v. Holder
PD\VXJJHVWKRZHYHUWKHYLFWRULHVRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWDUHIDUIURP
FRPSOHWH
(YHQZLWKWKHJDLQVEURXJKWDERXWE\WKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWPLQRULWLHV²
HVSHFLDOO\ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV²FRQWLQXH WR EH XQGHUUHSUHVHQWHG LQ SXEOLF
RIILFH$OWKRXJK$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVPDNHXSDVXEVWDQWLDOSRUWLRQRIWKH
SRSXODWLRQWKHLUQXPEHUVLQNH\SXEOLFRIILFHVDUHVXUSULVLQJO\VFDUFH7KH
GLVSDULW\LVSHUKDSVPRVWVWULNLQJLQWKH6RXWKZKHUH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
PDNHXSDQHVSHFLDOO\VLJQLILFDQWSURSRUWLRQRIWKHSRSXODWLRQEXWKDYH
OLPLWHG UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ LQ ERWK VWDWH OHJLVODWXUHV DQG &RQJUHVV $OWKRXJK
PDQ\IDFWRUVFRQWULEXWHWRWKLVGLVSDULW\WUDJLFDOO\PDQ\ZKLWH$PHULFDQV
IDLO WR UHFRJQL]H²RU VLPSO\ FKRRVH WR LJQRUH²WKH FRQWLQXHG VWUXJJOH IRU
YRWHUHTXDOLW\ZKLFKKDVEHHQODUJHO\KLGGHQEHKLQGWKHFRXUWKRXVHGRRUV
VLQFHWKHSDVVDJHRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW
%\VKLIWLQJWKHIRFXVRQWKHILJKWIRUYRWHUHTXDOLW\IURPWKHVWUHHWVWRWKH
FRXUWKRXVH WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW KDG WKH XQLQWHQGHG FRQVHTXHQFH RI
DOORZLQJPDQ\ZKLWH$PHULFDQVWRFODLPWKDWWKHVWUXJJOHIRUYRWHUHTXDOLW\
ZDVRYHU%\UHFRJQL]LQJDWHFKQLFDOHTXDOLW\PDQ\ZKLWHVZHUHIUHHWR
6KHOE\&QW\Y+ROGHU6&W±VXJJHVWLQJWKH
HQGRIGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHPLQRULW\SROLWLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
See, e.g. .DUHQ 6KDQWRQ The Problem of African American
Underrepresentation on Local Councils '(026 KWWSZZZGHPRVRUJSXEOLFDWLRQ
SUREOHPDIULFDQDPHULFDQXQGHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQFLW\FRXQFLOV>KWWSSHUPDFF0<-
<8=@ODVWYLVLWHG6HSWGLVFXVVLQJUDFLDOYRWLQJLQHTXDOLW\LQWKHHOHFWLRQ
RIORFDOFRXQFLOV
(ULF2VWHUPHLHUAfrican-American US Representatives by the Numbers
60$57 32/ $XJ KWWSHGLWLRQVOLEXPQHGXVPDUWSROLWLFV
DIULFDQDPHULFDQXVUHSUHVHQWD >KWWSSHUPDFF*&1(9@ .+$/,/$+
%52:1'($1 (7 $/ <($56 2) 7+( 927,1* 5,*+76 $&7 7+( 67$7( 2)
5$&(,1 32/,7,&6³%DVHGRQWKHPRVWUHFHQWGDWD$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
DUHRIWKHFLWL]HQYRWLQJDJHSRSXODWLRQEXWWKH\PDNHXSDVPDOOHUVKDUH
RIWKH86+RXVHVWDWHOHJLVODWXUHVFLW\FRXQFLOVDQGWKH
866HQDWH/DWLQRVPDNHXSRIWKHFLWL]HQYRWLQJDJHSRSXODWLRQEXW
WKH\DUHDVPDOOHUVKDUHRIWKH86+RXVHVWDWHOHJLVODWXUHVWKH86
6HQDWHDQGFLW\FRXQFLOV$VLDQ$PHULFDQVDUHRIWKHFLWL]HQ
YRWLQJ DJH SRSXODWLRQ EXW D VPDOOHU VKDUH RI WKH 86 +RXVH VWDWH
OHJLVODWXUHVWKH866HQDWHDQGFLW\FRXQFLOV´1RWHWKDWWKLV
$XWKRUGRHVQRWVXJJHVWWKDWWKHUHLVRUVKRXOGEHDQ\³TXRWD´RUFRUUHFWSURSRUWLRQ
RI $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV WR WKHLU UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ ,QVWHDG WKHVH FRPSDULVRQV DUH
QHFHVVDU\WRXQGHUVWDQGWKDWYRWHUVUHPDLQERXQGLQDUDFHEDVHGVRFLHW\
%ULGJHWWH %DOGZLQ Backsliding: The United States Supreme Court,
6KHOE\ &RXQW\ Y +ROGHU and the Dismantling of Voting Rights Act of 1965
72852/-5$&(*(1'(5(7+1,&,7<DW±
See infra3DUW,,,
See infra 3DUW,,,0LFKDHO&'DZVRQ /DZUHQFH'%RER(GLWRULDO
,QWURGXFWLRQOne Year Later and the Myth of a Post-Racial Society'8%2,6
5(9³0DQ\FRPPHQWDWRUVERWKFRQVHUYDWLYHDQGOLEHUDOKDYH
FHOHEUDWHG WKH HOHFWLRQ RI %DUDFN 2EDPD DV SUHVLGHQW RI WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
GRZQSOD\ WKH HIIHFWV RI ODVWLQJ SUHMXGLFH DQG EHFDPH LQFOLQHG WR DFFHSW
PLVLQIRUPDWLRQZKLFKVXJJHVWVWKDWWKHUHLVQRLVVXHRIIDLUQHVVRUHTXDOLW\
LQ$PHULFDQHOHFWLRQVDQGWKDW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDUHLQPDQ\ZD\VEHWWHU
RIIWKDQZKLWH$PHULFDQV7KLVGHYHORSPHQWKDVOHGWRUHQHZHGHIIRUWVWR
DFFRPSOLVK WKH YHU\ WKLQJ WKDW WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW ZDV GHVLJQHG WR
SUHYHQW²LPSOHPHQWLQJPHDVXUHVWKDWRQWKHLUIDFHGRQRWGLVFULPLQDWHRQ
WKHEDVLVRIUDFHEXWQHYHUWKHOHVVKDYHWKHSXUSRVHRUHIIHFWRIGRLQJVR
$VDUHVXOWSROLWLFDODQGOHJDOEDWWOHVDUHHUXSWLQJRYHUYRWLQJUHVWULFWLRQV
VXFKDVYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVDQGDUHEHLQJIXHOHGE\PLVLQIRUPDWLRQ
&RUUHFWLQJVXFKPLVLQIRUPDWLRQE\SODFLQJPRGHUQGHYHORSPHQWVLQWKHLU
KLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WLVWKHMRERIKLVWRULDQV
7KLV$UWLFOHSUHVHQWVDEULHIKLVWRU\RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
ZLWK DQ H\H WRZDUG FRUUHFWLQJ WKH KLVWRULFDO PLVFRQFHSWLRQV WKDW FRXUWV
KDYH SURPXOJDWHG DQG WKDW KDYH OHG WR LQFUHDVHG FKDOOHQJHV WR YRWHU
HTXDOLW\7KHKRSHLVWKDWDPRUHQXDQFHGDQGFRPSOHWHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI
WKHILJKWIRU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQHQIUDQFKLVHPHQWZLOOLQIRUPSROLWLFDODQG
OHJDOEDWWOHVRYHUYRWLQJULJKWV
3DUW,RIWKLV$UWLFOHGLVFXVVHVWKHQHFHVVLW\RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW
VXJJHVWLQJWKDWIHGHUDOOHJLVODWLRQZDVQHFHVVDU\WRFRPEDWWKHWDQJHQWLDO
PHDQVRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQGLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWK3DUW
,,SURYLGHVDQRYHUYLHZRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWKLJKOLJKWLQJWKHLPSRUWDQW
IHDWXUHV WKDW ZHUH GHVLJQHG WR KDOW WKH GLVFULPLQDWRU\ SUDFWLFHV RI PDQ\
VWDWHV3DUW,,,GLVFXVVHVWKHEURDGHULPSDFWRIWKH$FWRQWKH&LYLO5LJKWV
0RYHPHQWDVWKHILJKWIRUWKHEDOORWER[PRYHGIURPSXEOLFSURWHVWVLQWKH
VWUHHWVWROHJDODFWLYLVPLQWKHFRXUWKRXVH3DUW,9WUDFHVWKHGLVWRUWLRQRI
MXULVSUXGHQWLDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJV RI WKH $FW DV ZHOO DV WKH JURZLQJ
PLVFRQFHSWLRQVRIWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLFVXUURXQGLQJWKHH[HUFLVHRIWKHULJKW
WRYRWHVXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKHIRXQGDWLRQVKDYHEHHQODLGRYHUWLPHIRUUHQHZHG
FKDOOHQJHVWRWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW3DUW9GLVFXVVHVWKHFXUUHQWREVWDFOHV
WR PLQRULW\ YRWHU SDUWLFLSDWLRQ DQG KRZ WR GLVPDQWOH WKRVH REVWDFOHV
FODLPLQJWKHHOHFWLRQVLJQLILHG$PHULFDKDVWUXO\EHFRPHDµSRVWUDFLDO¶VRFLHW\
,WLVQRWMXVW/RX'REEVZKRDUJXHVWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVLQWKHµVWFHQWXU\>LVD@
SRVWSDUWLVDQSRVWUDFLDOVRFLHW\¶7KLVYLHZLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWKEHOLHIVWKHPDMRULW\
RI:KLWH $PHULFDQV KDYHKHOGIRUZHOORYHUDGHFDGHWKDW$IULFDQ $PHULFDQV
KDYHDFKLHYHGRUZLOOVRRQDFKLHYHUDFLDOHTXDOLW\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVGHVSLWH
VXEVWDQWLDOHYLGHQFHWRWKHFRQWUDU\,QGHHGWKLVYLHZLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWKRSLQLRQV
IRXQGLQWKHBoston GlobeWall Street JournalNew York TimesDQGHOVHZKHUH
´
See3HWHU:DOOVWHQ'DYLG*6DYDJHVoting Rights Act Opponents Point
to Barack Obama’s Election as Reason to Scale Back Civil Rights Laws &+,&
75,%0DUKWWSDUWLFOHVFKLFDJRWULEXQHFRPQHZV
BBFLYLOULJKWVODZVYRWLQJULJKWVDFWYRWLQJGLVWULFWV>KWWSSHUPDFF04
8701@
See infra3DUW9
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
IRFXVLQJRQUHFHQWFDVHVFRQFHUQLQJYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZV)LQDOO\WKLV
$UWLFOH FRQFOXGHV ZLWK D FDOO IRU DQ LQFUHDVHG DZDUHQHVV RI WKH 9RWLQJ
5LJKWV$FWDQGLWVKLVWRU\VRWKDWWKHSDVWZLOOQRWEHUHSHDWHG
,+,6725,&$/1(&(66,7<2)7+(927,1*5,*+76$&72)
',6)5$1&+,6(0(17$1')(,*1(',*125$1&(,17+(6287+
7KHKLVWRU\RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRISURYLGHVDQRSSRUWXQLW\WR
H[DPLQHWKHHEEDQGIORZRIWKH$PHULFDQGHPRFUDWLFH[SHULHQFH)URPWKH
KLJK WLGHV RI VZHHSLQJ YRWHU LQFOXVLRQ WR ORZ WLGHV RI ZLGHVSUHDG YRWHU
GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWPDQ\RIWKRVHZLWKRXWVRFLRHFRQRPLFSRZHUKDYHKDGWR
VWUXJJOHWRDWWDLQDQGPDLQWDLQSROLWLFDOLQIOXHQFH$OWKRXJKWKLVVWUXJJOHKDV
SOD\HGRXWRQQXPHURXVIURQWVSHUKDSVWKHPRVWVWULNLQJH[DPSOHKDVEHHQ
WKH ILJKW IRU XQUHVWUDLQHG VXIIUDJH IRU $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV²D GUHDP WKDW
UHPDLQVXQIXOILOOHG'HVSLWHDEULHISHULRGRIKLJKHOHFWRUDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
GXULQJWKH )LUVW 5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQVLQ WKH 6RXWK ZHUH
ODUJHO\GLVIUDQFKLVHGQHDUO\DFHQWXU\DIWHUWKHUDWLILFDWLRQRIWKH)LIWHHQWK
$PHQGPHQW DQG VWDWH ODZV²GHVLJQHG WR EH IDFLDOO\ QHXWUDO EXW
SUDFWLFDOO\ GLVFULPLQDWRU\²ZRXOG KDYH FRQWLQXHG WR VWLIOH WKH ILJKW IRU
YRWLQJHTXDOLW\ZLWKRXWIHGHUDOLQWHUYHQWLRQ
A. The Early Struggle for African-American Political Power
3HRSOHRI$IULFDQGHFHGHQWKDYHEHHQILJKWLQJIRUSROLWLFDOULJKWVLQ
1RUWK$PHULFDVLQFHEHIRUHWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV7KH
See0DXULFH5'DYLHMinorities, A Challenge to American Democracy
- ('8& 62& ± 2IWHQ LQ $PHULFDQ SROLWLFV WKRVH RI D
GLIIHUHQW QDWLRQDOLW\ RU UDFLDO EDFNJURXQG IURP WKH ZKLWH PDMRULW\ KDYH EHHQ
H[FOXGHGIURPWKHSROLWLFDOSURFHVVId.DWQRWLQJLQWKDW³>L@Q$PHULFD
>WKHIHHOLQJRISUHMXGLFH@LVVWURQJHVWDJDLQVWWKH1HJURHVPRUHLQWHQVHDJDLQVW
$VLDWLFVWKDQ ZKLWHVDQGDJDLQVWVRXWKHUQDQGHDVWHUQ(XURSHDQVDVFRQWUDVWHG
ZLWKQRUWKHUQDQGZHVWHUQ´7KLVKLVWRULFDOUHDOLW\VKRXOGEHWURXEOLQJWRWKRVH
FLWL]HQVZKRYDOXHWKHDXWKHQWLFLW\RI$PHULFDQHOHFWLRQVEHFDXVH³WKHEDVLFWHVW
RI D GHPRFUDF\ LV ZKHWKHU LW FDQ EH H[WHQGHG WR LQFOXGH UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV RI
GLIIHUHQWQDWLRQDOLWLHVDQGUDFHVRQDEDVLVRIHTXDOLW\´Id.DW
See, e.g.0$5&,$$0,'21/867('7+(),*+7)25:20(1¶668))5$*(
GLVFXVVLQJWKHKLVWRU\RIWKH:RPHQ¶V6XIIUDJH0RYHPHQW
See infra3DUW9
See infra3DUW,$
See infra 3DUW ,& 7KH SUREOHP ZDV QRW MXVW LQ WKH 6RXWK KRZHYHU
0DQ\ VWDWHV RXWVLGH RI WKH IRUPHU &RQIHGHUDF\ HQDFWHG REVWUXFWLYH PHDVXUHV
VXFKDVYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVWKDWPDGHLWPRUHGLIILFXOWIRUPLQRULWLHVWRKDYH
DQHTXDORSSRUWXQLW\WRSDUWLFLSDWHLQHOHFWLRQV
See, e.g.$XGUH\H(-RKQVRQWilliam Still, A Pioneer African American
Social Worker- 62& 62& :(/)$5(QRWLQJ3DXO&XIIH¶V
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
VXFFHVV RI WKH $PHULFDQ 5HYROXWLRQ RQO\ LQWHQVLILHGWKLV VWUXJJOH DV WKH
QHZO\FUHDWHGFRXQWU\UHDIILUPHGLWVVXSSRUWIRUWKHLQVWLWXWLRQRIVODYHU\
8QVXUSULVLQJO\HQVODYHGSHRSOHKDGQRYRLFHLQDJRYHUQPHQWWKDWWUHDWHG
WKHPDVPHUHSULYDWHSURSHUW\UDWKHUWKDQPHPEHUVRIDVRFLHW\IRXQGHG
XSRQIUHHGRPDQGVHOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQ7RPDNHPDWWHUVPRUHWURXEOHVRPH
WKHVWDWHVIUHTXHQWO\GHQLHGHYHQIUHH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDFFHVVWRWKHEDOORW
ER[HVSHFLDOO\LQWKH6RXWK2EVWDFOHVWRYRWHUHTXDOLW\WRRNWKHIRUPRI
RYHUWO\UDFLVWODZVZKLFKGHQLHGYRWLQJULJKWVWR$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDVD
FODVV
$IWHU WKH &LYLO :DU WKH VDPH UDFLVW DWWLWXGHV WKDW MXVWLILHG GHQ\LQJ
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVWKHULJKWWROLIHOLEHUW\DQGSURSHUW\FRQWLQXHGWROLQJHU
LQWKHPLQGVDQGFXOWXUHRIPXFKRIWKH6RXWKHUQZKLWHHOHFWRUDWH6RPH
ZKLWHVZHUHVRIUXVWUDWHGZLWK$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVH[HUFLVLQJEDVLFIUHHGRPV
WKDWWKH\RIWHQUHVRUWHGWRWHUURULVPDQGYLROHQFHWRHQVXUHWKDWFRQVWLWXWLRQDO
JXDUDQWHHVRIUDFLDOHTXDOLW\ZHUHQHYHUUHDOL]HG)RUH[DPSOHLQDIWHU
D FRQIURQWDWLRQ EHWZHHQ ZKLWH SROLFH RIILFHUV DQG $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV LQ
0HPSKLV
HIIRUWVWRDWWDLQYRWLQJULJKWVLQ0DVVDFKXVHWWVIRUIUHHSHRSOHRI$IULFDQGHVFHQW
ZKRSDLGWD[HV
See, e.g.86&2167DUW,†FO³7KH0LJUDWLRQRU,PSRUWDWLRQRI
VXFK3HUVRQVDVDQ\RIWKH6WDWHVQRZH[LVWLQJVKDOOWKLQNSURSHUWRDGPLWVKDOO
QRWEHSURKLELWHGE\WKH&RQJUHVVSULRUWRWKH<HDURQHWKRXVDQGHLJKWKXQGUHG
DQGHLJKWEXWD7D[RUGXW\PD\EHLPSRVHGRQVXFK,PSRUWDWLRQQRWH[FHHGLQJ
WHQGROODUVIRUHDFK3HUVRQ´2IFRXUVHVXFKSURYLVLRQVZHUHQRWZLWKRXWVWDUN
RSSRVLWLRQSee3DXO)LQNHOPDQSlavery in the United States: Persons or Property?
in7+(/(*$/81'(567$1',1*2)6/$9(5<-HDQ$OODLQHG
See'DYLHsupraQRWHDW³7KH1HJURHVIRUH[DPSOHZHUHQRW
FRQFHLYHGDVPHPEHUVRI$PHULFDQVRFLHW\1RUZDV-HIIHUVRQWKLQNLQJRIWKHP
ZKHQDVFKLHIGUDIWVPDQRIWKH'HFODUDWLRQRI,QGHSHQGHQFHKHZURWHµ:HKROG
WKHVH WUXWKV WR EH VHOIHYLGHQW WKDW DOO PHQ DUH FUHDWHG HTXDO WKDW WKH\ DUH
HQGRZHGE\WKHLU&UHDWRUZLWKFHUWDLQXQDOLHQDEOH5LJKWVWKDWDPRQJWKHVHDUH
/LIH /LEHUW\ DQG WKH SXUVXLW RI +DSSLQHVV¶´ TXRWLQJ 7+( '(&/$5$7,21 2)
,1'(3(1'(1&(SDUD86
1RUWK&DUROLQD ZDVWKHRQO\ 6RXWKHUQVWDWHWRJUDQWVRPH IUHH$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQV WKH ULJKW WR YRWH IRU PXFK RI WKH SUH&LYLO :DU SHULRG-2+1 +23(
)5$1./,1 7+( )5(( 1(*52,1 1257+ &$52/,1$ DW ± SUWJ
see also 3DXO )LQNHOPDQ Prelude to the Fourteenth Amendment: Black
Legal Rights in the Antebellum North 587*(56 /- ± GLVFXVVLQJWKHYRWLQJULJKWVRIIUHH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVLQWKH1RUWKEHIRUHWKH
&LYLO:DU,QDGGLWLRQ&RQJUHVVSDVVHGOHJLVODWLRQWKDWSURYLGHGDPHFKDQLVP
IRURQO\ZKLWHLPPLJUDQWVWREHFRPHFLWL]HQVRIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV1DWXUDOL]DWLRQ
$FWRIFK6WDW
See generally 259,//(9(5121%857217+($*(2)/,1&2/1±
GLVFXVVLQJOLIHLQWKH 6RXWKDIWHUWKH&LYLO:DUsee also0,&+$(/ $
%(//(6,/(6$0(5,&$¶6<($52)/,9,1*9,2/(17/<
%85721supraQRWHDW
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
>7@KHZKLWHFLW\UHFRUGHU-RKQ&&UHLJKWRQJDYHDVSHHFKXUJLQJ
PD\KHP:KLWHVGLGWKHLUEHVWWRFRPSO\7KHUHSRUW>RIWKH
)UHHGPHQ¶V%XUHDX@VXPPDUL]HG³1HJURHVZHUHKXQWHGGRZQE\
SROLFHILUHPHQDQGRWKHUZKLWHFLWL]HQVVKRWDVVDXOWHGUREEHG
DQGLQPDQ\LQVWDQFHVWKHLUKRXVHVVHDUFKHGXQGHUWKHSUHWHQVHRI
KXQWLQJIRUFRQFHDOHGDUPVSOXQGHUHGDQGWKHQVHWRQILUH´0HQ
ZRPHQ DQG FKLOGUHQ ZHUH NLOOHG VRPH VKRW LQ EHG /DZ
HQIRUFHPHQW SHUVRQQHO ZHUH WKHPVHOYHV WKH PXUGHUHUV DQG
DUVRQLVWV7KHODZOHVVPREUHLJQHGRYHU0HPSKLVGXULQJWKH
QH[W ILYH GD\V WKH PD\RU XQZLOOLQJ RU XQDEOH WR HVWDEOLVK
FRQWURO
6XFKYLROHQFHPDGHFOHDUWKDWPDQ\6RXWKHUQZKLWHVZHUHVWLOOXQZLOOLQJ
WRDFFHSWIHGHUDOO\LPSRVHGULJKWVIRU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVLQFOXGLQJWKHULJKW
WRYRWH
6XFKKRVWLOLW\WRZDUGV$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVQHFHVVLWDWHGDFRPSUHKHQVLYH
QDWLRQDOUHVSRQVHZKLFKLOOXVWUDWHGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIJXDUDQWHHLQJWKHULJKW
WRYRWHWR$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVLQWKH6RXWK3ULPDULO\WKHIHGHUDOJRYHUQPHQW
UHFRJQL]HG WKH QHHG WR RFFXS\ WKH 6RXWK WR NHHS IUHHGPHQ VDIH IURP
UHWDOLDWLRQE\&RQIHGHUDWHV\PSDWKL]HUVEXWWKLVVWUDWHJ\ZDVQHLWKHUDORQJ
WHUP VROXWLRQ QRU DOZD\V HIIHFWLYH EHFDXVH 6RXWKHUQ RIILFLDOV RIWHQ
IDFLOLWDWHGUDFLDOYLROHQFH7KXV$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVQHHGHGPRUHWKDQ
WHPSRUDU\ SURWHFWLRQ 7KH\ QHHGHG WKH DELOLW\ WR GLUHFWO\ LQIOXHQFH WKH
JRYHUQPHQWE\H[HUFLVLQJDQXQLPSHGHGULJKWWRYRWH
B. The Rising Tide of African-American Voter Participation During
Reconstruction
(PDQFLSDWLRQ GLG QRW DXWRPDWLFDOO\ EULQJ DERXW $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
HQIUDQFKLVHPHQW 7KH DGRSWLRQ RI WKH )LIWHHQWK $PHQGPHQW ZDV
QHFHVVDU\WRJXDUDQWHH²DWOHDVWWKHRUHWLFDOO\²WKDWWKHULJKWWRYRWHZRXOG
QRWEHGHQLHGRUDEULGJHGRQDFFRXQWRIUDFHRUFRORU7REXWWUHVVWKLV
JXDUDQWHH &RQJUHVV XWLOL]HG LWV ³SRZHU WR HQIRUFH >WKH )LIWHHQWK
$PHQGPHQW@ E\ DSSURSULDWH OHJLVODWLRQ´ DQG SDVVHG D VHULHV RI DFWV
Id.
See %(//(6,/(6supraQRWHDW±
7KH7KLUWHHQWK$PHQGPHQWPHUHO\SURYLGHGWKDW³>Q@HLWKHUVODYHU\QRU
LQYROXQWDU\VHUYLWXGHH[FHSWDVDSXQLVKPHQWIRUFULPHZKHUHRIWKHSDUW\VKDOO
KDYHEHHQGXO\FRQYLFWHGVKDOOH[LVWZLWKLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVRUDQ\SODFHVXEMHFW
WRWKHLUMXULVGLFWLRQ´86&2167DPHQG;,,,†
86&2167DPHQG;9†
Id.†
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
GHVLJQHG WR HQVXUH 6RXWKHUQ FRPSOLDQFH ZLWK WKH PDQGDWH RI $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVXIIUDJH
:LWKIHGHUDOVXSSRUWDQGRYHUVLJKW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVEHJDQWRYRWH
DW LQFUHDVLQJO\ KLJKHU UDWHV WKURXJKRXW WKH 6RXWK %\ $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQYRWHUWXUQRXWH[FHHGHGLQPRVW6RXWKHUQVWDWHVDQGZDVDV
KLJKDVLQ7HQQHVVHHLQ6RXWK&DUROLQDLQ1RUWK&DUROLQD
DQGLQ)ORULGD'XULQJWKLVSHULRG$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDOVREHJDQ
WR VHUYH LQ DOO OHYHOV RI SXEOLF RIILFH LQ WKH 6RXWK 6RXWKHUQ $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQ RIILFHKROGHUV GXULQJ 5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ LQFOXGHG D JRYHUQRU
OLHXWHQDQWJRYHUQRUVWUHDVXUHUVVHFUHWDULHVRIVWDWHVSHDNHUVRIWKHKRXVH
DQGDVWDWHVXSUHPHFRXUWMXVWLFH7KHVHVWDWLVWLFVUHSUHVHQWHGDGUDPDWLF
LQFUHDVHLQSROLWLFDOLQIOXHQFHIRUDSHRSOHZKRZHUHDOPRVWFRPSOHWHO\
ZLWKRXWSROLWLFDOULJKWV\HDUVHDUOLHU
'HVSLWH GUDPDWLF JDLQV LQ $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ SROLWLFDO LQIOXHQFH WKH
WHFKQLFDO YRWHU HTXDOLW\ WKDW H[LVWHG LQ WKH ODZ ERRNV QHYHU WUDQVODWHG WR
FRPSOHWHYRWHUHTXDOLW\LQSUDFWLFH0XFKRIWKHHOLJLEOH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
HOHFWRUDWHQHYHUDFWXDOO\FDVWEDOORWVDQGDVLJQLILFDQW GLVSDULW\UHPDLQHG
EHWZHHQ WKH JHQHUDO $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ SRSXODWLRQ DQG $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
UHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQNH\SXEOLFRIILFHV7KLVJDSRQO\ZLGHQHGDV5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ
FDPHWRDQHQG
$V WKH HQG RI 5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ QHDUHG $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ YRWHU WXUQRXW
SOXPPHWHG)URPWR$IULFDQ$PHULFDQYRWHUWXUQRXWGHFUHDVHG
E\DQDYHUDJHRILQ6RXWKHUQVWDWHV)URPWRWKDWGHFOLQH
ZDVHYHQPRUHGUDPDWLF%\WKH6RXWKKDGYLUWXDOO\GLVIUDQFKLVHG
See generally -2+1 0$%5< 0$7+(:6 /(*,6/$7,9( $1' -8',&,$/
+,6725<2)7+( ),)7((17+ $0(1'0(17±GSUWJGLVFXVVLQJWKH
HQIRUFHPHQWOHJLVODWLRQRIWKH)LIWHHQWK$PHQGPHQW
See 9$/(//< supra QRWH DW WEO $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ YRWHU
WXUQRXW QXPEHUV IRU RWKHU VWDWHV LQ LQFOXGHG LQ $ODEDPD LQ
$UNDQVDVLQ*HRUJLDLQ/RXLVLDQDLQ0LVVLVVLSSLLQ7H[DV
DQGLQ9LUJLQLDId.
(5,& )21(5 )5(('20¶6 /$:0$.(56 $ ',5(&725< 2) %/$&.
2)),&(+2/'(56'85,1*5(&216758&7,21DW[LY/D6WDWH8QLY3UHVVUHYHG
$IULFDQ $PHULFDQV VHUYHG LQ PDQ\ ORFDO RIILFHV VXFK DV PD\RU
SRVWPDVWHUVKHULIIFRURQHUDQGFLW\FRXQFLOId.
Id.DW[YLWEO
Id.DW[LY
See 9$/(//<supraQRWHDW
See)21(5supraQRWHDW[LY
See 9$/(//<supraQRWHDWWEO
See id.
See id. )ORULGD 0LVVLVVLSSL 6RXWK &DUROLQD DQG
7HQQHVVHHH[SHULHQFHGWKHPRVWGUDPDWLFGHFOLQHVSee id.
See id.
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
$IULFDQ $PHULFDQV ZLWK OHVV WKDQ YRWHU WXUQRXW LQ HYHU\ 6RXWKHUQ
VWDWH
C. The Post-Reconstruction Dismantling of African-American Voting
Rights
7KH UHGLVIUDQFKLVHPHQW RI $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV LQ WKH SRVW
5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ 6RXWK ZDV WKH SURGXFW RI D FDOFXODWHG VFKHPH 0DQ\
6RXWKHUQZKLWHVKDGQRLQWHQWLRQRIDOORZLQJ6RXWKHUQEODFNVWRFRQWLQXH
WR H[HUFLVH WKHLU FRQVWLWXWLRQDO ULJKW WR YRWH $V IHGHUDO RYHUVLJKW
VXEVLGHGWRZDUGVWKHHQGRI5HFRQVWUXFWLRQWKHVH6RXWKHUQZKLWHVWRRN
DGYDQWDJH RI DQ RSSRUWXQLW\ WR RQFH DJDLQ VWULS $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV RI
SROLWLFDOSRZHU)URP9LUJLQLDWR7H[DVVWDWHVDFURVVWKH6RXWKEHJDQWR
SDVV D VHULHV RI DFWV DQG FRQVWLWXWLRQDO DPHQGPHQWV GHVLJQHG WR
GLVIUDQFKLVHEODFNFLWL]HQV7KHVHVWDWHVDFFRPSOLVKHGWKLVWDVNZLWKRXW
UXQQLQJ DIRXO RI WKH SODLQ ODQJXDJH RI WKH )LIWHHQWK $PHQGPHQW E\
XWLOL]LQJSROLFHVWKDWZHUHIDFLDOO\QHXWUDOEXWSUDFWLFDOO\GLVFULPLQDWRU\
Id.
See generally id. DW ± GLVFXVVLQJ WKH SRVW5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ
GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQLQ6RXWKHUQVWDWHV
See 2UYLOOH 9HUQRQ %XUWRQ 7HUHQFH 5 )LQQHJDQ 3H\WRQ 0F&UDU\ -DPHV:/RHZHQSouth Carolinain48,(7 5(92/87,21 ,1 7+( 6287+ 7+(
,03$&72)7+(927,1*5,*+76$&7DW&KDQGOHU'DYLGVRQ
%HUQDUG*URIPDQHGV
/$:621supraQRWHDW&RQVLGHUWKHVLWXDWLRQLQ&ODLERUQH3DULVK
/RXLVLDQDHYHQDIWHU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVZHUHJLYHQJUHDWHUOHJDOSURWHFWLRQ
7KHZKLWHWHUURULVWVFDOOHG³EXOOGR]HUV´LQ/RXLVLDQDKDGQRUHDVRQWR
IHDUORFDOODZHQIRUFHPHQWZKLFKWKH\GRPLQDWHG:KHQIHGHUDOWURRSV
FDPHLQWR>WKH@SDULVKGXULQJWKHHOHFWLRQWKHEXOOGR]HUV³VWRSSHG
NLOOLQJ >$IULFDQ $PHULFDQV@ DV PXFK DV WKH\ KDG EHHQ WKH :KLWH
/HDJXHVVWRSSHGUDJLQJDERXW ZLWKWKHLU JXQV VR PXFK´%XWRQO\WKH
JRYHUQRUFRXOGUHTXHVWIHGHUDODVVLVWDQFHDQGWKDWRIILFHKDGIDOOHQLQWR
WKHKDQGVRIWKHWHUURULVWVWKHPVHOYHV
%(//(6,/(6supra QRWHDWIRRWQRWHRPLWWHG
2QH H[DPSOH ZDV 6RXWK &DUROLQD¶V VRFDOOHG ³(LJKW%R[ %DOORW /DZ´
ZKLFKLOOXVWUDWHVWKHH[WUHPHPHDVXUHVWKDW6RXWKHUQZKLWHVZHUHZLOOLQJWRWDNH
WRSUHYHQW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVIURPH[HUFLVLQJWKHLUULJKWWRYRWH
8QGHUWKLVUXOHEDOORWVIRULQGLYLGXDORIILFHVKDGWREHSODFHGLQVHSDUDWH
EDOORW ER[HV 3XW \RXU EDOORW LQ WKH ZURQJ ER[ DQG LW ZRXOG QRW EH
FRXQWHG$OWKRXJKWKHER[HVZHUHXVXDOO\ODEHOHGSURSHUO\WKLVPHDQW
OLWWOHWRLOOLWHUDWHEODFNYRWHUVXQDEOHWRUHDGWKHODEHOV$QGLIWKLVZHUH
QRW HQRXJK PDQ\ HOHFWLRQ VXSHUYLVRUV VKLIWHG WKH ER[HV DURXQG
SHULRGLFDOO\&RXQWOHVVZURQJO\SODFHG²DQGKHQFHXQFRXQWHG²EDOORWV
ZHUHWKHUHVXOW
&+$5/(6 / =(/'(1 927,1* 5,*+76 21 75,$/ $ +$1'%22. :,7+ &$6(6
/$:6$1''2&80(176
- 025*$1 .2866(5 &2/25%/,1' ,1-867,&( 0,125,7< 927,1*
5,*+76$1'7+(81'2,1*2)7+(6(&21'5(&216758&7,21±
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
1. The Texas Experience
6RXWKHUQ VWDWHV LQVWLWXWHG D QXPEHU RI PHDVXUHV WR HIIHFWLYHO\
GLVIUDQFKLVH $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV ZLWKRXW RYHUWO\ GLVFULPLQDWLQJ RQ WKH
EDVLVRIUDFH7KHVHPHDVXUHVWRRNDGYDQWDJHRIGHPRJUDSKLFUHDOLWLHV
DQGXWLOL]HGVHOHFWLYHHQIRUFHPHQWPHDVXUHVWRYLUWXDOO\HOLPLQDWH$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQSROLWLFDOLQIOXHQFHLQWKH6RXWK7KHVHPHDVXUHVLQFOXGHGWKH
LQVWLWXWLRQ RI D ZKLWH SULPDU\ IRU WKH GRPLQDQW SROLWLFDO SDUW\²WKH
'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\SROOWD[HVDQGGLVFULPLQDWRU\OLWHUDF\WHVWVDQGSROOLQJ
SODFH$OWKRXJKVWDWHVWKURXJKRXWWKH6RXWKXWLOL]HGVRPHRUDOORIWKHVH
PHDVXUHV7H[DVSURYLGHVDQLOOXVWULRXVH[DPSOHWKDWKDVJUHDWUHOHYDQFH
WRGD\
a. The White Primary
7KHZKLWHSULPDU\LQ7H[DVEHJDQLQZKHQWKH7H[DVOHJLVODWXUH
ILUVWVXSSRUWHGHIIRUWVWRUHTXLUHSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVWRKROGSULPDU\HOHFWLRQV
,QGRLQJVR³7H[DVUHFRJQL]HGSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVDVDIXQFWLRQDOVHJPHQWRI
WKHVWDWH¶VJRYHUQPHQWDOPDFKLQHU\´7KLVPRYHZDVVLJQLILFDQWEHFDXVH
SROLWLFDO SDUWLHV FRXOG VHW WKHLU RZQ UDFLVW TXDOLILFDWLRQV IRU SULPDU\
SDUWLFLSDQWV7KH7HUUHOO(OHFWLRQ/DZRIIRUPDOL]HGWKLVORRVHV\VWHP
7H[DVVWDWHODZQRZHQFRXUDJHGERWKRIWKHPDMRUSDUWLHVDQGWKHFRXQW\
HOHFWLRQ FRPPLWWHHV WR PRUH ZLGHO\ DGRSW WKH WKHQH[LVWLQJ YRWHU
TXDOLILFDWLRQVWKDWGLUHFWO\EDUUHG$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDQGRWKHUPLQRULWLHV
IURPYRWLQJLQSULPDU\HOHFWLRQV
%HFDXVH RI UHVWULFWLYH YRWHU TXDOLILFDWLRQV E\ WKH HDUO\ WZHQWLHWK
FHQWXU\WKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\ZDVWKHRQO\UHOHYDQWSDUW\LQ7H[DV7KXV
NHHSLQJ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDQGRWKHUPLQRULW\YRWHUVRXWRIWKH'HPRFUDWLF
SULPDU\ DPRXQWHG WR WRWDO GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQW 3URIHVVRU 'DYLG 0RQWHMDQR
ZULWHVWKDW RQH RI WKH VWDWHG SXUSRVHV RI WKH7HUUHOO /DZ ZDV WR SUHYHQW
RSHQLQJ³WKHIORRGJDWHVIRULOOHJDOYRWLQJDVRQHSHUVRQFRXOGEX\XSWKH
See id.
Id.DWQRWLQJ³LQJHQLRXVVRXWKHUQDXWKRUVFRXOGWZLVWVHHPLQJO\QHXWUDO
GHYLFHVIRUSDUWLVDQDQGUDFLVWSXUSRVHV´
9$/(//<supraQRWHDWWEO
+HQU\$OOHQ%XOORFNThe Expansion of Negro Suffrage in Texas-
1(*52('8&±
Id. DW
See 5REHUW%ULVFKHWWRHWDOTexasin48,(75(92/87,21,17+(6287+
7+( ,03$&7 2) 7+( 927,1* 5,*+76 $&7 ± DW Q
&KDQGOHU 'DYLGVRQ %HUQDUG *URIPDQ HGV - 025*$1 .2866(5 7+(
6+$3,1*2)6287+(5132/,7,&668))5$*(5(675,&7,21$1'7+((67$%/,6+0(17
2)7+(21(3$57<6287+±DW±
See %ULVFKHWWRHWDOsupraQRWHDWWEO
%XOORFNsupraQRWHDW±
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
0H[LFDQDQG1HJURYRWHV´²LQRWKHUZRUGVWRSUHYHQWYRWHUIUDXG7KH
HIIHFWLYHUHVXOWRIWKHDOOZKLWHSULPDU\V\VWHPKRZHYHUZDVWRSUHYHQW
OHJLWLPDWHPLQRULW\YRWHUVIURPSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHQRPLQDWLRQSURFHVVLQ
7H[DV)RUH[DPSOHWKH'LPPLW&RXQW\QHZVSDSHUUHSRUWHGRQ-XQH
WKDW WKH ³:KLWH 0DQ¶V 3ULPDU\ $VVRFLDWLRQ´ DV WKH ORFDO ZKLWH
SULPDU\V\VWHPZDVNQRZQ³DEVROXWHO\HOLPLQDWHVWKH0H[LFDQYRWHDVD
IDFWRU LQ QRPLQDWLQJ FRXQW\ FDQGLGDWHV WKRXJK ZH JUDFLRXVO\ JUDQWWKH
0H[LFDQWKHSULYLOHJHRIYRWLQJIRUWKHPDIWHUZDUGV´7KXVXQGHUWKH
JXLVH RI SUHYHQWLQJ ³IUDXG´ ZKLWH SULPDU\ ODZV DOVR SHUPLWWHG ZKLWH
'HPRFUDWVWRFRQWUROWKHYRWHVRIUHJLVWHUHGEXWHIIHFWLYHO\GLVIUDQFKLVHG
PLQRULW\YRWHUVGXULQJWKHSULPDU\HOHFWLRQV
,Q $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV ILUVW VXFFHVVIXOO\ FKDOOHQJHG D
QRQSDUWLVDQ ZKLWH SULPDU\ V\VWHP LQ :DFR 7H[DV ,Q UHVSRQVH WKH
7H[DV6WDWHOHJLVODWXUHLQHQDFWHGDODZSURYLGLQJWKDW³DOOTXDOLILHG
YRWHUVXQGHUWKHODZVDQGFRQVWLWXWLRQRIWKH6WDWHRI7H[DVZKRDUHERQD
ILGHPHPEHUVRIWKH'HPRFUDWLFSDUW\VKDOOEHHOLJLEOHWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQ
DQ\ 'HPRFUDWLF SDUW\ SULPDU\ HOHFWLRQ LQ QR HYHQW VKDOO D QHJUR EH
HOLJLEOHWRSDUWLFLSDWH´7KLVUHVWULFWLRQHVVHQWLDOO\PHDQWWKDWDQ\SHUVRQ
YRWLQJLQDSDUW\SULPDU\KDGWRDIILUP³,DPDZKLWHDQG,DPD'HPRFUDW´
,Q $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV ILOHG D IHGHUDO ODZVXLW WR VWRS WKH
HQIRUFHPHQW RI WKH VWDWXWH RQ WKH JURXQGV WKDW LW YLRODWHG WKH
)RXUWHHQWKDQG)LIWHHQWK$PHQGPHQWVDQGWRSUHYHQW7H[DVIURPGUDZLQJ
DWLJKWHUVWUDQJOHKROGRQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVXIIUDJH7KH866XSUHPH
&RXUW LQ GHFODUHG WKH 7H[DV VWDWXWH XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO 7KH 7H[DV
OHJLVODWXUHLPPHGLDWHO\UHVSRQGHGE\VWLSXODWLQJWKDWHYHU\SROLWLFDOSDUW\
LQ WKH VWDWH WKURXJK LWV ([HFXWLYH &RPPLWWHH ³VKDOO LQ LWV RZQ ZD\
GHWHUPLQHZKRVKDOOEHTXDOLILHGWRYRWHRURWKHUZLVHSDUWLFLSDWHLQVXFK
SROLWLFDOSDUW\´3URPSWO\WKHUHDIWHUWKH'HPRFUDWLF3DUW\DJDLQEDQQHG
DOO QRQZKLWH YRWHUV IURP WKH SDUW\¶V SULPDU\ HOHFWLRQV 7KH QHZ ODZ
EDUUHGERWK$IULFDQ$PHULFDQDQG/DWLQRYRWHUV$V0&*RQ]iOH]D
IRXQGHURI7KH/HDJXHRI8QLWHG/DWLQ$PHULFDQ&LWL]HQV³/8/$&´
H[SODLQHG LQ ³WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI µZKLWH PDQ¶V¶ SULPDULHV WR
'$9,'0217(-$12$1*/26$1'0(;,&$16,17+(0$.,1*2)7(;$6
±DW
Id.
Id.DW±FLWDWLRQRPLWWHG
%ULVFKHWWRHWDOsupraQRWHDW
4XDOLILFDWLRQVRI9RWHUVLQ'HPRFUDWLF3ULPDULHV7H[*HQ/DZV
%XOORFNsupraQRWHDW
1L[RQY+HUQGRQ86
$XWKRUL]LQJ 3ROLWLFDO 3DUWLHV 7KURXJK 6WDWH ([HFXWLYH &RPPLWWHHV WR
3UHVFULEH4XDOLWLILFDWLRQVRI7KHLU0HPEHUV7H[*HQ6SHF/DZV
See %ULVFKHWWRHWDOsupraQRWHDW
See id.
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
SUHYHQW EODFNV DQG 0H[LFDQ $PHULFDQV IURP H[HUFLVLQJ WKHLU ULJKW RI
VXIIUDJH´ZDVDVLJQLILFDQWEXUGHQIDFHGE\/DWLQRVLQWKHV1RW
XQWLOGLGWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWDOVRUXOHWKLVIRUPRIWKH7H[DVZKLWH
SULPDU\ODZVXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO
b. Discriminatory Literacy and Polling Place Requirements
$WWKHVDPHWLPHZKHQ7H[DVLPSOHPHQWHGWKHDOOZKLWHSULPDU\WKH
VWDWH DOVR GLVIUDQFKLVHG $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ DQG /DWLQR YRWHUV WKURXJK
VHFUHWEDOORWVDQGSROOLQJSODFHODZVWKDWUHVWULFWHGRUEDUUHGDVVLVWDQFHIRU
LOOLWHUDWHYRWHUV7KH7HUUHOO(OHFWLRQ/DZRIILUVWHVWDEOLVKHGWKH
VHFUHWEDOORWLQ7H[DVEXWVWLOODOORZHGZKLWH'HPRFUDWLFSDUWLVDQHOHFWLRQ
MXGJHV WR ³DVVLVW´ LOOLWHUDWH YRWHUV ZLWK UHDGLQJ DQG FRPSOHWLQJ WKHLU
EDOORWV%HIRUHWKDWSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVZRXOGSULQWEDOORWVDQGKDQGWKHP
RXW WR VXSSRUWHUV (QVODYHG $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV KDG ODUJHO\ EHHQ
SURKLELWHGIURPOHDUQLQJWRUHDGDQGDIWHUWKH&LYLO:DUHGXFDWLRQDO
RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV UHPDLQHG VHYHUHO\ OLPLWHG DQG
UDFLDOO\VHJUHJDWHG6RWKHUDFLDOLPSDFWRIWKHQHZVHFUHWEDOORWODZXSRQ
LWVHQDFWPHQWZDVFOHDULQRIDGXOW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQPHQ
ZHUH LOOLWHUDWH E\ FRPSDULVRQ RQO\ RI ZKLWH PHQ LQ 7H[DV ZHUH
LOOLWHUDWH7KXVPDQ\$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVZKRZHUHXQDEOHWRQDYLJDWH
FRPSOH[ZULWWHQEDOORWVDORQHZHUHODUJHO\GLVIUDQFKLVHG
7H[DVSROOLQJSODFHODZVODWHUZHQWHYHQIXUWKHUIXOO\SURKLELWLQJDQ
LOOLWHUDWHSHUVRQIURPUHFHLYLQJDQ\KHOSZLWKYRWLQJ/DWLQRFLWL]HQVZKR
GLG QRW VSHDN (QJOLVK IDUHG QR EHWWHU WKDQ LOOLWHUDWH $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV
XQGHU7H[DVODZV$V0RQWHMDQRH[SODLQV³LQWKHOHJLVODWXUHSDVVHG
D ODZ HOLPLQDWLQJ WKH LQWHUSUHWHU DW WKH YRWLQJ SROOV DQG VWLSXODWLQJ
PRUHRYHUWKDWQRQDWXUDOL]HGFLWL]HQVFRXOGUHFHLYHDVVLVWDQFHIURPWKH
0$5,2 7 *$5&Ë$ 0(;,&$1 $0(5,&$16 GHVFULELQJ WKH
ZULWLQJRI*RQ]iOH]
6PLWKY$OOZULJKW86
See .2866(5supra QRWHDW
Id.
Id.DW
$/:<1 %$55 %/$&. 7(;$16 $ +,6725<2) $)5,&$1 $0(5,&$16,1
7(;$6±DWGHG³$OWKRXJK7H[DVKDGQRODZDJDLQVWWKH
HGXFDWLRQ RI VODYHV DV GLG PRVW VRXWKHUQ VWDWHV RSSRVLWLRQ WR WKHLU LQVWUXFWLRQ
SURGXFHG D EODFN SRSXODWLRQ RYHU SHUFHQW LOOLWHUDWH DW WKH HQG RI WKH &LYLO
:DU´
Id.DW±
7(;&2167DUW9,,†³6HSDUDWHVFKRROVVKDOOEHSURYLGHGIRU
WKHZKLWHDQGFRORUHGFKLOGUHQDQGLPSDUWLDOSURYLVLRQVKDOOEHPDGHIRUERWK´
.2866(5supra QRWHDWWEO
*DU]DY6PLWK)6XSS:'7H[vacated by
86FLWLQJWKHQFXUUHQW7(;&2167DUW9,†
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
HOHFWLRQMXGJHXQOHVVWKH\KDGEHHQFLWL]HQVIRUWZHQW\RQH\HDUV´7KLV
OHJLVODWLRQ HQVXUHG YRWHU GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQW IRU LOOLWHUDWH YRWHUV PRVW RI
ZKRPZHUHPLQRULWLHV
c. Poll Tax
7KH SROO WD[ ZDV DOVR D FULWLFDO SDUW RI 7H[DV¶V V\VWHP RI
GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQW,QDIWHUWKHJURZLQJPXOWLUDFLDO3RSXOLVWFRDOLWLRQ
HPHUJHG LQ WKH V DV D SROLWLFDO WKUHDW WR WKH 'HPRFUDWV WKH 7H[DV
OHJLVODWXUHSDVVHGDVWDWHFRQVWLWXWLRQDODPHQGPHQWUHTXLULQJWKHSD\PHQW
RI D SROO WD[ DV D SUHUHTXLVLWH IRU YRWLQJ $V RQH RI 7H[DV¶V SULPDU\
GLVIUDQFKLVLQJ GHYLFHV WKH SROO WD[ ZDV DLPHG GLUHFWO\ DW $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVEXWDOVRDGYHUVHO\DIIHFWHGRWKHUPLQRULWLHVDQGSRRUZKLWHV
ZKR ZHUH 3RSXOLVW V\PSDWKL]HUV %HFDXVH PLQRULW\ YRWHUV ZHUH
GLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\ SRRU WKH FRVW RI SD\LQJ WKH SROO WD[ NHSW WKHLU
UHJLVWUDWLRQDQGWXUQRXWUDWHVORZIRUPXFKRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\7KH
SROO WD[ HTXLYDOHQW WR LQ WRGD\¶V GROODUV FRVW VRPH $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQDQG0H[LFDQODERUHUVLQ7H[DVPRVWRIDGD\¶VZDJH
7KHFUHDWLRQRIDSROOWD[ZDVMXVWLILHGDVDPHDQVRISUHYHQWLQJYRWHU
IUDXG$:7HUUHOOWKHFKLHIDUFKLWHFWRIWKH7H[DVSROOWD[VXPPDUL]HG
WKH SUHWH[W IRU SROO WD[HV WKDW WKH\ ZRXOG ³SURWHFW WKH FLWL]HQ DJDLQVW
PDFKLQHSROLWLFVFRQYHQWLRQGLFWDWLRQDQGFRUUXSWPHWKRGVDWWKHSROOV´
7KH YLHZ DW WKH WLPH ZDV WKDW EHFDXVH FDVWLQJ D EDOORW FRVWV QRWKLQJ
³YRWHVDUHTXLWHFKHDS´DQGZHUH³IUHTXHQWO\VROGIRUDWULIOH´)RUFLQJ
HDFKYRWHUWRSD\DSROOWD[VXSSRVHGO\LQFUHDVHGWKH³YDOXH´RIWKHYRWHDQG
PDGH ³SROLWLFDO PDFKLQHV´²DQ\ SROLWLFDO PRYHPHQWV WKDW FRQVHUYDWLYH
'HPRFUDWVYLHZHGDVDWKUHDW²EX\LQJWKHYRWHVRISRRU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
DQG /DWLQR YRWHUV PRUH GLIILFXOW ,Q DGGLWLRQ ³SURSRQHQWV RI WKH SROOWD[
DUJXHGWKDWWKHUHVWULFWLRQZRXOGHOLPLQDWHµLUUHVSRQVLEOH¶YRWHUV9RWLQJ
DFFRUGLQJWRWKHVHFRQVHUYDWLYHVZDVQRWDQDWXUDOULJKWEXWDSULYLOHJH
ZKLFKWKHVWDWHVKRXOGGHQ\WRWKRVHXQZLOOLQJWRSD\WKHWD[´7KHWKUHDW
RIYRWHUIUDXGZDVHYHQXVHGWRH[FXVHWKHIDLOLQJVRIWKHODZRQHDUWLFOH
0217(-$12supra QRWHDW
See id.
See 'RQDOG66WURQJThe Poll Tax: The Case of Texas$032/6&,
5(9±
Id. DW±
Id.DW
%ULVFKHWWRHWDOsupra QRWHDW
See, e.g.$:7HUUHOOPurity of Ballot'$//0251,1*1(:60DU
DW
Id.
Id.
.2866(5supra QRWHDW
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
SOHDGHGWKDW³LWLVEHWWHUWKDQQRODZDWDOO´EHFDXVH³ZKDWHYHUHOVHPD\
EHVDLGRILWLWZLOOEHIRXQGHIIHFWXDOWRSUHYHQWIUDXG´
1RQHWKHOHVV D UHYHDOLQJ Houston Daily Post DUWLFOH SXEOLVKHG RQ
2FWREHUPDGHFOHDUWKDWWKHSROOWD[DVDIUDXGSUHYHQWLRQWRROZDV
DPHUHSUHWH[WWRGLVJXLVHSROOWD[VXSSRUWHUV¶WUXHLQWHQW²WRGLVIUDQFKLVH
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ YRWHUV ,Q WKH DUWLFOH (* 6HQWHU MRXUQDOLVW DQG
HYHQWXDO 'HPRFUDWLF VWDWH VHQDWRU LQLWLDOO\ VWDWHV WKDW ³>W@KH SROO WD[
DPHQGPHQWWRWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQLIDGRSWHGE\WKHSHRSOHRIWKH6WDWHDWWKH
FRPLQJJHQHUDOHOHFWLRQZLOOSUHVHUYHWKHSXULW\DQGLQWHJULW\RIWKHEDOORW
LQWKLV6WDWH´$VKHFRQWLQXHVWRDUJXHIRUWKHDGRSWLRQRIWKHSROOWD[
KRZHYHULWEHFRPHVFOHDUWKDWIRU6HQWHUWKHSULPDU\MXVWLILFDWLRQIRUD
SROOWD[ZDVWKHVXSSUHVVLRQRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQYRWHUV6KRZLQJKLV
WUXHMXVWLILFDWLRQ6HQWHUDUJXHG³$QRWKHUDQGLISRVVLEOHDPRUHZHLJKW\
UHDVRQZK\WKHSROOWD[DPHQGPHQWVKRXOGEHDGRSWHGLVWKDWLWPHDQVWKH
HOLPLQDWLRQ RIWKH UDFHLVVXH LQSROLWLFV :LWKWZR VWURQJ SDUWLHV LQ
7H[DV WRGD\ WKH QHJUR ZRXOG KROG WKH EDODQFH RI SRZHU´ 7KXV
SUHYHQWLQJ IUDXG ZDV D SUHWH[W IRU WKH WUXH GLVFULPLQDWRU\ SXUSRVH WR
PLQLPL]HWKHPLQRULW\YRWHVRWRHQVXUHWKHGRPLQDQFHRIWKH'HPRFUDWLF
3DUW\LQ7H[DV
7KURXJK WKH PLGV VRPH PDLQVWUHDP 7H[DV SROLWLFLDQV DQG
QHZVSDSHUV FRQWLQXHG WR YLHZ WKH SROO WD[ DV D OHJLWLPDWH PHDQV RI
SUHYHQWLQJIUDXGHYHQDVWKHSROOWD[¶VGLVFULPLQDWRU\LPSDFWRQ$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQYRWHUVZDVFOHDU+RZHYHUDOWKRXJKVRPH7H[DQVNQHZWKDW
WKH SXUSRVH RI WKH SROO WD[ ZDV WR GLVIUDQFKLVH $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV DQG
RWKHUPLQRULWLHVWKH\FRQWLQXHGWRXVHWKHSUHWH[WRIIUDXGWRMXVWLI\DSROO
WD[HYHQGXULQJWKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQW,QIDFWGXULQJWKHWXUPRLORI
WKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQWLQZKHQWKURXJKRXWWKHQDWLRQDGHEDWH
RQJHWWLQJULGRISROOWD[HVZDVUDJLQJ7H[DQVYRWHGWRPDLQWDLQWKHSROO
WD[ LQ D UHIHUHQGXP $Q DPHQGPHQW WR WKH 86 &RQVWLWXWLRQ ZDV
QHFHVVDU\WRILQDOO\HOLPLQDWHWKLVYRWLQJUHVWULFWLRQ
The Poll Tax Provision and the Election Law'$// 0251,1* 1(:6
-DQDW
(*6HQWHUThe Poll Tax: Some Very Strong Reasons Why the Amendment
Should Be Adopted+286'$,/<32672FWDW
Id.
Id.
Id.
See generally2UYLOOH9HUQRQ%XUWRQ([SHUW5HSRUWavailable atKWWSPRULW]
ODZRVXHGXHOHFWLRQODZOLWLJDWLRQGRFXPHQWV9HDVH\SGI>KWWSSHUPDFF1(1
+8*4@ILOHG-XQH([SHUW5HSRUWIRUU.S. v. Texas1RFY6'
7H[
Id.
86&2167DPHQG;;,9
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
2. The Nature of Disfranchisement in the Jim Crow South
7KHWDFWLFVZKLWHVXSUHPDFLVWVXVHGZHUHWUDJLFDOO\HIIHFWLYH'HVSLWH
WKH JDLQV RI WKH 5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ \HDUV E\ $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ YRWHU
SDUWLFLSDWLRQ ZDV DOPRVW QRQH[LVWHQW LQ WKH 6RXWK $V D UHVXOW WKH
QXPEHURI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQSXEOLFRIILFLDOVSOXPPHWHG)RUH[DPSOHQR
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVIURPWKH6RXWKZHUHHOHFWHGWR&RQJUHVVLQWKHILUVWKDOI
RIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\7KXV6RXWKHUQZKLWHVXSUHPDFLVWVZHUHDEOHWR
DOPRVW FRPSOHWHO\ VWULS $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV RI DOO SROLWLFDO SRZHU HYHQ
WKRXJKWKHODZVRQWKHERRNVGLGQRWRYHUWO\GLVSOD\DUDFLDOELDV
7KH QDWXUH RI $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQW LQ WKH -LP &URZ
6RXWK VKRZV WKH SRZHU RI VXEWHUIXJH ZKLFK ZDV SXW LQWR PRWLRQ DV
IROORZV)LUVWWDNHDGYDQWDJHRIWKHGHPRJUDSKLFZHDNQHVVHVDFURVVWKH
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQSRSXODWLRQWKDWZKLWH6RXWKHUQHUVKDGDOUHDG\DFWLYHO\
SURPRWHGVXFKDVSRYHUW\DQGSRRUHGXFDWLRQ6HFRQGWDLORUYRWLQJODZV
WR WDNH DGYDQWDJH RI WKRVH ZHDNQHVVHV E\ FUHDWLQJ LQVXUPRXQWDEOH
REVWDFOHV IRU WKH SRRU DQG WKH SRRUO\ HGXFDWHG 7KLUG FUHDWH D IOH[LEOH
HQIRUFHPHQWPHFKDQLVPZKHUHE\UDFLVWORFDORIILFLDOVFDQPDNHVXUHWR
LQFOXGH ZKLWHV WKDW PD\ VXIIHU IURP WKH VDPH GLVDGYDQWDJHV ZKLOH
H[FOXGLQJ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV)LQDOO\XVHYLROHQFHIHDUDQGLQWLPLGDWLRQ
WR GHWHU WKH IHZ EUDYH HQRXJK WR DWWHPSW WR YRWH 6RXWKHUQ ZKLWH
VXSUHPDFLVWV GHVLJQHG WKLV SOD\ERRN WR SUDFWLFDOO\ GLVIUDQFKLVH $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVZLWKRXWZULWLQJDGLVFULPLQDWRU\SXUSRVHLQWRWKHOHWWHURIWKH
ODZRUUXQQLQJDIRXORIWKH)LIWHHQWK$PHQGPHQW
7KHQDWXUHRIGLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWKPDGHFOHDUWKDW
RQO\ IHGHUDO LQWHUYHQWLRQ FRXOG HQG WKH WDFWLFV XVHG WR GHQ\ $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVDFFHVVWRWKHSROOVZLWKRXWRYHUWO\GLVFULPLQDWLQJRQWKHEDVLV
RIUDFH7KXV3UHVLGHQW-RKQVRQQRWHGLQ³([SHULHQFHKDVFOHDUO\
VKRZQWKDWWKHH[LVWLQJSURFHVVRIODZFDQQRWRYHUFRPHV\VWHPDWLFDQG
LQJHQLRXVGLVFULPLQDWLRQ1RODZWKDWZHQRZKDYHRQWKHERRNV²DQG,
KDYHKHOSHGWRSXWWKUHHRIWKHPWKHUH²FDQHQVXUHWKHULJKWWRYRWHZKHQ
ORFDO RIILFLDOV DUH GHWHUPLQHG WR GHQ\ LW´ 5HFRJQL]LQJ WKLV WUDJHG\
3UHVLGHQW-RKQVRQFDOOHGRQ&RQJUHVVWRSDVVQHZOHJLVODWLRQWKDWZRXOG
HQVXUH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQHQIUDQFKLVHPHQWRQFHDQGIRUDOO²WKH9RWLQJ
5LJKWV$FWRI
9$/(//<supraQRWHDWWEO
&435(66supraQRWHDW
Lyndon B. Johnson: Voting Rights Act Address*5($7$0'2&80(176KWWS
ZZZJUHDWDPHULFDQGRFXPHQWVFRPVSHHFKHVOEMYRWLQJULJKWVKWPO >KWWSVSHUPDFF
*05:</@ODVWYLVLWHG0D\WUDQVFULSWRI3UHVLGHQW-RKQVRQ¶VVSHHFK
RQWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIGHOLYHUHGRQ0DUFK
Id.
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
,,7+(3529,6,2162)7+(927,1*5,*+76$&72)$9,6,21
$1'$9,&725<
7KH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW RI ZDV PRUH WKDQ D UHVSRQVH WR WKH
LQMXVWLFHVWKDWZKLWHVXSUHPDFLVWVSHUSHWUDWHGLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWK7KH
$FW ZDV DQ HVVHQWLDO FRPSRQHQW RI WKH YLVLRQ RI WKH &LYLO 5LJKWV
0RYHPHQWZKLFKUHFRJQL]HGWKDWVXIIUDJHZDVDV PXFKDQDIILUPDWLRQRI
RQH¶VKXPDQLW\DVLWZDVDPHDQVWRSROLWLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ)URP:(%
'XERLVWR'U0DUWLQ/XWKHU.LQJ-U$IULFDQ$PHULFDQOHDGHUVSDVVLRQDWHO\
DGYRFDWHGIRUWKHXQLPSHGHGULJKWWRYRWH7KHVHOHDGHUVUHFRJQL]HGWKDW
LPSHGLPHQWV FDPH LQ D YDULHW\ RI IRUPV DQG FRXOG EH VWHDOWKLO\ LQVWLWXWHG
EHFDXVH WKH ZKLWH HOHFWRUDWH FRXOG LJQRUH WKH SUHWH[W WKDW FORDNHG WKHVH
LPSHGLPHQWV7KHREVHUYDWLRQVRIWKRVHOHDGHUVZHUHWUDJLFDOO\DFFXUDWH
1HDUO\ D FHQWXU\ DIWHU WKH SDVVDJH RI WKH )LIWHHQWK $PHQGPHQW OHJDO
LPSHGLPHQWV WR $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ HQIUDQFKLVHPHQW ZHUH LQ IXOO IRUFH
WKURXJKRXWWKH6RXWKEXWWKHWLGHVRISXEOLFRSLQLRQZHUHVKLIWLQJ
7KH FRXQWU\ DV D ZKROH ZDV EHFRPLQJ PRUH V\PSDWKHWLF WR WKH &LYLO
5LJKWV0RYHPHQW¶VFDOOIRUDPRUHLQFOXVLYH$PHULFDQGHPRFUDF\
A. The Vision of the Act
,QWKHV&RQJUHVVUHFRJQL]HGWKDWIHGHUDOOHJLVODWLRQZDVQHHGHG
WRHUDGLFDWH³DQLQVLGLRXVDQGSHUYDVLYHHYLOZKLFKKDGEHHQSHUSHWXDWHG
LQFHUWDLQSDUWVRIRXUFRXQWU\WKURXJKXQUHPLWWLQJDQGLQJHQLRXVGHILDQFH
RI WKH &RQVWLWXWLRQ´ $V D UHVXOW ³&RQJUHVV FRQFOXGHG WKDW WKH
XQVXFFHVVIXOUHPHGLHVZKLFKLWKDGSUHVFULEHGLQWKHSDVWZRXOGKDYHWR
EHUHSODFHGE\VWHUQHUDQGPRUHHODERUDWHPHDVXUHVLQRUGHUWRVDWLVI\WKH
FOHDUFRPPDQGVRIWKH)LIWHHQWK$PHQGPHQW´7REHHIIHFWLYHWKHVH
:(% '8 %2,6 7+( 628/6 2) %/$&. )2/.6WDQOH\ $SSHOEDXP &DQGDFH:DUGHGV'RYHU3XEO¶QV“Give Us the Ballot,” Address at
the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom0$57,1/87+(5.,1*-5*/2%$/)5(('20
6758**/(KWWSNLQJHQF\FORSHGLDVWDQIRUGHGXHQF\FORSHGLDGRFXPHQWVHQWU\GRF
BJLYHBXVBWKHBEDOORWBDGGUHVVBDWBWKHBSUD\HUBSLOJULPDJHBIRUBIUHHGRPLQGH[KWPO
>KWWSSHUPDFF817<4=@ODVWYLVLWHG$XJWUDQVFULSWRI0DUWLQ/XWKHU
.LQJ-U¶V0D\VSHHFK
“Give Us the Ballot,” Address at the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
supraQRWH
See generally 48,(7 5(92/87,21 ,1 7+( 6287+ 7+( ,03$&7 2) 7+(
927,1* 5,*+76 $&7 &KDQGOHU'DYLGVRQ%HUQDUG*URIPDQHGV
GLVFXVVLQJ WKH GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQW RI $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV WKURXJKRXW WKH
6RXWK
See infra3DUWV,,$,,,
See infra3DUWV,,$,,,
6RXWK&DUROLQDY.DW]HQEDFK86
Id.
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
PHDVXUHVZRXOGKDYHWRUHVSRQGWRWKHQDWXUHRIGLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWLQWKH
-LP &URZ 6RXWK 0HUHO\ UHDIILUPLQJ WKH SURKLELWLRQ RQ RYHUWO\
GLVFULPLQDWRU\ODZVZRXOGQRWEHHQRXJK7RHQVXUH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
HQIUDQFKLVHPHQW &RQJUHVV ZRXOG KDYH WR FUDIW OHJLVODWLRQ WKDW ZRXOG
PDNHVWDWHVXVLQJVXEWHUIXJHWRFLUFXPYHQWWKHSURWHFWLRQVRIWKH)LIWHHQWK
$PHQGPHQW LPSRVVLEOH 7KLV OHJLVODWLRQ ZRXOG WDNH WKH IRUP RI WKH
9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
B. The Highlights of the Act
&RQJUHVV GUDIWHG WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW RI WR SURYLGH UREXVW
SURWHFWLRQ RI PLQRULW\ YRWHUV UHVSRQGLQJ GLUHFWO\ WR WKH WDFWLFV XVHG WR
GLVIUDQFKLVH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWK7KHWZRVKDUSHVW
IDQJVRIWKH$FWZHUH6HFWLRQDQG6HFWLRQZKLFKRXWODZHGTXDOLILFDWLRQ
WHVWV IRU YRWHUV DQG UHTXLUHG IHGHUDO SUHFOHDUDQFH RI DQ\ VWDWH RU ORFDO
DFWLRQWKDWFRXOGQHJDWLYHO\LPSDFWPLQRULW\YRWHUVUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHVH
VHFWLRQVSURYLGHGVWURQJ\HWLQFRPSOHWHSURWHFWLRQWR$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
OLYLQJLQWKH6RXWK
6HFWLRQSURKLELWVWKHXVHRID³TXDOLILFDWLRQRUSUHUHTXLVLWHWRYRWLQJ
RUVWDQGDUGSUDFWLFHRUSURFHGXUH>WR@GHQ\RUDEULGJH>@WKHULJKWRI
DQ\FLWL]HQRIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVWRYRWH´7KLVVHFWLRQDSSOLHVQDWLRQZLGH
WR³DQ\6WDWHRUSROLWLFDOVXEGLYLVLRQ´$VRULJLQDOO\HQDFWHG6HFWLRQ
RQO\SURWHFWHGWKRVHZKRZHUHSUHYHQWHGIURPYRWLQJ³RQDFFRXQWRIUDFH
RU FRORU´ &RQJUHVV ODWHU H[SDQGHG WKH VHFWLRQ WR DSSO\ WR ODQJXDJH
PLQRULW\JURXSVDVZHOO
See supra3DUW,&
7KH )LIWHHQWK $PHQGPHQW SURYLGHV WKDW ³>W@KH ULJKW RI FLWL]HQV RI WKH
8QLWHG6WDWHVWRYRWHVKDOOQRWEHGHQLHGRUDEULGJHGE\WKH8QLWHG6WDWHVRUE\
DQ\ 6WDWH RQ DFFRXQW RI UDFH FRORU RU SUHYLRXV FRQGLWLRQ RI VHUYLWXGH´ 86
&2167DPHQG;9†7KXVWKHODQJXDJHGRHVQRWH[SUHVVO\FRYHUODZVWKDW
ZHUHQRWIDFLDOO\GLVFULPLQDWRU\EXW ZHUHGLVFULPLQDWRU\LQSUDFWLFHSee supra
3DUW,&
3XE/1R6WDWFRGLILHGDVDPHQGHGDV86&$††
WR:HVW:HVWODZWKURXJK3/
86&$†1RWHKRZHYHUWKDW6HFWLRQVWUXFNWKHILUVWEORZ
WRGLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWE\SURKLELWLQJWKHXVHRIGHYLFHVXVHGWRVWLIOHWKHPLQRULW\
YRWHVXFKDVOLWHUDF\WHVWV
86&$†
See infra3DUW,,&
86&$†D
Id.
9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI3XE/1R†6WDW
86&$††DI
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
$OWKRXJK 6HFWLRQ VHW IRUWK EURDG SURWHFWLRQV LW SURYLGHG RQO\ D
OLPLWHGUHPHG\WKURXJKDSULYDWHULJKWRIDFWLRQ&LWL]HQVZLWKVWDQGLQJ
KDYH D ULJKW WR EULQJ DQ DFWLRQ DJDLQVW WKH VWDWH RU LWV VXEGLYLVLRQ IRU
YLRODWLRQV RI WKH $FW EHFDXVH &RQJUHVV SDVVHG WKH $FW SXUVXDQW WR WKH
HQDEOLQJ FODXVHV RI WKH )RXUWHHQWK DQG )LIWHHQWK $PHQGPHQWV WR WKH
&RQVWLWXWLRQ 3UDFWLFDOO\ KRZHYHU ODZVXLWV XQGHU WKH $FW DUH VR
H[SHQVLYHWKDWSODLQWLIIVVHOGRPKDYHWKHPRQH\RUWKHOHJDOH[SHUWLVHWR
SXUVXH D 6HFWLRQ FODLP XQOHVV WKH\ DUH EDFNHG DQG ILQDQFHG E\ WKH
-XVWLFH 'HSDUWPHQW D ODUJH ODZ ILUP RU DQ RUJDQL]DWLRQ²VXFK DV WKH
1$$&3WKH$&/8RU0$/'()²WKDWFDQSD\IRUWKHDWWRUQH\VH[SHUW
ZLWQHVVWUDYHOGHSRVLWLRQVFRXUWIHHVDQGRWKHUH[SHQVHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK
OLWLJDWLRQ,QFRQWUDVWWKHMXULVGLFWLRQGHIHQGLQJWKHVXLWFDQSXOOIURPD
YLUWXDOO\XQOLPLWHGSRRORIWD[PRQH\WRPRXQWDGHIHQVHRILWVDFWLRQV
7KH UHDOLWLHV RI OLWLJDWLRQ OLPLW HQIRUFHPHQW RI 6HFWLRQ \HW LWV FOHDU
SURKLELWLRQDJDLQVWYRWHUTXDOLILFDWLRQWHVWVGLUHFWO\FRPEDWVDPDMRUGHYLFH
XVHGLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWKWRVXSSUHVV$IULFDQ$PHULFDQYRWHUV
6HFWLRQRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWSURYLGHVDPRUHUREXVWHQIRUFHPHQW
PHFKDQLVP WKDQ 6HFWLRQ UHTXLULQJ MXULVGLFWLRQV ZLWK D KLVWRU\ RI
GLVFULPLQDWLRQ WR VHQG DQ\ SRWHQWLDO FKDQJHV LQ WKHLU HOHFWLRQ UXOHV DQG
SURFHGXUHVWRWKHIHGHUDOJRYHUQPHQWIRUSUHFOHDUDQFH6HFWLRQHQVXUHV
WKDW D VWDWH GRHV QRW DGRSWHOHFWLRQ SURFHGXUHV RUUHGLVWULFWLQJ SODQV WKDW
³ZRXOG OHDG WR D UHWURJUHVVLRQ LQ WKH SRVLWLRQ RI UDFLDO PLQRULWLHV ZLWK
UHVSHFW WR WKHLU HIIHFWLYH H[HUFLVH RI WKH HOHFWRUDO IUDQFKLVH´ )RU
H[DPSOH UHWURJUHVVLRQ ZRXOG RFFXU LI XQGHU DQ HOHFWLRQ SODQ $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVUHJXODUO\HOHFWHGWZRFDQGLGDWHV\HWDFKDQJHLQWKHHOHFWLRQ
ODZV UHVXOWHG LQ WKH HOHFWLRQ RI RQO\ RQH EODFN FDQGLGDWH 6HFWLRQ VXFFHVVIXOO\ FRPEDWHG WKH SUDFWLFHV RI UDFLDO JHUU\PDQGHULQJ DQG
DQQH[DWLRQVRISUHGRPLQDQWO\ZKLWHDUHDVDGMDFHQWWRPDMRULW\EODFNDUHDV
WR GLPLQLVK WKH HIIHFW RI $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ YRWHUV $GGLWLRQDOO\ WKH
VHFWLRQ FXUEHG WKH FRPPRQ SUDFWLFH LQ WKH 6RXWK RI UHSODFLQJ VLQJOH
PHPEHUGLVWULFWVZLWKDWODUJHDQGPXOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWV7KHVXFFHVV
See 0RUVHY5HSXEOLFDQ3DUW\RI9D86
86&2167DPHQG;,9†86&2167DPHQG;9†
See supra3DUW,&
See 86&$†
%HHUY8QLWHG6WDWHV86$OOUHWURJUHVVLRQGRHVQRW
FRQVWLWXWHDYLRODWLRQKRZHYHU)RUH[DPSOH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV¶UHSUHVHQWDWLRQPD\
GURSIURPWZRVHDWVWRRQHEHFDXVHRIDGHFUHDVHLQSRSXODWLRQDQGQRWVROHO\EHFDXVH
GLVWULFWOLQHVZHUHFKDQJHG
)RU D GLVFXVVLRQ RI DQQH[DWLRQV VHH 3H\WRQ 0F&UDU\ 1RWH How the
Courts Came to Treat Annexations Under the Voting Rights Act-32/¶<+,67
See:KLWHY5HJHVWHU86±see also supra3DUW,9
GLVFXVVLQJZK\DWODUJHDQGPXOWLPHPEHUYRWLQJGLVWULFWVKXUW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWGHSHQGHGLQODUJHSDUWRQ6HFWLRQPDNLQJLWWKH
FUX[RIHQIRUFHPHQW³WKHVWHHOVSLQHRIWKHODZ´
7KRXJKSRWHQW6HFWLRQLVQDUURZHULQDSSOLFDWLRQWKDQ6HFWLRQDQG
DIIHFWVRQO\MXULVGLFWLRQVZLWKDKLVWRU\RIGLVFULPLQDWLRQ7KHDSSOLFDELOLW\
RI6HFWLRQGHSHQGVRQDQ³DXWRPDWLFWULJJHU´WKDWXVHVWKHMXULVGLFWLRQ¶VSDVW
YRWLQJUHFRUGVWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIHOLJLEOHYRWHUVWKHYRWLQJDJHSRSXODWLRQ
WKDW YRWHG LQWKH SUHFHGLQJ SUHVLGHQWLDO HOHFWLRQ DQG WKH SULRU XVH RI WKH
OLWHUDF\ WHVW 7KH GHVLJQ RI WKH WULJJHU PHDQW WKDW VRPH MXULVGLFWLRQV
VOLSSHGWKURXJKWKHFUDFNV,QDJODULQJRPLVVLRQ6HFWLRQGLGQRWDSSO\
WRWKHIRUPHU&RQIHGHUDWHVWDWHRI7H[DVXQWLOWKHUHQHZDORIWKH$FW
ZKLFK LQFOXGHG (QJOLVKRQO\ EDOORWV LQ WKH WULJJHU IRUPXOD 7KH
DSSOLFDWLRQ RI 6HFWLRQ WR MXULVGLFWLRQV ZLWK D KLVWRU\ RI GLVFULPLQDWLRQ
DJDLQVWODQJXDJHPLQRULW\JURXSVVLJQLILFDQWO\H[SDQGHGWKH$FW¶VLPSDFW
RQ +LVSDQLF SRSXODWLRQV DQG UHVXOWHG LQ D ODUJH QXPEHU RI DGGLWLRQDO
MXULVGLFWLRQV FRYHUHG &RQJUHVV PDGH QR DWWHPSW KRZHYHU WR H[SDQG
6HFWLRQSURWHFWLRQLQHLWKHUWKHRUUHQHZDOVRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV
$FWDQGLQWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWHIIHFWLYHO\GHVWUR\HGWKHSURWHFWLRQRI
6HFWLRQ KROGLQJ WKDW WKH SUHFOHDUDQFH IRUPXOD²ZKLFK LV XVHG WR
GHWHUPLQH ZKLFK VWDWHV DUHVXEMHFWWR WKH SUHFOHDUDQFHUHTXLUHPHQW²ZDV
XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO
'HVSLWHPRGHUQOLPLWDWLRQV6HFWLRQDQG6HFWLRQRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV
$FWRISURYLGHGVSHFLILFHQIRUFHPHQW PHFKDQLVPVWRDFFRPSOLVKWKH
JRDORILQFUHDVLQJPLQRULW\YRWHUSDUWLFLSDWLRQ:LWK6HFWLRQSUHYHQWLQJWKH
XVHRIPHFKDQLVPVWKDWLQWHUIHUHZLWKWKHULJKWWRYRWHDQG6HFWLRQ
UHTXLULQJ WKH IHGHUDO JRYHUQPHQW WR DSSURYH DQ\ FKDQJHV WKDW FRXOG
QHJDWLYHO\DIIHFWPLQRULWLHVWKHVWDJHZDVVHWIRUFKDQJHLQWKH6RXWK
$OWKRXJKQHLWKHUVHFWLRQSURYLGHVFRPSOHWHSURWHFWLRQWRPLQRULW\YRWHUV
WKH VWUHQJWK RI WKH VHFWLRQV PDGH WKHP DPRQJ WKH PRVW SRZHUIXO
LQVWUXPHQWVRIYRWHUHTXDOLW\
5LFKDUG:ROISection Affects Which States Subject to Law86$72'$<
-XQHDW$
. Compare86&$†with†
86&$†E
See %ULVFKHWWRHWDOsupra QRWHDW
Id.
Id.
6KHOE\&QW\Y+ROGHU6&W
86&$†
86&$†
See infra3DUW,,&
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
C. An Incomplete Victory
$IWHUWKHSDVVDJHRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
YRWHUSDUWLFLSDWLRQJUHZGUDPDWLFDOO\EXWVORZO\LQWKH6RXWK7KLVJURZWK
LQYRWHUSDUWLFLSDWLRQWUDQVODWHGLQWRPRUH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQUHSUHVHQWDWLYHV
LQYDULRXVOHYHOVRIJRYHUQPHQWHVSHFLDOO\GXULQJWKH\HDUVLPPHGLDWHO\
IROORZLQJWKHSDVVDJHRIWKH$FW)RUH[DPSOHDOWKRXJKRQO\$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVZHUHHOHFWHGDVVWDWHOHJLVODWRUVLQWKH6RXWKLQE\
WKDWQXPEHUURVHWR6RXWKHUQVWDWHVDOVR EHJDQ WR VHQGWKHLUILUVW
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVWR&RQJUHVVVLQFH5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ
7KH SDVVDJH RI WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW RI PDGH WKHVH JDLQV
SRVVLEOHE\JUDGXDOO\SXWWLQJDQHQGWRSUHWH[WXDOYRWLQJOLPLWDWLRQVDQG
HQVXULQJWKDWGLVWULFWLQJVFKHPHVZRXOGQRWGLOXWHWKH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
YRWH 7KLV YLFWRU\ ZDV IDU IURP FRPSOHWH KRZHYHU 'HFDGHV DIWHU
&RQJUHVVSDVVHGWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVVWLOO
GRQRWHQMR\VXIILFLHQWSROLWLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
7KHSDVVDJHRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIE\LWVHOIGLGQRWHQVXUH
PDQ\RIWKHJDLQVLQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQSROLWLFDOLQIOXHQFH0DQ\VWDWHV
FRQWLQXHGWRGLVUHJDUGWKHSURYLVLRQVRIWKH$FWXQWLOWKHLUFKDOOHQJHVZHUH
GHIHDWHGLQFRXUW7KXVWKHFRXUWURRPEDWWOHVRIWKHVDQGV
EHFDPH DV LPSRUWDQW IRU WKH HQIRUFHPHQW RI $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ YRWLQJ
ULJKWV DV WKH SXEOLF SURWHVWV RI WKH SUHYLRXV GHFDGHV 7KHVH FRXUWURRP
EDWWOHVKRZHYHUZHUHQRWZLWKRXWWKHLUVKRUWFRPLQJV
,,,7+(,03$&72)7+(927,1*5,*+76$&72)217+(%52$'(5
&,9,/5,*+76029(0(17)5207+(675((76727+(&2857+286(
'HVSLWHWKHWULXPSKVRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIWKH$FWKDG
DGUDZEDFNLQSUDFWLFHWKHIRFXVRIWKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQWVKLIWHG
IURPSXEOLFSURWHVWVLQWKHVWUHHWVWROHJDODFWLYLVPLQWKHFRXUWURRP7KLV
VKLIW ZDV SUREOHPDWLF EHFDXVH WKH FRQWLQXHG VWUXJJOH IRU YRWHU HTXDOLW\
PRYHG LQFUHDVLQJO\ RXW RI WKH QDWLRQDO VSRWOLJKW DV FRYHUDJH RI WKH
See*URIPDQ+DQGOH\supra QRWHDW
,QFUHDVHG VXSSRUW IRU $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ FDQGLGDWHV JHQHUDOO\ FDQQRW
H[SODLQWKLVWUHQGEHFDXVHPDMRULW\ZKLWHGLVWULFWVLQWKH6RXWKFRQWLQXHGWRYRWH
IRURQO\ZKLWHFDQGLGDWHVLQYLUWXDOHYHU\HOHFWLRQId.DWWEO
Id. DWWEO
&435(66supra QRWHDW
See *URIPDQ+DQGOH\supraQRWHDW
%52:1'($1(7$/supraQRWHDW
See, e.g.6RXWK&DUROLQDY.DW]HQEDFK86
See infra3DUW,,,
See supra3DUW,,&
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
9LHWQDP :DU FDSWLYDWHG WKH $PHULFDQ SXEOLF +LGGHQ EHKLQG
FRXUWURRPGRRUVWKHPRYHPHQWUHFHLYHGGHFOLQLQJPHGLDDWWHQWLRQ$V
WKHPHGLDDWWHQWLRQZDQHGVRGLGWKHIRFXVRQWKHGDLO\SOLJKWRI$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVLQWKH6RXWKDQGRQHRIWKHGULYLQJIRUFHVEHKLQGPXFKRIWKH
&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQW¶VYLFWRULHV
A. The Role of the Media in the Civil Rights Movement
7KH PHGLD¶V LPSDFW RQ WKH &LYLO 5LJKWV 0RYHPHQW FDQQRW EH
RYHUVWDWHG8QOLNHWKH)LUVW5HFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHPLGWRODWHQLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\WKHVRFDOOHG6HFRQG5HFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ZDV
FRYHUHGE\WHOHYLVLRQDQGQHZVSDSHUSKRWRJUDSKHUVZKLFKEURXJKWUDZ
GHSLFWLRQVRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVXIIHULQJDQGKHURLFVWROLYLQJURRPVDFURVV
WKHFRXQWU\7KHVHUHSRUWVPDGHLWGLIILFXOWIRUWKHQDWLRQDOHOHFWRUDWHWR
LJQRUH WKH IUDXG DQG YLROHQFH WKDW 6RXWKHUQ ZKLWH VXSUHPDFLVWV ZHUH
SHUSHWXDWLQJ5DWKHUWKDQEHLQJDEOHWREOLQGO\DFFHSWPLVLQIRUPDWLRQRU
FODLPVRIH[DJJHUDWHGSROLWLFDOSOR\VZKLWH$PHULFDQVZHUHIRUFHGWRIDFH
WKHKHDUWEUHDNLQJUHDOLW\RIOLIHLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWK
%\WKHVVWRULHVFRQFHUQLQJWKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQWFDSWLYDWHG
WKH $PHULFDQ DXGLHQFH )RU H[DPSOH ZKHQ *RYHUQRU 2UYDO )DXEXV RI
$UNDQVDV FORVHG D /LWWOH 5RFN KLJK VFKRRO IRU WKH \HDU LQ &ODXGH
6LWWRQRIWKHNew York TimesUHVSRQGHGE\ZULWLQJDVWRU\³MXVWDERXWHYHU\
GD\´WKDWH[SRVHG)DXEXV¶VDQGWKH$UNDQVDVOHJLVODWXUH¶VUDFLVWDFWLRQV
7KH /LWWOH 5RFN KLJK VFKRRO VDJD LQVSLUHG PDQ\ RWKHU UHSRUWHUV DQG
SKRWRJUDSKHUVWRVSUHDGRXWDFURVVWKH6RXWK³SLFNLQJRIIUDFHVWRULHVDV
WKH\ HPHUJHG VHHNLQJ RXW VWRULHV WKDW ZHUH KDUG WR ILQG DQG VHHLQJ
RUGLQDU\ VWRULHV WKURXJK D QHZ UDFLDO SULVP´ DOO DW JUHDW GDQJHU WR
WKHPVHOYHV 2QH RI WKRVH VWRULHV FRYHUHG $XWKHULQH /XF\ ZKR KDG
IRXJKWIRUWKUHH\HDUVIRUWKHULJKWWRDWWHQGWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI$ODEDPD
EHIRUHVXFFHHGLQJ5HSRUWHUVIORFNHGWRFRYHUKHUILUVWGD\VRQFDPSXV
*(1( 52%(576 +$1. ./,%$12)) 7+( 5$&( %($7 7+( 35(667+(
&,9,/5,*+766758**/($1'7+($:$.(1,1*2)$1$7,21³>7@KH
HVFDODWLRQ RI WKH ZDU LQ 9LHWQDP DQG WKH SURWHVWV DJDLQVW LW VWHDGLO\ GLYHUWHG
DWWHQWLRQIURPFLYLOULJKWV´
Id.
See, e.g.id.DWGHVFULELQJWKH(PPHWW7LOOWULDODV³DQRWKHUVLJQLILFDQW
MRXUQDOLVWLFPLOHVWRQH>7LOO@EURXJKWZKLWHUHSRUWHUVLQWRWKH'HHS6RXWKLQ
XQSUHFHGHQWHGQXPEHUVWRFRYHUDUDFLDOVWRU\1RUWKHUQHUVZHUHVKRFNHGDQG
VKDNHQE\ZKDWWKH\UHDG´
See id.
Id.DW
Id.DW
Id.DW
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
ZKHUH VKH EDUHO\ HVFDSHG ZLWK KHU OLIH IURP VHJUHJDWLRQLVWV¶ DWWDFNV
7KHVH LPDJHV EURXJKW WR OLIH WKH VWUXJJOH IRU UDFLDO HTXDOLW\ ZKLFK
FXOPLQDWHGZKHQ$PHULFDQVDFURVVWKHFRXQWU\WXQHGLQIRUFRYHUDJHRIWKH
PDUFKIURP6HOPDWR0RQWJRPHU\$ODEDPD
2Q0DUFKFDPHUDVZHUHUROOLQJZKHQRYHUILYHKXQGUHG$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQV JDWKHUHG DW WKH %URZQ &KDSHO LQ 6HOPD $ODEDPD 0DUWLQ
/XWKHU .LQJ -U KDG RUJDQL]HG D PDUFK WR 0RQWJRPHU\ WR SURWHVW D VWDWH
WURRSHU¶VIDWDO VKRRWLQJ RI$IULFDQ $PHULFDQ-LPPLH/HH-DFNVRQ ZKR
ZDV WU\LQJ WR SURWHFW KLV PRWKHU GXULQJ D GHPRQVWUDWLRQ :KHQ WKH
JURXSKDOWHGWKHLUPDUFKDWWKH(GPXQG3HWWXV%ULGJH$ODEDPDWURRSHUV
DZDLWHGWKHPFDUU\LQJFOXEV³DVODUJHDVEDVHEDOOEDWV´DQGMRLQHGE\D
KXQGUHG ZKLWH VHJUHJDWLRQLVWV HDJHU IRU YLROHQFH 0DMRU -RKQ &ORXG
DQQRXQFHG WR WKH SHDFHIXOO\ DVVHPEOHG PDUFKHUV WKDW WKH\ KDG WZR
PLQXWHVWRGLVDVVHPEOH%HIRUHWKHWZRPLQXWHVKDGSDVVHGKRZHYHU
WKH WURRSHUV DWWDFNHG 7KRVH RQ KRUVHEDFN URGH RYHU WKH FURZG DQG
WKRVHRQIRRWZLHOGHGQLJKWVWLFNVHYHQDIWHUWKHGHPRQVWUDWRUVUHWUHDWHG
WKHWURRSHUVUHOHDVHGWHDUJDVDQGSXUVXHGWKRVHZKRIOHG
7KHVHLPDJHVZHUHEURDGFDVWDFURVVWKHFRXQWU\VSDZQLQJDQDWLRQDO
RXWFU\RIZKDWEHFDPHNQRZQDV³%ORRG\6XQGD\´,JQRULQJWKHVWULIHRI
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWKZDVQRORQJHUSRVVLEOHIRUWKRVH
ZKR ZLWQHVVHG WKH VDYDJH DEXVH RI SHDFHIXO SURWHVWRUV $IWHU WKH PHGLD
FRYHUDJH RI WKH &LYLO 5LJKWV 0RYHPHQW OHG WR ZLGHVSUHDG RXWUDJH
FRQJUHVVLRQDO DFWLRQ ZDV DFFRUGLQJO\ VHW LQ PRWLRQ 7KXV WKH PHGLD
SOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKHSDVVDJHRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
DQGRWKHULPSRUWDQWOHJLVODWLRQ
B. The Media and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
$OWKRXJKWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIJDYH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVWKH
OHJDODPPXQLWLRQWRILJKWGLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWWKH$FWVXFNHGVRPHRIWKH
Id.DW±
)RULPDJHVRIWKH PDUFKVHHSelma Marches, Bloody Sunday Mark 50th
Anniversary$%& 1(:6 KWWSDEFQHZVJRFRP86SKRWRVVHOPDPDUFKHVEORRG\
VXQGD\PDUNWKDQQLYHUVDU\LPDJHKRVHDZLOOLDPVMRKQOHZLVFRQIURQW
WURRSHUVEORRG\VXQGD\>KWWSSHUPDFF4-):=5<@ODVWYLVLWHG$XJ
52%(576./,%$12))supraQRWHDW
Id.DW±
Id.DW
Id.
Id.DW
Id.
Id.DW
Id.
Id.DW
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
R[\JHQ RXW RI WKH SROLWLFDO DUP RI WKH &LYLO 5LJKWV 0RYHPHQW DV WKH
KRUURUVRI6RXWKHUQUDFLVPQRORQJHUGRPLQDWHGWKHKHDGOLQHV$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQOHDGHUVEHJDQWRIRFXVLQFUHDVLQJO\RQVHFXULQJWKHLUKDUGZRQ
OHJLVODWLYH YLFWRULHV LQ WKH FRXUWKRXVH ZLWK PXFK VXFFHVV ,Q South
Carolina v. KatzenbachWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWXSKHOGWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\
RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIDJDLQVW6RXWK&DUROLQD¶VGHPDQGWREORFN
HQIRUFHPHQWRIFHUWDLQSURYLVLRQV,QAllen v. State Board of Elections
WKH &RXUW KHOG WKDW 6HFWLRQ RI WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW DSSOLHG WR DOO
XQFOHDUHGYRWLQJFKDQJHVWKDWFRYHUHGVWDWHVPLJKWDWWHPSWWRPDNH7KH
&RXUW LQ Oregon v. Mitchell DOVR XSKHOG WKH $FW¶V EDQ RQ OLWHUDF\ WHVWV
ZKLFKZKLWHVXSUHPDFLVWVKDGSUHYLRXVO\XVHGWRGHQ\$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
WKHULJKWWRYRWH
$VWKHIRFXVRIFLYLOULJKWVOHDGHUVVKLIWHGWRVHFXULQJMXGLFLDOYLFWRULHV
VRGLGWKHPHGLDDWWHQWLRQEHFDXVHOHJDOEDWWOHVGLGQRWFDSWLYDWHDXGLHQFHV
OLNHSXEOLFSURWHVWV7KXVWKH³WKHHVFDODWLRQRIWKHZDULQ9LHWQDPDQGWKH
SURWHVWV DJDLQVW LW VWHDGLO\ GLYHUWHG DWWHQWLRQ IURP FLYLO ULJKWV´
$GGLWLRQDOO\ E\ WKH ODWH V PHGLD RUJDQL]DWLRQV ORVW WKHLU PRVW
SURPLQHQWHGLWRUVDQGMRXUQDOLVWVZKRKDG³PDGHWKHFLYLOULJKWV\HDUVWKHLU
PRVWGD]]OLQJHUD´7KHVHIRUFHVWKDWOHGWRWKHGHFOLQHLQPHGLDDWWHQWLRQ
KDGEURDGHULPSOLFDWLRQV
(QIUDQFKLVHPHQW DOVR GLIIXVHG EODFN PLOLWDQF\ FKDQQHOLQJ SURWHVWV
LQWR WUDGLWLRQDO SROLWLFDO DQG MXGLFLDO SURFHVVHV 5HYHUHQG -DPHV %HYHO
ZKRKDGKHOSHG0DUWLQ/XWKHU.LQJ-ULQRUJDQL]LQJGHPRQVWUDWLRQV
FRPPHQWHG ³7KHUH LV QR FLYLO ULJKWV PRYHPHQW DQ\PRUH 3UHVLGHQW
-RKQVRQVLJQHGLWRXWRIH[LVWHQFHZKHQKHVLJQHGWKHYRWLQJULJKWVELOO´
+DYLQJJDLQHGWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIOHDGHUVORVWWKHPRPHQWXP
QHFHVVDU\ WR ILJKW RWKHU UDFLDO GLVSDULWLHV VXFK DV LQFRPH LQHTXDOLW\ LQ
ODUJHSDUWEHFDXVH³ZHOIDUHLVVXHVSURYHGOHVVVXVFHSWLEOHWRDWWDFNWKDQ
VHJUHJDWLRQ DQG GLVHQIUDQFKLVHPHQW´ 3UHYLRXV OHDGHUV LQ WKH &LYLO
5LJKWV0RYHPHQWWXUQHGWRSROLWLFVWRFRQWLQXHWKHLUILJKWZLWKSROLWLFDO
WDFWLFV UDWKHU WKDQ SXEOLF GHPRQVWUDWLRQV )RU H[DPSOH -RKQ /HZLV
86
Id.DW
86
Id.DW³7KH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWZDVDLPHGDWWKHVXEWOHDVZHOODVWKH
REYLRXVVWDWHUHJXODWLRQVZKLFKKDYHWKHHIIHFWRIGHQ\LQJFLWL]HQVWKHLUULJKWWR
YRWHEHFDXVHRIWKHLUUDFH´
86
52%(576./,%$12))supraQRWHDW
Id.DW
Id.DW±
$8*867 0(,(5 (//,27 58':,&. &25( $ 678'< ,1 7+( &,9,/
5,*+76029(0(17±DW
Id.DW
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
NQRFNHGXQFRQVFLRXVGXULQJ%ORRG\6XQGD\EHFDPHD&RQJUHVVPDQ
UHSUHVHQWLQJ*HRUJLD7KXVWKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQWHQWHUHGWKHHUD
RIFRXUWURRPEDWWOHVUDWKHUWKDQFRQIURQWDWLRQLQIURQWRIQHZVFDPHUDV
:LWKRXWDGHTXDWHPHGLDDWWHQWLRQWKH&LYLO5LJKWV0RYHPHQWVHHPHG
WREHDWDVWDQGVWLOOIRUPDQ\RXWVLGHUVDQGDVDUHVXOWIRUPDQ\ZKLWH
$PHULFDQVWKHILJKWIRUYRWHUHTXDOLW\ZDVRYHU$VVXPLQJWKDW$PHULFDQ
GHPRFUDF\ILQDOO\JDYHHYHU\RQHDQHTXDOYRLFHDQGWKDWWKHELJRWU\DQG
RSSUHVVLRQ RIWKH-LP &URZ 6RXWK ZDVFRPIRUWDEO\ LQ WKH SDVW EHFDPH
HDV\ 6XFK DWWLWXGHV ZRXOG SURYH WR EH GHYDVWDWLQJ WR WKH FRQWLQXHG
VWUXJJOH IRU YRWHU HTXDOLW\ DV FRXUWVLQFUHDVLQJO\ WRRN D PRUH OD[ YLHZ
WRZDUGWKHKLVWRU\RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIHYHQJRLQJDVIDUDV
WRUHZULWHKLVWRU\DQGGHFODUHWKDW$PHULFDKDGHQWHUHGDQHUDRIDSRVW
UDFLDOVRFLHW\
,97+(',67257,212)7+(927,1*5,*+76$&72)
7+52:,1*$:$<7+(+,6725<%22.6
,Q WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW VXJJHVWHG WKDW UDFH ZDV QR ORQJHU D
PRWLYDWLQJIDFWRULQWKHGHVLJQRI$PHULFDQHOHFWRUDOSROLFLHV:KDWWKH
&RXUWIDLOHGWRUHDOL]H²RUFKRVHWRLJQRUH²ZDVWKDWPLQRULW\JURXSVVWLOO
H[SHULHQFHG VLJQLILFDQW SROLWLFDO LQHTXDOLW\ ERWK DW WKH SROOV DQG LQ WKH
KDOOVRIOHJLVODWRUV7KLVRYHUVLJKWZDVHVSHFLDOO\WURXEOHVRPHJLYHQWKH
KLVWRU\RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIEHFDXVHWKH&RXUWHVVHQWLDOO\
DOORZHGWKHYHU\WKLQJWKH$FWZDVGHVLJQHGWRSUHYHQW²IDFLDOO\QHXWUDO
UHVWULFWLRQVRQYRWLQJWKDWPDUJLQDOL]HPLQRULW\FLWL]HQV7KLVFKDQJH
KRZHYHUGLGQRWRFFXURYHUQLJKWIRU\HDUVWKH&RXUWKDGEHHQFKLSSLQJ
DZD\DWWKHVSLULWRIWKH$FWDQGWKHUHE\GLVPDQWOLQJWKHOHJDF\RIWKH&LYLO
5LJKWV 0RYHPHQW 7KH SURJUHVVLRQ RI WKH MXGLFLDO GHPROLWLRQ RI WKH
9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIWKXVVHWWKHVWDJHIRUUHQHZHGFKDOOHQJHVDQG
IDPLOLDUVXEWHUIXJH
A. Fracturing the Voting Rights Act of 1965
7KHILUVWVXFFHVVIXOFKDOOHQJHWRWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIFDPH
MXVWDGHFDGHDIWHUWKH$FW¶VSDVVDJH,QCity ofMobile v. BoldenWKH
52%(576./,%$12))supraQRWHDW
Id.DW
See infra3DUW,9
See 6KHOE\&QW\Y+ROGHU6&W±
See infra3DUW,9'
See supra3DUW,&
See infra3DUW,9$±&
86superseded by statute9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW$PHQGPHQWV
RI3XE/1R†6WDW
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
6XSUHPH&RXUWDGGUHVVHGWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\RI0RELOH¶VDWODUJHV\VWHP
RIPXQLFLSDOHOHFWLRQVZKLFKZDVWKHVXEMHFWRIDFODVVDFWLRQODZVXLWE\
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQFLWL]HQVRIWKHFLW\7KRVHFLWL]HQVDUJXHGWKDW³WKH
SUDFWLFHRIHOHFWLQJWKH&LW\&RPPLVVLRQHUVDWODUJHXQIDLUO\GLOXWHG>WKHLU@
YRWLQJVWUHQJWKLQYLRODWLRQRI†RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIRI
WKH)RXUWHHQWK$PHQGPHQWDQGRIWKH)LIWHHQWK$PHQGPHQW´EHFDXVH
DPRQJRWKHUWKLQJV³WKHHIIHFWRIUDFLDOO\SRODUL]HGYRWLQJLQ0RELOHLV
WKH VDPH DV WKDW RI D UDFLDOO\ H[FOXVLRQDU\ SULPDU\´²QDPHO\ WKH
FRPSOHWHGHQLDORIDQ\SROLWLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQWRUDFLDOPLQRULWLHV
%RWKH[SHULHQFHDQGORJLFVXSSRUWHGWKHSODLQWLII¶VDUJXPHQW'HVSLWH
WKHIDFWWKDW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVZHUHDVLJQLILFDQWSURSRUWLRQRIWKHFLW\¶V
SRSXODWLRQ QR $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV KDG EHHQ HOHFWHG WR WKH 0RELOH &LW\
&RPPLVVLRQ EHFDXVH WKH DWODUJH V\VWHP RI HOHFWLRQV DOORZHG WKH ZKLWH
PDMRULW\WROHYHUDJHLWVQXPHULFDOSRZHUWRHOHFWDOOWKUHHFRPPLVVLRQHUV
7KHSODLQWLIIVDUJXHGWKDWWKHLQVWLWXWLRQRIVLQJOHPHPEHUGLVWULFWVZRXOG
PRUHIDLUO\FRQFHQWUDWH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQSRZHUDQGDOORZWKHPWRH[HUFLVH
WKHLU ULJKW WR YRWH LQ D PHDQLQJIXO ZD\ E\ HOHFWLQJ DW OHDVW RQH FLW\
FRPPLVVLRQHU
7KH SODLQWLII¶V DUJXPHQWV GLG QRW FRQYLQFH WKH &RXUW 7KH SOXUDOLW\
H[SODLQHG WKDW WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW RI ³DGG>HG@ QRWKLQJ WR WKH
>EODFNFLWL]HQV¶@)LIWHHQWK$PHQGPHQWFODLP´DQGWKDWWKH&RQVWLWXWLRQ
GRHV QRW JXDUDQWHH SURSRUWLRQDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RU HYHQ SURSRUWLRQDO
YRWLQJ SRZHU ,Q XSKROGLQJ 0RELOH¶V DWODUJH PXQLFLSDO HOHFWLRQ
Id. DW
Id. IRRWQRWHRPLWWHG
Id.DW
See id.DW±³7KHFODLPWKDWDWODUJHHOHFWRUDOVFKHPHVXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\
GHQ\WRVRPHSHUVRQVWKHHTXDOSURWHFWLRQRIWKHODZVKDVEHHQDGYDQFHGLQQXPHURXV
FDVHV EHIRUH WKLV &RXUW 7KDW FRQWHQWLRQ KDV EHHQ UDLVHG PRVW RIWHQ ZLWK UHJDUG WR
PXOWLPHPEHUFRQVWLWXHQFLHVZLWKLQDVWDWHOHJLVODWLYHDSSRUWLRQPHQWV\VWHP>7@KH
IRFXVLQVXFKFDVHVKDVEHHQRQWKHODFNRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQPXOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWV
DIIRUG YDULRXV HOHPHQWV RI WKH YRWLQJ SRSXODWLRQ LQ D V\VWHP RI UHSUHVHQWDWLYH
OHJLVODWLYH GHPRFUDF\ µ&ULWLFLVP >RI PXOWLPHPEHU GLVWULFWV@ LV URRWHG LQ WKHLU
ZLQQHUWDNHDOO DVSHFWV WKHLU WHQGHQF\ WR VXEPHUJH PLQRULWLHV D JHQHUDO
SUHIHUHQFHIRUOHJLVODWXUHVUHIOHFWLQJFRPPXQLW\LQWHUHVWVDVFORVHO\DVSRVVLEOH
DQGGLVHQFKDQWPHQWZLWKSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVDQGHOHFWLRQVDVGHYLFHVWRVHWWOHSROLF\
GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ FRQWHQGLQJ LQWHUHVWV¶´ TXRWLQJ :KLWFRPE Y &KDYLV 86±
See id.DW
See id.DW±
Id.DW
Id.DW
See id. DW DUJXLQJ WKH PHUH IDFW WKDW ³1HJURHV UHJLVWHU DQG YRWH LQ
0RELOHµZLWKRXWKLQGUDQFH¶DQGWKDWWKHUHDUHQRRIILFLDOREVWDFOHVLQWKHZD\RI
1HJURHVZKRZLVKWREHFRPHFDQGLGDWHVIRUHOHFWLRQWRWKH&RPPLVVLRQ´QHJDWHV
DQ\FRQFHUQWKDW ³QR1HJURKDGEHHQHOHFWHGWRWKH0RELOH&LW\&RPPVVLRQ´
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
V\VWHP²ZKLFKSUDFWLFDOO\GHQLHG$IULFDQ$PHULFDQSROLWLFDOSRZHU²WKH
SOXUDOLW\PDGHFOHDU³WKHEDVLFSULQFLSOHWKDWRQO\LIWKHUHLVSXUSRVHIXO
GLVFULPLQDWLRQFDQWKHUHEHDYLRODWLRQRIWKH(TXDO3URWHFWLRQ&ODXVHRI
WKH )RXUWHHQWK $PHQGPHQW´ WKH )LIWHHQWK $PHQGPHQW RU WKH 9RWLQJ
5LJKWV$FWRI
,Q VKRUW WKH OLNHOLKRRG WKDW 0RELOH¶V ZKLWH PDMRULW\ ZDV XVLQJ
VXEWHUIXJH LQ GHVLJQLQJ LWV HOHFWRUDO V\VWHP WR GHQ\ $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
UHSUHVHQWDWLRQGLGQRWDPRXQWWRSURRIWKDWZRXOGVDWLVI\WKHVWDQGDUGVHW
E\WKHSOXUDOLW\$FFRUGLQJO\WKH&RXUWSODFHGWKHEXUGHQRQWKHSODLQWLIIV
WR SURYH SXUSRVHIXO UDFLDO GLVFULPLQDWLRQ ,Q IDLOLQJ WR UHFRJQL]H WKH
VLJQLILFDQFHRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIWKHSOXUDOLW\KLQGHUHGYRWLQJ
HTXDOLW\SURJUHVVE\DOORZLQJIDFLDOO\QHXWUDOEXWSUDFWLFDOO\GLVFULPLQDWRU\
SUDFWLFHVDWOHDVWDVORQJDVWKHYLFWLPVRIUDFLDOGLVFULPLQDWLRQFDQQRWSURYH
WKDW WKRVH SUDFWLFHV DUH D ³FRQFHLYHG RU RSHUDWHG >DV D@ SXUSRVHIXO
GHYLF>H@ WR IXUWKHU UDFLDO GLVFULPLQDWLRQ´ $V &RQJUHVVLRQDO DFWLRQ
ZRXOGVRRQPDNHFOHDUWKLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHODZZDVLQGLUHFWFRQWUDVW
ZLWKWKHSXUSRVHRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRILQLWVKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[W
B. Congressional Mending
:KHQWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIFDPHXSIRUUHQHZDOLQ
&RQJUHVV UHVSRQGHG WR WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW¶V KROGLQJ LQ Bolden E\
VWUHQJWKHQLQJWKH$FW7KHDPHQGPHQWVPDGHDSRZHUIXOFKDQJH
E\SURKLELWLQJHOHFWRUDOSROLFLHVZKRVHSXUSRVHRU³UHVXOW´GLOXWHGPLQRULW\
YRWLQJVWUHQJWK7KLVFKDQJHZKLFKZDVH[WUHPHO\VLJQLILFDQWRXWODZHG
SUHH[LVWLQJHOHFWLRQODZVWKDWZHUHUDFLDOO\GLVFULPLQDWRU\DQGPDGHFOHDU
WKDWSODLQWLIIVZRXOGQRWKDYHWRSURYHWKDWWKHHOHFWLRQODZVLQYROYHGD
GHVSLWH WKH IDFW WKDW $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV PDNH XS D VLJQLILFDQW SRUWLRQ RI WKH
SRSXODWLRQ´
See id.DW±
See id.DW³'HVSLWHUHSHDWHGFRQVWLWXWLRQDODWWDFNVXSRQPXOWLPHPEHU
OHJLVODWLYH GLVWULFWV WKH &RXUW KDV FRQVLVWHQWO\ KHOG WKDW WKH\ DUH QRW
XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO per se :H KDYH UHFRJQL]HG KRZHYHU WKDW VXFK OHJLVODWLYH
DSSRUWLRQPHQWV FRXOG YLRODWH WKH )RXUWHHQWK $PHQGPHQW LI WKHLU SXUSRVH ZHUH
LQYLGLRXVO\ WR PLQLPL]H RU FDQFHO RXW WKH YRWLQJ SRWHQWLDO RI UDFLDO RU HWKQLF
PLQRULWLHV 7R SURYH VXFK D SXUSRVH LW LV QRW HQRXJK WR VKRZ WKDW WKH JURXS
DOOHJHGO\GLVFULPLQDWHGDJDLQVWKDVQRWHOHFWHGUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVLQSURSRUWLRQWRLWV
QXPEHUV$SODLQWLIIPXVWSURYHWKDWWKHGLVSXWHGSODQZDV³FRQFHLYHGRURSHUDWHG
DV>D@SXUSRVHIXOGHYLF>H@WRIXUWKHUUDFLDOGLVFULPLQDWLRQ´TXRWLQJ:KLWFRPE
Y&KDYLV86FLWDWLRQVRPLWWHG
Id. DWTXRWLQJWhitcomb86DW
See infra3DUW,9%
See 9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW$PHQGPHQWVRI3XE/1R†
6WDW
Id.
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
GLVFULPLQDWRU\ SXUSRVH 7KH FKDQJH DOVR VKRZHG WKH VWUHQJWK RI
&RQJUHVV¶VFRQYLFWLRQWKDWVWDWHVVKRXOGQRWEHIUHHWRXVHVXEWHUIXJHWR
GHQ\FLWL]HQVWKHULJKWWRYRWHZLWKRYHUZKHOPLQJELSDUWLVDQPDMRULWLHVLQ
ERWKKRXVHVYRWLQJIRUWKHDPHQGPHQWV
,QWKHZDNHRIWKH5HQHZDOWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWEHJDQWRUHMHFW
DWODUJHDQGPXOWLPHPEHUVWDWHOHJLVODWLYHGLVWULFWV7KH&RXUWIRXQG
WKDWZKLOHDWODUJHHOHFWLRQVWKHPVHOYHVDUHQRWLQKHUHQWO\GLVFULPLQDWRU\
WKH\EHFRPHVRZKHQFRPELQHGZLWKUDFLDOEORFYRWLQJ7KDWLVDWODUJH
HOHFWLRQVUHVXOWLQGLVFULPLQDWLRQZKHQPLQRULW\JURXSPHPEHUVFRQVWLWXWH
D SROLWLFDOO\ FRKHVLYH DQG JHRJUDSKLFDOO\ FRPSDFW XQLW DQG ³D ZKLWH
PDMRULW\YRWHVVXIILFLHQWO\DVDEORFXVXDOO\WRGHIHDWWKHFDQGLGDWHVFKRVHQ
E\EODFNV´,IDQRYHUZKHOPLQJPDMRULW\EORFYRWHVPRVWO\IRUSHUVRQVRI
WKHLUUDFHPRUHGLVWULFWVDUHQHFHVVDU\WRRSHQXSWKHV\VWHPIRUPLQRULW\
FDQGLGDWHV$OWKRXJKWKHVHGHFLVLRQVZHUHVRPHWLPHVPHWZLWKKRVWLOLW\
WKH&RXUWZRXOGKROGWUXHWR&RQJUHVV¶VLQWHQWLRQVDWOHDVWIRUDVKRUWSHULRG
RIWLPH
C. Renewed Challenges
7KHQH[WURXQGRIVXFFHVVIXOFKDOOHQJHVWRWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
FDPHDPLGDFKDQJLQJ6XSUHPH&RXUW'XULQJWKHGHFDGHVDIWHUWKH
SDVVDJH RI WKH $FW 3UHVLGHQWV 5LFKDUG 1L[RQ 5RQDOG 5HDJDQ *HRUJH
+: %XVK DQG *HRUJH : %XVK SDFNHG WKH &RXUW ZLWK FRQVHUYDWLYH
-XVWLFHV 6RPH RI WKHVH -XVWLFHV KDUERUHG VXVSLFLRQV DERXW ERWK WKH
ZLVGRPRIIHGHUDORYHUVLJKWRIVWDWHYRWLQJODZVDQGWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\
RIFHUWDLQSURYLVLRQVRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW$VWKH\JDLQHGJUHDWHU
7KRUQEXUJY*LQJOHV86
See generally5LFKDUG$:LOOLDPVRQThe 1982 Amendments to the Voting
Rights Act: A Statutory Analysis of the Revised Bailout Provisions:$6+ 8
/4GLVFXVVLQJWKH OHJLVODWLYHKLVWRU\RIWKH $PHQGPHQWVWRWKH
9RWLQJ5LJKW$FW
See, e.g.Gingles86DW
Id.DW
Id.
See id.
See infra3DUW,9&
See Members of the Supreme Court of the United States 683 &7
KWWSZZZ VXSUHPHFRXUWJRYDERXWPHPEHUVDVS[ >KWWSSHUPDFF+/(1;@
ODVWYLVLWHG6HSW
See, e.g. $UL %HUPDQ Inside John Roberts’ Decades-Long Crusade
Against the Voting Rights Act32/,7,&20$*$XJKWWSZZZSROLWL
FRFRPPDJD]LQHVWRU\MRKQUREHUWVYRWLQJULJKWVDFW >KWWSSHU
PDFF:$+@
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
LQIOXHQFHRYHUWKH&RXUWWKHVH-XVWLFHVXQGHUPLQHGWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI
WKH$FWWKURXJKLQFUHDVLQJO\UHVWULFWLYHMXGLFLDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQV
%\WKHWXUQRIWKHWZHQW\ILUVWFHQWXU\WKHFRQVHUYDWLYH-XVWLFHVRIWKH
6XSUHPH&RXUWH[HUFLVHGVLJQLILFDQWLQIOXHQFHDQGVHWWKHVWDJHIRUD
UHQHZHGVHULHVRIFKDOOHQJHVWRWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW)RUH[DPSOHLQ
Reno v. Bossier School Parish School BoardWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWUXOHG
WKDW6HFWLRQRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW³GRHVQRWSURKLELWSUHFOHDUDQFHRID
UHGLVWULFWLQJ SODQ HQDFWHG ZLWK D GLVFULPLQDWRU\ EXW QRQUHWURJUHVVLYH
SXUSRVH´7KH%RVVLHU3DULVK6FKRRO%RDUGUHGUHZLWVGLVWULFWVDIWHUWKH
FHQVXV DQG WKH SURSRVHG UHGLVWULFWLQJ SODQ FRQWDLQHG QR PDMRULW\
EODFNGLVWULFWV'HVSLWHWKHREYLRXVLPSDFWRQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQYRWLQJ
SRZHUWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWXSKHOGWKHGHFLVLRQRIWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWWRJUDQW
SUHFOHDUDQFH$VVRPHVFKRODUVKDYHDUJXHG³WKHGHFLVLRQHIIHFWLYHO\
PLQLPL]HG XVH RI 6HFWLRQ DV D ZHDSRQ IRU SURWHFWLQJ PLQRULW\ YRWHUV
IURPGLVFULPLQDWLRQ´
2YHUWKHQH[WIHZ\HDUVFKDOOHQJHVWRWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
FRQWLQXHGWRFKLSDZD\DWWKH$FW¶VHVVHQWLDOSURYLVLRQVDQGVRPH-XVWLFHV
PDGHFOHDUWKHLUEHOLHIWKDWSRUWLRQVRIWKH$FWODFNHGVXIILFLHQWFRQVWLWXWLRQDO
VXSSRUW)RUH[DPSOHLQNorthwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. One
v. Holder&KLHI-XVWLFH5REHUWVZULWLQJIRUDPDMRULW\RIWKH&RXUWVWDWHG
0RUH WKDQ \HDUV DJR WKLV &RXUW FRQFOXGHG WKDW ³H[FHSWLRQDO
FRQGLWLRQV´ SUHYDLOLQJ LQ FHUWDLQ SDUWV RI WKH FRXQWU\ MXVWLILHG
H[WUDRUGLQDU\ OHJLVODWLRQ RWKHUZLVH XQIDPLOLDU WR RXU IHGHUDO
V\VWHP,QSDUWGXHWRWKHVXFFHVVRIWKDWOHJLVODWLRQZHDUHQRZD
YHU\GLIIHUHQW1DWLRQ:KHWKHUFRQGLWLRQVFRQWLQXHWRMXVWLI\VXFK
OHJLVODWLRQLVDGLIILFXOWFRQVWLWXWLRQDOTXHVWLRQZHGRQRWDQVZHU
WRGD\
7KLVVWDWHPHQWZDVDOOEXWDFDOOWRFKDOOHQJHWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\RI
WKH SUHFOHDUDQFH SURYLVLRQV RI WKH9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW7KH &RXUW ZRXOG
DQVZHUWKLVFDOODIHZ\HDUVODWHU
See infraQRWHV±DQGDFFRPSDQ\LQJWH[W
$ PDMRULW\ RI WKH &RXUW ZDV DSSRLQWHG E\ 5HSXEOLFDQ 3UHVLGHQWV See
Members of the Supreme Court of the United StatessupraQRWH
86
Id.DW
3H\WRQ 0F&UDU\ &KULVWRSKHU 6HDPDQ 5LFKDUG 9DOHOO\ The End of
Preclearance as We Knew It: How the Supreme Court Transformed Section 5 of
the Voting Rights Act0,&+-5$&(/±
See, e.g.id.DW
Id.
86
Id.DW
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
&KDOOHQJHV FXOPLQDWHG LQ ZLWK WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW¶V UXOLQJ LQ
Shelby County v. Holder ,Q Shelby County WKH &RXUW KHOG WKDW WKH
IRUPXODWKDWGHWHUPLQHVZKLFKMXULVGLFWLRQVDUHFRYHUHGXQGHUWKH9RWLQJ
5LJKWV$FW¶VSUHFOHDUDQFHSURYLVLRQVLVQRORQJHUYDOLGEHFDXVHWKHIRUPXOD
LV EDVHG RQ ³GHFDGHVROG GDWD DQG HUDGLFDWHG SUDFWLFHV´ DQG GRHV QRW
VDWLVI\WKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOUHTXLUHPHQWWKDW³FXUUHQW>VWDWXWRU\@EXUGHQV
PXVWEHMXVWLILHGE\FXUUHQWQHHGV´,QZULWLQJIRUWKHPDMRULW\&KLHI
-XVWLFH5REHUWVQRWHG
%XWKLVWRU\GLGQRWHQGLQ%\WKHWLPHWKH>9RWLQJ5LJKWV
$FWRI@ZDVUHDXWKRUL]HGLQWKHUHKDGEHHQPRUH
\HDUVRILW,QDVVHVVLQJWKH³FXUUHQWQHHG>@´IRUDSUHFOHDUDQFH
V\VWHPWKDWWUHDWV6WDWHVGLIIHUHQWO\IURPRQHDQRWKHUWRGD\WKDW
KLVWRU\FDQQRWEHLJQRUHG'XULQJWKDWWLPHODUJHO\EHFDXVHRIWKH
9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWYRWLQJWHVWVZHUHDEROLVKHGGLVSDULWLHVLQYRWHU
UHJLVWUDWLRQ DQG WXUQRXW GXH WR UDFH ZHUH HUDVHG DQG $IULFDQ±
$PHULFDQVDWWDLQHGSROLWLFDORIILFHLQUHFRUGQXPEHUV$QG\HWWKH
FRYHUDJH IRUPXOD WKDW &RQJUHVV UHDXWKRUL]HG LQ LJQRUHV
WKHVH GHYHORSPHQWV NHHSLQJ WKH IRFXV RQ GHFDGHVROG GDWD
UHOHYDQW WR GHFDGHVROG SUREOHPV UDWKHU WKDQ FXUUHQW GDWD
UHIOHFWLQJFXUUHQWQHHGV
7KXVWKH&RXUWIHOWWKDWWKHSUREOHPRIUDFLDOGLVFULPLQDWLRQLQSROLWLFDO
HOHFWLRQV ZDV FRPIRUWDEO\ LQ WKH SDVW DQG WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW DV D
PDWWHURIFRQVWLWXWLRQDOODZPXVWUHIOHFWWKLVKLVWRULFDOYLHZSRLQW
7KHDERYHVWDWHPHQWUHIOHFWVWZRIXQGDPHQWDOPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJVWKDW
LQIOXHQFHGWKH&RXUW¶VGHFLVLRQ7KHILUVWIXQGDPHQWDOPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
FRQFHUQVWKHFXUUHQWVWDWHRIUDFLDOLQHTXDOLW\LQSROLWLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
$OWKRXJK JUHDWVWULGHVKDYH EHHQ PDGH VLQFHWKH SDVVDJH RI WKH 9RWLQJ
5LJKWV$FWWKH$FWKDVQRWDFKLHYHGUDFLDOHTXDOLW\DWWKHEDOORWER[RULQ
OHJLVODWLYH KDOOV )RU H[DPSOH GLVWULFWLQJ VFKHPHV KDYH EHHQ XVHG WR
PDUJLQDOL]HWKHEODFNHOHFWRUDWHPLQLPL]LQJWKHLUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDQGDVD
UHVXOW $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ FRQWLQXHV WR ODJ EHKLQG ZKDW LW
ZRXOG EH²JLYHQ WKDW HOHFWRUDWH¶V SURSRUWLRQ RI WKH SRSXODWLRQ²LI
GLVFULPLQDWLRQDQGSUHMXGLFHZHUHUHDOO\LQWKHSDVW
7KHVHFRQGIXQGDPHQWDOPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJFRQFHUQVWKHORJLFEHKLQG
WKH SUHFOHDUDQFH SURYLVLRQV RI WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW &RQJUHVV GLG QRW
GHVLJQWKHSUHFOHDUDQFHSURYLVLRQVWRPHUHO\³SXQLVK´VWDWHVZLWKDKLVWRU\
6&W
See id. DW±
Id. DW±
See supra3DUW,,&
See supra3DUW,,
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
RIUDFLDOGLVFULPLQDWLRQEXWLQVWHDGGHVLJQHGWKHPWRSUHYHQWWKRVHVWDWHV²
ZKRVHPDMRULW\KDVVKRZQDZLOOLQJQHVVWRVXSSUHVVWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWV
RILWVPLQRULW\FLWL]HQV²IURPHQDFWLQJYRWLQJUHVWULFWLRQVWKDWDUHSUDFWLFDOO\
GLVFULPLQDWRU\EXWIDFLDOO\QHXWUDO$V-XVWLFH*LQVEXUJHORTXHQWO\VWDWHGLQ
KHUGLVVHQWLQJRSLQLRQ³WKHVDGLURQ\RIWRGD\¶VGHFLVLRQOLHVLQLWVXWWHUIDLOXUH
WRJUDVSZK\WKH95$KDVSURYHQHIIHFWLYH´-XVWLFH*LQVEHUJFRQWLQXHG
³>W@KH &RXUW DSSHDUV WR EHOLHYH WKDW WKH 95$¶V VXFFHVV LQ HOLPLQDWLQJ WKH
VSHFLILFGHYLFHVH[WDQWLQPHDQVWKDWSUHFOHDUDQFHLVQRORQJHUQHHGHG
:LWKWKDWEHOLHIDQGWKHDUJXPHQWGHULYHGIURPLWKLVWRU\UHSHDWVLWVHOI´
7KXV LQ D PHPRUDEOH PHWDSKRU *LQVEXUJ FRPSDUHG ³WKURZLQJ RXW
SUHFOHDUDQFH ZKHQ LW KDV ZRUNHG DQG LV FRQWLQXLQJ WR ZRUN WR VWRS
GLVFULPLQDWRU\ FKDQJHV´ WR ³WKURZLQJ DZD\ \RXU XPEUHOOD LQ D UDLQVWRUP
EHFDXVH\RXDUHQRWJHWWLQJZHW´7KLVPHWDSKRUZRXOGSURYHWREHWUDJLFDOO\
RQSRLQW
1RWORQJDIWHUWKHGHFLVLRQLQShelby County ZDVDQQRXQFHGDVWRUPRI
HIIRUWV WR GLVIUDQFKLVH PLQRULW\ YRWHUV UDLQHG GRZQ XSRQ VWDWHV SUHYLRXVO\
VXEMHFWWRSUHFOHDUDQFH)RUH[DPSOHLQ7H[DVPHUHKRXUVDIWHUWKHGHFLVLRQ
RIILFLDOVEHJDQWRSXWLQWRPRWLRQYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVWKDWZRXOGKDYHWKH
SUDFWLFDOHIIHFWRIOLPLWLQJDFFHVVWRWKHSROOVIRU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDQG/DWLQR
YRWHUV6XFKHIIRUWVZHUHUHSHDWHGWKURXJKRXWWKH6RXWKDQGWKHUHDOLW\RI
FRQWLQXHGREVWDFOHVWRUDFLDOHTXDOLW\EHJDQWRGLVWRUWWKHSLFWXUHRIDSRVWUDFLDO
VRFLHW\SDLQWHGE\WKH&RXUW7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHIXOOLPSOLFDWLRQVRIWKH&RXUW¶V
GHFLVLRQ LQ Shelby County v. Holder RQH PXVW FRQIURQW WKDW UHDOLW\ DQG
XQGHUVWDQGLWVKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[W
D. Behind the Veil of Ignorance
,QShelby County v. HolderWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWIDLOHGWRUHFRJQL]HWKH
FRQWLQXHG SROLWLFDO LQHTXDOLW\ WKDW H[LVWV LQ WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 7KDW
RYHUVLJKWLVVKRFNLQJO\UHPLQLVFHQWRIWKHEOLQGDFFHSWDQFHRISUHWH[WXDO
YRWLQJUHVWULFWLRQVXVHGWRGHQ\6RXWKHUQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVWKHULJKWWR
YRWH RQO\ \HDUV DJR 7KLV REVHUYDWLRQ LV WURXEOLQJ EHFDXVH VXFK
LJQRUDQFHSDYHVWKHZD\IRUFRQWLQXHGDWWDFNVRQWKHLQWHJULW\RI$PHULFDQ
GHPRFUDF\ LQ ZKLFK UDFLDO PLQRULWLHV RIWHQ IDFH JUHDWHU REVWDFOHV WR
H[HUFLVLQJWKHLUULJKWWRYRWHWKDQGRWKHLUZKLWHFRXQWHUSDUWV7RRYHUFRPH
WKHVHREVWDFOHVDQGQRWUHSHDWWKHPLVWDNHVWKDWPDGHWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV
See supra3DUWV,±,,
Shelby Cnty.6&WDW*LQVEHUJ-GLVVHQWLQJ
Id.
Id. DW
See infra3DUW9$
See supra3DUW,9&
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
$FWQHFHVVDU\LQWKHILUVWSODFH$PHULFDPXVWXQGHUVWDQGWKHGHPRJUDSKLF
GLVDGYDQWDJHVRIWKRVHZKRDUHPRVWRIWHQWKHYLFWLPVRIYRWHUVXSSUHVVLRQ
7KH WUDJLF UHDOLW\ RI VXSSUHVVHG $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ SROLWLFDO
UHSUHVHQWDWLRQFDQRQO\EHXQGHUVWRRGLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKYDULRXVVRFLR
HFRQRPLF IDFWRUV VRPH RI ZKLFK KDYH GHYHORSHG RU ZRUVHQHG VLQFH WKH
SDVVDJH RI WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW RI )LUVW $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV DUH
GLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\LPSRYHULVKHGDQGPRUHRIWHQVXIIHUIURPDODFNRIDFFHVV
WREDVLFUHVRXUFHVVXFKDVWUDQVSRUWDWLRQRUFKLOGFDUHVHUYLFHV$VDUHVXOW
ZKDWPD\VHHPWULYLDOWRZHDOWKLHUFLWL]HQVVXFKDVUHJLVWHULQJWRYRWHRU
WDNLQJRIIZRUNRQHOHFWLRQGD\FDQEHFRPHDQLQVXUPRXQWDEOHREVWDFOHIRU
SRRUPLQRULWLHVDQGVLQJOHSDUHQWKRXVHKROGV6HFRQGEHFDXVHRIOLPLWHG
PHDQV DQG GLVFULPLQDWRU\ KRXVLQJ SUDFWLFHV $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV DUH
W\SLFDOO\FRQFHQWUDWHGJHRJUDSKLFDOO\7KLVFRQFHQWUDWLRQPDNHV$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVDQHDV\WDUJHWIRUGLVWULFWLQJVFKHPHVZKLFKHLWKHUGLYLGHWKHLU
YRWHVDPRQJYDULRXVGLVWULFWVWRWKHSRLQWWKDWWKH\JHWQRUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRU
³ORFNLQ´YLUWXDOO\DOORIWKHLUYRWHVLQWRRQHGLVWULFWVRWKDWWKH\KDYHDVVPDOO
RIDOHJLVODWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDVSRVVLEOH7KLUG$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVRIWHQ
GRQRWKDYHDFFHVVWRDTXDOLW\HGXFDWLRQZKLFKWUDSVPDQ\LQORZSD\LQJ
ORZVNLOOMREVWKDWLQYROYHLQIOH[LEOHZRUNVFKHGXOHVOLWWOHWRQRSDLGOHDYH
DQGWKHQHHGWRZRUNRYHUWLPHWRPDNHHQGVPHHW&RQVHTXHQWO\RQHURXV
$VVRFLDWHG3UHVVRacial Disparities Persist1<7,0(61RY
KWWSZZZQ\WLPHVFRPXVEUIVUDFHKWPO"BU QRWLQJDURXJKO\
JDS EHWZHHQ WKH PHGLDQ LQFRPHV IRU ZKLWH KRXVHKROGV DQG EODFN
KRXVHKROGV see also 5REHUW ' %XOODUG All Transit Is Not Created Equal
5(,0$*,1( KWWSUHLPDJLQHUSHRUJQRGH >KWWSSHUPDFF54-*'$;@
ODVW YLVLWHG 6HSW :20(1¶6 (&21 6(& &$03$,*1 &+,/' &$5(
0$77(56 %8,/',1* (&2120,& 6(&85,7< )25 /2:,1&20( :20(1 available atKWWSZZZZIJPRUJLPDJHVZHVFBFKLOGFDUHPDWWHUVSGI>KWWSSHU
PDFF7$<@
'RXJODV 6 0DVVH\ $QGUHZ % *URVV .LPLNR 6KLEX\D Migration,
Segregation, and the Geographic Concentration of Poverty$0 62& 5(9
QRWLQJWKDWSRRU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVKDYHDWR
FKDQFHRIPRYLQJLQWRDQRWKHUDUHDDWOHDVWDVSRRUDVWKHLUSUHYLRXVUHVLGHQFH
ZKLFK VXJJHVWV D FRQQHFWLRQ WR D UDFLDOO\ VHJUHJDWHG KRXVLQJ PDUNHW *HRUJH
*RQ]DOH]Racial and Ethnic Minorities Face More Subtle Housing Discrimination
+8'*29-XQH KWWSSRUWDOKXGJRYKXGSRUWDO+8'"VUF SUHVVSUHVV
BUHOHDVHVBPHGLDBDGYLVRULHV+8'1R>KWWSSHUPDFF7/9)$&@
ILQGLQJWKDWDJHQWVLQIRUPHG$IULFDQ$PHULFDQUHQWHUVRIIHZHUDYDLODEOHXQLWV
VKRZWKHPIHZHUXQLWVDQGWKDWDJHQWVLQIRUP$IULFDQ$PHULFDQKRPHEX\HUVRI
IHZHUKRPHVDQGVKRZWKHPIHZHUKRPHV
'$9,' ('021'6 &$67( :$56 $ 3+,/2623+< 2) ',6&5,0,1$7,21 No More Packing or Cracking (&2120,67 -XQH KWWSZZZ
HFRQRPLVWFRPQRGH>KWWSSHUPDFF3%$;@
See/LQGVH\&RRNU.S. Education: Still Separate and Unequal861(:6
:25/' 5(3 -DQ $0 KWWSZZZXVQHZVFRPQHZVEORJV
GDWDPLQHXVHGXFDWLRQVWLOOVHSDUDWHDQGXQHTXDO >KWWSSHUPDFF.
%&6)@ H[SODLQLQJ WKH HIIHFWV RI UDFLDO GLVSDULWLHV LQ HGXFDWLRQ WKURXJKRXW
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
YRWLQJUHJLVWUDWLRQUHTXLUHPHQWVRIWHQSUHVHQWVLJQLILFDQWEXUGHQVWKDWDUH
QRWUHDOL]HGE\PRUHZHDOWK\ZKLWH$PHULFDQV)LQDOO\$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
PDNH XS D GLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\ KLJK SRSXODWLRQ RI WKH QDWLRQ¶V MDLOV DQG
SULVRQVZKLFKLVVLJQLILFDQWEHFDXVHWKRVHZKRKDYHEHHQLQFDUFHUDWHG
RUDUHFRQYLFWHGRIDIHORQ\DUHGHQLHGWKHULJKWWRYRWH
7KHDERYHVRFLRHFRQRPLFUHDOLWLHVDUHMXVWVRPHRIWKHGHPRJUDSKLF
GLVDGYDQWDJHV$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDQGRWKHUUDFLDOPLQRULWLHVVXIIHU-XVWOLNH
WKHGHPRJUDSKLFGLVDGYDQWDJHVRIWKHSDVWZKLFKZKLWHVXSUHPDFLVWVXVHG
WRGHQ\$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVWKHULJKWWRYRWHLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWKPRGHUQ
GLVDGYDQWDJHVFDQEHH[SORLWHGWRGHQ\FLWL]HQVRIWKHLUFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKW
WR YRWH :LWK WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW¶V ZHDNHQLQJ RI WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW
H[SORLWDWLRQVHHPVDOPRVWWRRLUUHVLVWLEOHIRUWKRVHZKRDUHGHWHUPLQHGWR
HYDGH WKH GHPRFUDWLF SURFHVV DQG HQVXUH SROLWLFDO YLFWRULHV WKURXJK
VXEWHUIXJHDQGPLVUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ7KHRQO\ZD\WREDWWOHWKLVVXEWHUIXJHLV
WKURXJKKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WWKHQDWLRQPXVWXQGHUVWDQGWKDWWKHUHDVRQVWKDW
MXVWLILHGWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWDUHUHOHYDQWLQWRGD\¶VVRFLHW\
97+(927,1*5,*+76$&72)72'$<&217,18,1*
&+$//(1*(6$1'$5(1(:('&$//)25927(5(48$/,7<
+LVWRULFDOFRQWH[WPDWWHUVERWKLQWKHLPPHGLDWHFRQWH[WRIDELOO¶V
SDVVLQJDQGSHUKDSVHYHQPRUHLPSRUWDQWO\LQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHORQJXH
GXUpH RU ODUJHU KLVWRULFDO FRQWH[W RI FKDQJH RYHU WLPH -XVW DV WKH
JUDPPDU VFKRRO KLJK VFKRRO FROOHJH DQG EH\RQG DQG QRWLQJ WKDW IHZHU
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDWWHQGFROOHJHDQGWKDWRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVGURSRXW
RIKLJKVFKRROExpansive Survey of America’s Public Schools Reveals Troubling
Racial Disparities86 '(3¶7 ('8& 0DU KWWSZZZHGJRYQHZV
SUHVVUHOHDVHVH[SDQVLYHVXUYH\DPHULFDVSXEOLFVFKRROVUHYHDOVWURXEOLQJ
UDFLDOGLVSDULWLHV >KWWSVSHUPDFF:''/*@ QRWLQJ WKDW RI $IULFDQ
$PHULFDQKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVGRQRWKDYHDFFHVVWRWKHIXOOUDQJHRIPDWKDQG
VFLHQFHFRXUVHVRIIHUHGLQKLJKVFKRRO0LFKDHO$)OHWFKHUThe Incredible Pay
Disparity Facing Blacks and Hispanics in Retail Work :$6+ 3267 -XQH KWWSZZZZDVKLQJWRQSRVWFRPQHZVZRQNEORJZSUHWDLOZRUN
FDQEHGLIILFXOWIRUDOPRVWHYHU\RQHEXWKHUHVZK\LWVHYHQZRUVHIRUEODFNVDQG
ODWLQRV>KWWSSHUPDFF.0%@QRWLQJWKDW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDUHPRUHOLNHO\
WKDQZKLWHVWRZRUNLQUHWDLOMREVWKDWWKH\WHQGWRKDYHWKHORZHVWSD\LQJUHWDLOMREV
DQGWKDWWKHVHMREVLQYROYHXQSUHGLFWDEOHVFKHGXOHVDQGIRUFHGSDUWWLPHKRXUV
/HDK6DNDODBreaking Down Mass Incarceration in the 2010 Census: Stateby-State Incarceration Rates by Race/Ethnicity35,62132/¶< ,1,7,$7,9(0D\
KWWSZZZSULVRQSROLF\RUJUHSRUWVUDWHVKWPO>KWWSSHUPDFF)%3<8@
ILQGLQJWKDW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQZHUHLQFDUFHUDWHGILYHWLPHVPRUHWKDQZKLWHVDQG
WKDWLQHYHU\VWDWH¶VMDLOVDQGSULVRQV$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVZHUHRYHUUHSUHVHQWHG
Felon Voting Rights1$7¶/&21)67$7(/(*,6/$785(6-XO\
KWWSZZZQFVORUJUHVHDUFKHOHFWLRQVDQGFDPSDLJQVIHORQYRWLQJULJKWVDVS[
>KWWSSHUPDFF7'&487)@ QRWLQJ WKDW LQ RQO\ WZR VWDWHV²0DLQH DQG
9HUPRQW²DFRQYLFWHGIHORQQHYHUORVHVWKHULJKWWRYRWH
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
KLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WLQIOXHQFHGWKHHQDFWPHQWRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRI
WKDW KLVWRULFDO FRQWH[W LV FULWLFDO WRGD\ IRU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH
PRYHPHQW E\ VRPH VWDWHV WRZDUG PRUH UHVWULFWLYH YRWLQJ ODZV 7KHVH
UHIRUPVPXVWEHH[DPLQHGLQOLJKWRIWKHKLVWRU\RIIDFLDOO\QHXWUDO²EXW
SUDFWLFDOO\GLVFULPLQDWRU\²YRWHUUHVWULFWLRQVZKLFKZHUHXVHGWKURXJKRXW
WKH -LP &URZ 6RXWK WR GLVIUDQFKLVH UDFLDO PLQRULWLHV 7KLV 3DUW ZLOO
H[DPLQH RQH VHW RI VXFK UHVWULFWLYH YRWLQJ ODZV²YRWHU LGHQWLILFDWLRQ
ODZV²LQWKHLUKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WXVLQJWKH7H[DVH[SHULHQFHZLWKWKHVH
ODZVDVDQH[DPSOH $V WKLV $XWKRU UHFHQWO\ DUJXHGLQ WHVWLPRQ\ DQG D
UHSRUW GXULQJ PDMRU YRWLQJ ULJKWV OLWLJDWLRQ 7H[DV¶V ORQJ KLVWRU\ RI
RIILFLDODFWVWRGHQ\PLQRULWLHVDQHTXDORSSRUWXQLW\WRSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKH
HOHFWRUDOSURFHVVH[SRVHVWKHWUXHQDWXUHRIWKHUHFHQWSXVKWRLPSOHPHQW
YRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVZKLFKLVWRIXUWKHUUHVWULFWWKHYRWLQJULJKWVRI
UDFLDO PLQRULWLHV ZKR DUH SHUFHLYHG DV D SROLWLFDO WKUHDW WR WKH 7H[DV
5HSXEOLFDQ3DUW\
A. The Texas Experience with Voter Identification Laws
,Q WKH 5HSXEOLFDQGRPLQDWHG 7H[DV OHJLVODWXUH DQG WKH
5HSXEOLFDQ*RYHUQRUSDVVHGDQGVLJQHGLQWRODZ6HQDWH%LOO³6%´
ZKLFKLVDQLQSHUVRQYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZWKDWWKHVWDWHLPSOHPHQWHGLQ
7KLVYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZLVDQH[DPSOHRIWKH6WDWHRI7H[DV¶
FRQWLQXHG HIIRUWV WR UHVWULFW WKH LQIOXHQFH DQG RSSRUWXQLWLHV RI PLQRULW\
YRWHUV9RWHUUHVWULFWLRQVKLVWRULFDOO\WHQGWRDULVHLQDSUHGLFWDEOHSDWWHUQ
ZKHQWKHSDUW\LQSRZHUSHUFHLYHVDWKUHDWRIPLQRULW\YRWHULQFUHDVHVRU
RSSRUWXQLWLHV7KLVDUJXPHQWJRHVEH\RQGVLPSO\DVVHUWLQJWKDWYRWHU
LGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVKDUPPLQRULW\YRWHUVDGGLWLRQDOO\H[SODLQLQJZKDWKDV
KDSSHQHGWRWKH5HSXEOLFDQ3DUW\RYHUWKHSDVW\HDUVGXULQJZKLFKWKH
JURZLQJLPSXOVHWRVXSSUHVVPLQRULW\YRWHUVKDVEHHQGLUHFWO\UHODWHGWR
WKH 3DUW\ RI /LQFROQ¶V GZLQGOLQJ DSSHDO WR QRQZKLWHV 7KLV OHVVRQ LV
See supra3DUWV,±,,
See supra3DUW,
,QVeasey v. Perry)6XSSG6'7H[WRQDPHRQH
H[DPSOHWKLVDXWKRUZDVDQH[SHUWZLWQHVVRQWKHWRSLFRIYRWHUUHVWULFWLRQVVXFK
DVYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVDQGWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW
2)),&(2) *29¶7 5(/$7,216 7(; $0 81,9 6<6 7+( 7(;$6 1'
/(*,6/$785( 5(*8/$5 $1' 67 &$// 6(66,21 &808/$7,9( 5(3257 available atKWWSDVVHWVV\VWHPWDPXVHGXILOHVJRYSGIQG/HJ(26UHSRUWZHE
SGI>KWWSSHUPDFF5:=4)0@
Id.
Bill: SB 147(; /(*,6/$785( 21/,1( +,67 KWWSZZZOHJLVVWDWHW[
XV%LOO/RRNXS+LVWRU\DVS["/HJ6HVV 5%LOO 6%YRWH>KWWSSHUPDFF
*;==3@ODVWYLVLWHG6HSW
)6XSSG
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
FOHDUO\ VKRZQ ZKHQ WKH 7H[DV YRWHU LGHQWLILFDWLRQ ODZ LV SODFHG LQ LWV
KLVWRULFDODQGPRGHUQFRQWH[WV
1. The Texas Voter Identification Law in Its Historical Context
:KHQH[DPLQHGLQLWVKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WVWKH7H[DVYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQ
ODZLVDPRGHUQGD\FRQWLQXDWLRQRIWKHORQJVWDQGLQJSUDFWLFHLQ7H[DVRI
SDVVLQJHOHFWLRQODZVWRPDNHPLQRULW\YRWLQJPRUHGLIILFXOWDQGWRGLOXWH
WKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIPLQRULW\YRWHVZKLOHSURIHVVLQJWKDWWKHODZVDUHUDFH
QHXWUDODWWHPSWVWRSUHYHQWYRWHUIUDXG7KHUHLVDGLUHFWFDXVDWLYHOLQHWKDW
JRHV IURP 3RVW5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ VWDWHVSRQVRUHG DFWV WKDW GHQLHG UDFLDO
PLQRULWLHVDFFHVVWRWKHEDOORWER[²VXFKDVWKHZKLWHSULPDU\WKHVHFUHW
EDOORWWKHSROOWD[UHUHJLVWUDWLRQUHTXLUHPHQWVWKHXVHRIOLWHUDF\WHVWV
DQG SXUJLQJ RI UHJLVWUDWLRQ DQG YRWLQJ OLVWV²WR 6% $OWKRXJK
DWWHPSWVWRLPSRVHRWKHUYRWLQJUHVWULFWLRQVRFFXUUHGDIWHU6HFWLRQRI
WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW FRYHUHG 7H[DV LQ PRVW ZHUH VXFFHVVIXOO\
FKDOOHQJHG E\ WKH -XVWLFH 'HSDUWPHQW XQGHU 6HFWLRQ RU E\ PLQRULW\
SODLQWLIIVLQFRXUW
$WWKHWLPH6%ZDVILQDOO\LPSOHPHQWHGLQ7H[DVRIILFLDOV
ZHUHIXOO\DZDUHRIWKHUHDOGLIILFXOWLHVWKDW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDQGRWKHU
PLQRULW\YRWHUVIDFHGLQREWDLQLQJDFFHSWDEOHSKRWRLGHQWLILFDWLRQ0RVW
WHOOLQJO\ LQ D IHGHUDO FRXUW LQ :DVKLQJWRQ '& KDG DOUHDG\
GHWHUPLQHG WKDW 6% ZRXOG KDYH D UDFLDOO\ GLVFULPLQDWRU\ HIIHFW DQG
XVHGWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIWREORFNLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHODZ
2Q -XQH KRZHYHU WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW VWUXFN GRZQ DV
XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOWKHSDUWRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWXVHGWREORFN6%
7KLVUXOLQJJDYH7H[DVWKHRSWLRQRIHQIRUFLQJ6%:LWKLQPHUHKRXUV
RIWKH&RXUW¶VGHFLVLRQWKH7H[DV*RYHUQRUDQG$WWRUQH\*HQHUDOERWK
DQQRXQFHGWKDWWKHVWDWHZRXOGHQIRUFH6%LPPHGLDWHO\DQGZLWKRXW
DQ\DOWHUDWLRQVWRPLWLJDWHWKHODZ¶VGLVFULPLQDWRU\HIIHFW$VDUHVXOW
7H[DVZDVDEOHWRDOORZ6%WRDFWDVDPRGHUQGD\YHUVLRQRIWKHSROO
WD[UHVWULFWLYHYRWHUUHJLVWUDWLRQODZVDQGVLPLODUGHYLFHV7H[DVXWLOL]HG
WKURXJKRXWLWVKLVWRU\WRVXSSUHVVPLQRULW\YRWLQJULJKWV
7KURXJKRXWLWVKLVWRU\DQGLQWRWKHSUHVHQW7H[DVKDVLPSOHPHQWHG
YDULRXV GLVIUDQFKLVLQJ GHYLFHV VLPLODU WR 6% LQ SXUSRVH RU HIIHFW
See %XUWRQsupraQRWHDW±
See id.DW±
Id.DW
7H[DVY+ROGHU)6XSSG''&vacated by6
&W
6KHOE\&QW\Y+ROGHU6&W
0LFKDHO&RRSHUAfter Ruling, States Rush to Enact Voting Laws1<
7,0(6-XO\DW$
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
LQFOXGLQJSROOWD[HVDQGUHUHJLVWUDWLRQUHTXLUHPHQWVZKLFKDOODFWHGDV
GLVFULPLQDWRU\SUHUHTXLVLWHVWRFDVWLQJDYRWH(DFKRIWKHVHGHYLFHVZDV
ODWHU LQYDOLGDWHG XQGHU HLWKHU WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW RU WKH 86
&RQVWLWXWLRQ 7KHVH SUHGHFHVVRU ³UDFHQHXWUDO´ GLVIUDQFKLVLQJ GHYLFHV
DOVR HUHFWHG XQQHFHVVDULO\ UHVWULFWLYH EDUULHUV WR ODZIXO PLQRULW\ YRWHUV¶
DFFHVV WR WKH EDOORW DQG UHOLHG RQ VRFLRHFRQRPLF GLVSDULWLHV ZKLFK
WKHPVHOYHVVSUDQJIURP7H[DV¶VVWDWHVSRQVRUVKLSRIUDFLDOGLVFULPLQDWLRQ
WR GLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\ SUHYHQW PLQRULWLHV IURP YRWLQJ 7RGD\ 6% LQWHUDFWVZLWKUDFLDOGLVSDULWLHVLQHGXFDWLRQHPSOR\PHQWKRXVLQJKHDOWK
DQGWUDQVSRUWDWLRQWRVXEVWDQWLDOO\EXUGHQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQDQGPLQRULW\
YRWHUV ZKR PXVW RYHUFRPH VLJQLILFDQWO\ PRUH ILQDQFLDO DQG ORJLVWLFDO
GLIILFXOWLHVWRFRPSO\ZLWK6%0RUHRYHU7H[DV¶VVWDWHGLPSHWXVIRU
SDVVLQJ6%²WKHSUHYHQWLRQRIYRWHUIUDXG²LVQRWDQRYHOSUHWH[WIRU
GLVFULPLQDWLRQEXWUDWKHUWKHYHU\VDPHUDWLRQDOHWKDW7H[DVKDVUHSHDWHGO\
XVHGWRSDVVODZVWKDWGLVIUDQFKLVHPLQRULW\YRWHUV
7H[DVKDVXVHGWKHSUHWH[WRISUHYHQWLQJYRWHUIUDXGVHYHUDOWLPHVWR
MXVWLI\ SUDFWLFDOO\ GLVFULPLQDWRU\ YRWHU UHVWULFWLRQV )RU H[DPSOH LQ
UHVSRQVH WRWKH SRWHQWLDOIRU D VXEVWDQWLDOLQFUHDVH LQ $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
DQG /DWLQR YRWHU UHJLVWUDWLRQ DQG SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ 7H[DV IROORZLQJ WKH
9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWDQG7ZHQW\IRXUWK$PHQGPHQWSURKLELWLQJWKHSROOWD[
IRU YRWHUV LQ IHGHUDO HOHFWLRQV WKH 7H[DV OHJLVODWXUH TXLFNO\ PRYHG WR
UHSODFHWKHSROOWD[ZLWKDUHVWULFWLYHDQQXDOUHUHJLVWUDWLRQUHTXLUHPHQW
7H[DV*RYHUQRU-RKQ&RQQDOO\LPPHGLDWHO\FDOOHGDVSHFLDOVHVVLRQRIWKH
7H[DVOHJLVODWXUHWRGHYHORSDQDQQXDOUHUHJLVWUDWLRQV\VWHPWKDWDQHZVSDSHU
DWWKHWLPHGHVFULEHGDV³SDWWHUQHGRQWKHROGSROOWD[V\VWHPEXWPLQXVWKH
WD[´,QRQO\ILYHVWDWHVKDGDQQXDOUHUHJLVWUDWLRQUHTXLUHPHQWV
8VLQJWKH³ROGFDQDUGRIWXUQRIWKHFHQWXU\GLVIUDQFKLVHUV´&RQQDOO\DUJXHG
WKDWWKHODZZRXOGSUHYHQWYRWHUIUDXG7KHUHUHJLVWUDWLRQODZZDVGHFODUHG
XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOLQGXHWRLWVVXEVWDQWLDOGLVIUDQFKLVLQJHIIHFWEXWWKLV
³VHWEDFN´ ZRXOG QRW GLVFRXUDJH 7H[DQV GHWHUPLQHG WR OLPLW WKH SROLWLFDO
LQIOXHQFHRIPLQRULW\YRWHUV
$QRWKHUH[DPSOHRIWKHXVHRIWKHYRWHUIUDXGSOR\LQ7H[DVFDPHVRRQ
DIWHUWKHLQYDOLGDWLRQRIWKHUHUHJLVWUDWLRQUHTXLUHPHQW7KHIROORZLQJ\HDU
See supra3DUW,&
See supra 3DUW,,86&2167DPHQG;;,9
See supra3DUW,&
See %XUWRQsupraQRWHDW±
See id.DW
%ULVFKHWWRHWDOsupraQRWHDW
. &+$1'/(5'$9,'6215$&($1'&/$66,17(;$632/,7,&6
Id.DW
Id.DW±
%HDUH Y 6PLWK ) 6XSS 6' 7H[ aff’d %HDUH Y
%ULVFRH)GWK&LU
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
WKH VWDWH HQDFWHG D QHZ YRWHU SXUJH ODZ WKDW ZRXOG KDYH UHTXLUHG UH
UHJLVWUDWLRQ RI WKH HQWLUH VWDWH HOHFWRUDWH 7KLV WDFWLF GHVSLWH 7H[DV¶V
SURSRVDOV WR PLQLPL]H WKH SUREOHP ZRXOG KDYH FDXVHG VXEVWDQWLDO
GLIILFXOWLHV IRU PLQRULW\ YRWHUV 7KH H[WHQVLRQ RI WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV
$FW¶VSUHFOHDUDQFHUHTXLUHPHQWWR7H[DVLQKRZHYHUDOORZHGWKH
86'HSDUWPHQWRI-XVWLFHWRREMHFWWRWKHQHZSXUJHODZZKLFKDIHGHUDO
FRXUWWKHQHQMRLQHG1RWRQO\ZDVDQRWKHUSUHWH[WXDOHIIRUWWRUHVWULFW
PLQRULW\YRWLQJULJKWVWKZDUWHGEXWDOVRIXWXUHHIIRUWVZRXOGSURYHPRUH
GLIILFXOWZLWK6HFWLRQDFWLQJDVDQREVWDFOH
$OWKRXJK 6HFWLRQ RI WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW LPSHGHG 7H[DV¶V
SUHWH[WXDOHIIRUWVWRUHVWULFWPLQRULW\YRWLQJIRUVRPHWLPHWKH6XSUHPH
&RXUW HIIHFWLYHO\ JXWWHG 6HFWLRQ ¶V SURWHFWLRQ LQ Shelby County v.
Holder$VDUHVXOWWKH7H[DV5HSXEOLFDQ3DUW\ZDVIUHHWRDGGUHVVD
SHUFHLYHGWKUHDWWRWKHLUKHJHPRQ\²PLQRULW\YRWLQJSRZHU²ZKLFKZDV
VLPLODUWRWKHWKUHDWVRIWKH3RSXOLVW3DUW\LQWKHVDQGHDUO\V
DQGWKH &LYLO 5LJKWV 0RYHPHQW RIWKH VWKDWWKH 'HPRFUDWLF 3DUW\
H[SHULHQFHGZKHQLWHQDFWHGGLVIUDQFKLVLQJDQGGLOXWLQJODZVWRUHGXFHWKH
HIIHFWV RI PLQRULW\ YRWLQJ 7KLV SHUFHLYHG WKUHDW ZDV QRW XQIRXQGHG
EHFDXVH7H[DVZDVFOHDUO\EHFRPLQJDPDMRULW\PLQRULW\VWDWH7KXVDIWHU
ODUJHLQFUHDVHVLQWKH7H[DVPLQRULW\SRSXODWLRQGXULQJWKHVDQGWKH
LQFUHDVHG WXUQRXW RI PLQRULW\ YRWHUV ZKHQ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ %DUDFN
2EDPDUDQDVD'HPRFUDWGXULQJWKHHOHFWLRQWKH7H[DV5HSXEOLFDQ
3DUW\SURSRVHGDQLQSHUVRQSKRWRYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZ$QXPEHU
RIREVHUYHUVFRXOGUHDGWKURXJKWKHOLQHVWRGHWHUPLQHWKHWUXHLQWHQWRI
WKLVODZ
1RRQHZKRREVHUYHV$PHULFDQSRSXODUFXOWXUHRUVRFLDOPHGLDFDQ
DYRLGNQRZLQJWKDWPDQ\SHRSOHXQGHUVWDQGWKDWWKHFODLPRIYRWHUIUDXG
WRMXVWLI\YRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVLVVLPSO\DSUHWH[W7KLVLVSDUWRIWKH
SXEOLF FRQYHUVDWLRQ EXW MXVW DV LQ WKH HQG RI WKH ILUVW 5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ
SHRSOH VWLOO GHQ\ WKDW UHDOLW\ 2Q -DQXDU\ WKH QDWLRQDOO\
V\QGLFDWHGDoonesbury FDUWRRQLVW*DU\7UXGHDXSXEOLVKHGDSDQHOOLQNLQJ
WKHVH NLQGV RI GLVFULPLQDWRU\ ODZV WR WKH KLVWRULFDO WUDGLWLRQ RI YRWHU
/HWWHU IURP-6WDQOH\3RWWLQJHU $VVLVWDQW $WWRUQH\ *HQ 86'HS¶WRI
-XVWLFHWR0DUN:KLWH7H[6HF¶\RI6WDWH'HFavailable atKWWSZZZ
MXVWLFHJRYFUWUHFRUGVYRWREMBOHWWHUVOHWWHUV7;7;SGI>KWWSSHUPDFF9
7*%*(+@
%ULVFKHWWRHWDOsupra QRWHDW
See supra3DUW,9&
See6WURQJsupraQRWHDW±
See generally%XUWRQsupra QRWHGHVFULELQJWKHHYHQWVWKDWOHGWRWKH
SDVVDJHRI6%
See WH[WDFFRPSDQ\LQJQRWHV±
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
GLVFULPLQDWLRQLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV7UXGHDX¶VFDUWRRQIHDWXUHGKLVUDGLR
WDONVKRZKRVW³0DUN´LQWHUYLHZLQJ³-LPP\&URZ´DFDUWRRQFKDUDFWHU
GHOLEHUDWHO\ GUDZQ DV D FURZ WR V\PEROL]H WKH ³-LP &URZ´ SHULRG RI
GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWDQGWKHQDGLURI$PHULFDQUDFHUHODWLRQV5DGLRKRVW
0DUNFRPPHQWHG³,7¶6/,.(%22.,1*$*8(67)520´
,Q WKH VHFRQG SDQHO -LPP\ &URZ LV UHDGLQJ D QHZVSDSHU DQG WKH RQO\
UHDGDEOHKHDGOLQHRQWKDWSDSHUSURFODLPV³-,0&52:,6%$&.´,Q
WKH WKLUG SDQHO 0DUN VWDWHV ³62 -,00< &52: 48,7( $ <($5
(9(5 6,1&( 7+( 52%(576 &2857 *877(' 7+( 927,1*
5,*+76$&7<285927(568335(66,21/$:+$9(%((1
$// 7+( 5$*(´ $QG -LPP\ &URZ H[SODLQV ³7+$7¶6 5,*+7
0$5.)257+(*2312:5(675,&7,1*927(5$&&(66-867
0$.(6GOOD SENSE´-LPP\&URZHODERUDWHV³6$<<28+$'$
%$6.(7%$//7($0%87<2853/$<(56:(5(7226+257
72 :,1 :+$7 '2 <28 '2" *2 72 7+( 7528%/( 2)
5(&58,7,1*7$//3(23/("255,*7+(*$0(72.((37$//
3(23/()5203/$<,1*"´0DUNUHWRUWV³5,*7+(*$0("´DQG
-LPP\&URZUHVSRQGV³2)&2856(,7¶608&+($6,(5´7KHILQDO
SDQHOPDNHVLWFOHDUWKDWULJJLQJWKHJDPHLVXVLQJYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZV
VXFKDV7H[DV¶V6%0DUNFRPPHQWV³$1'%<µ7$//¶:(0($1
µ%/$&.¶5,*+7"´$QG-LPP\&URZHODERUDWHV³%/$&.+,63$1,&
<281*2/'',6$%/('²$1<21(:+2¶6TALL´
$ IHZ PRQWKV HDUOLHU RQ The Colbert Report 6WHSKHQ &ROEHUW D
QDWLYHRI6RXWK&DUROLQDKDGMRXUQDOLVW%LOO0R\HUVDQDWLYH7H[DQDVD
JXHVW 7KH FRQYHUVDWLRQ WXUQHG WR WKH UHFHQW 6XSUHPH &RXUW Shelby
CountyGHFLVLRQRQWKHSUHFOHDUDQFHVHFWLRQRIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FW
0R\HUV ZDV XSVHW ZLWK WKH GHFLVLRQ DQG ZKHQ &ROEHUW IDFHWLRXVO\
FKDOOHQJHG0R\HUVWKDWWKLQJVKDYHFKDQJHGDQGWKHUHZDVQRQHHGIRU
6HFWLRQ SUHFOHDUDQFH 0R\HUV FRXQWHUHG WKDW WKH 6XSUHPH &RXUW ZDV
JLYLQJWKHJUHHQOLJKWWRGLVFULPLQDWRU\ODZVDQGKHUHIHUUHGVSHFLILFDOO\
WR 7H[DV ³7KH\ WULHG ODVW \HDU WKH YRWHU ,' WKH RWKHU HIIRUWV WR
*% 7UXGHDX Doonesbury, January 12, 2014 .(<6721( 352*5(66
'$,/<)811,(6-DQKWWSNSGDLO\IXQQLHVEORJVSRWFRPBB
BDUFKLYHKWPO9JIK45EPO,>KWWSSHUPDFF:7&/@
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Bill Moyers&2/%(57 5(3-XQHKWWSZZZFFFRPYLGHR
FOLSVFDDWKHFROEHUWUHSRUWELOOPR\HUV>KWWSSHUPDFF%(7)(@
Id.
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
GLVTXDOLI\ YRWHUV DW WKH SROOV´ %XW KH FRQFOXGHG ³WKH UDFLVWV LQ WKH
6RXWKDQGWKH\¶UHVWLOOWKHUH\RXUVWDWHRI6RXWK&DUROLQDDQGP\VWDWHRI
7H[DVZLOOEHRYHUFRPH´
$V WKH DERYH H[DPSOHV VKRZ WKH ³YRWHU IUDXG´ UDWLRQDOH IRU WKH
HQDFWPHQWRIYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVEHFDPHWKHWDUJHWRIMRNHVEHFDXVH
LW ZDV REYLRXV WKDW WKLV UDWLRQDOH ZDV PHUH SUHWH[W 7KLV REVHUYDWLRQ LV
HVSHFLDOO\DFFXUDWHZKHQVXFKODZVDUHYLHZHGLQWKHLUKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[W
7KHVDGUHDOLW\KRZHYHULVWKDWWKHVHODZVUHSUHVHQWDQDWLRQZLGHWUHQG
WKDWLVQRWKLQJWRODXJKDW7KLVWUHQGSXWVWKH7H[DVYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQ
ODZLQLWVPRGHUQFRQWH[WVKRZLQJMXVWKRZGDQJHURXVWKHOD[DWWHQWLRQWR
WKHKLVWRU\RIWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWFDQEH
2. The Texas Voter Identification Law in Its Modern Context
3ODFLQJ WKH VWRU\ RI 6% LQWR WKH FRQWH[W RI RWKHU VWDWHV¶ YRWHU
LGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVEHIRUHShelby County v. HolderLVHVSHFLDOO\LQVWUXFWLYH
IRUVKRZLQJWKHGDQJHURIWKHVHODZVLQWKHLUPRGHUQFRQWH[W7KHSDVVDJH
RI6%ZDVWKHFXOPLQDWLRQRIUHSHDWHGDWWHPSWVWRSDVVLQFUHDVHGYRWHU
LGHQWLILFDWLRQ UHTXLUHPHQWV ZKLFK UHVWULFW WKH W\SHV RI DFFHSWDEOH
LGHQWLILFDWLRQXVHGIRUYRWLQJ7KHVHDWWHPSWVLQ7H[DVRFFXUUHGDVRWKHU
VWDWHVDWWHPSWHGWRSDVVVLPLODUOHJLVODWLRQ
,Q,QGLDQDSDVVHGDYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZWKDWUHTXLUHGYRWHUV
WR SUHVHQW SURRI RI LGHQWLILFDWLRQ WKDW FRPSOLHV ZLWK WKH IROORZLQJ
UHTXLUHPHQWV
7KHGRFXPHQWVKRZVWKHQDPHRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOWRZKRPWKH
GRFXPHQWZDVLVVXHGDQGWKHQDPHFRQIRUPVWRWKHQDPHLQWKH
LQGLYLGXDO¶VYRWHUUHJLVWUDWLRQUHFRUG͒
7KHGRFXPHQWVKRZVDSKRWRJUDSKRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOWRZKRP
WKHGRFXPHQWZDVLVVXHG
7KHGRFXPHQWLQFOXGHVDQH[SLUDWLRQGDWHDQGWKHGRFXPHQW
$LVQRWH[SLUHGRU͒
%H[SLUHGDIWHUWKHGDWHRIWKHPRVWUHFHQWJHQHUDOHOHFWLRQ
7KHGRFXPHQWZDVLVVXHGE\WKH8QLWHG6WDWHVRUWKHVWDWHRI
,QGLDQD
Id.
Id.
$Q$FWWR$PHQGWKH,QGLDQD&RGH&RQFHUQLQJ(OHFWLRQV3XE/1R
±†,QG$FWVavailable atKWWSZZZLQJRYOHJLVODWLYH
SGIDFWVBSGI>KWWSSHUPDFF(5+35&*@
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
8QGHUWKHQHZODZYRWHUVZKRGLGQRWKDYHWKHSURSHUSKRWRLGHQWLILFDWLRQ
ZHUHDOORZHGWRFDVWDSURYLVLRQDOEDOORW7RKDYHWKHLUYRWHVFRXQWHG
YRWHUV ZHUH UHTXLUHG WR YLVLW D GHVLJQDWHG JRYHUQPHQW RIILFH ZLWKLQWHQ
GD\VDQGHLWKHUEULQJSURSHUSKRWRLGHQWLILFDWLRQRUVLJQDVWDWHPHQWVD\LQJ
WKH\FDQQRWDIIRUGRQH7KH6XSUHPH&RXUWXSKHOGWKLVODZLQCrawford
v. Marion County Election Board
$OVR LQ *HRUJLD SDVVHG D YRWHU LGHQWLILFDWLRQ ODZ +% ZKLFK UHTXLUHG YRWHUV WR SUHVHQW SURRI RI LGHQWLILFDWLRQ $FFHSWDEOH
SURRIVRILGHQWLILFDWLRQLQFOXGHG
$ *HRUJLD GULYHU¶V OLFHQVH WKDW ZDV SURSHUO\ LVVXHG E\ WKH
DSSURSULDWHVWDWHDJHQF\
$ YDOLG LGHQWLILFDWLRQ FDUG LVVXHG E\ D EUDQFK GHSDUWPHQW
DJHQF\RUHQWLW\RIWKH6WDWHRI*HRUJLDDQ\RWKHUVWDWHRUWKH
8QLWHG6WDWHVDXWKRUL]HGE\ODZWRLVVXHSHUVRQDOLGHQWLILFDWLRQ
SURYLGHGWKDWVXFKLGHQWLILFDWLRQFDUGFRQWDLQVDSKRWRJUDSKRIWKH
HOHFWRU
$YDOLG8QLWHG6WDWHVSDVVSRUW
$YDOLGHPSOR\HHLGHQWLILFDWLRQFDUGFRQWDLQLQJDSKRWRJUDSK
RIWKHHOHFWRUDQGLVVXHGE\DQ\EUDQFKGHSDUWPHQWDJHQF\RU
HQWLW\RIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVJRYHUQPHQWWKLVVWDWHRUDQ\FRXQW\
PXQLFLSDOLW\ERDUGDXWKRULW\RURWKHUHQWLW\RIWKLVVWDWH
$ YDOLG 8QLWHG 6WDWHV PLOLWDU\ LGHQWLILFDWLRQ FDUG SURYLGHG
WKDWVXFKLGHQWLILFDWLRQFDUGFRQWDLQVDSKRWRJUDSKRIWKHHOHFWRU
RU
$YDOLGWULEDOLGHQWLILFDWLRQFDUGFRQWDLQLQJDSKRWRJUDSKRI
WKHHOHFWRU
+% GUDPDWLFDOO\ UHGXFHG WKH QXPEHU RI DFFHSWDEOH IRUPV RI YRWHU
LGHQWLILFDWLRQIURPWR8QGHUWKHODZWKRVHXQDEOHWRSURGXFHDQ\
RIWKHLWHPVRILGHQWLILFDWLRQZRXOGEHDOORZHGWRYRWHDSURYLVLRQDOEDOORW
XSRQVZHDULQJRUDIILUPLQJWKDWWKHHOHFWRULVWKHSHUVRQLGHQWLILHGLQWKH
HOHFWRU¶V YRWHU FHUWLILFDWLRQ 7KH SURYLVLRQDO EDOORW ZRXOG RQO\ EH
Id.†DW±
Id.
86³:KLOHSHWLWLRQHUVDUJXHWKDWWKHVWDWXWHZDV
DFWXDOO\PRWLYDWHGE\SDUWLVDQFRQFHUQVDQGGLVSXWHERWKWKHVLJQLILFDQFHRIWKH
6WDWH¶VLQWHUHVWVDQGWKHPDJQLWXGHRIDQ\UHDOWKUHDWWRWKRVHLQWHUHVWVWKH\GR
QRW TXHVWLRQ WKH OHJLWLPDF\ RI WKH LQWHUHVWV WKH 6WDWH KDV LGHQWLILHG (DFK LV
XQTXHVWLRQDEO\ UHOHYDQW WR WKH 6WDWH¶V LQWHUHVW LQ SURWHFWLQJ WKH LQWHJULW\ DQG
UHOLDELOLW\RIWKHHOHFWRUDOSURFHVV´
$FW1R*D/DZV†+%
Id.
Id.
Id.
@
TEMPERING SOCIETY’S LOOKING GLASS
FRXQWHGLIWKHUHJLVWUDUVZHUHDEOHWRYHULI\FXUUHQWDQGYDOLGLGHQWLILFDWLRQ
RI WKH HOHFWRU $IWHU D FRQVWLWXWLRQDO FKDOOHQJH WR WKH ODZ WKH *HRUJLD
OHJLVODWXUH UHSHDOHG WKH VWDWXWH DQG SDVVHG D QHZ ODZ WKDW ZDV VLPLODU EXW
³UHTXLUH>G@HDFKFRXQW\WRLVVXHIUHHRIFKDUJHDµ*HRUJLDYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQ
FDUG¶ZLWKDSKRWRJUDSKRIWKHYRWHUWRDQ\UHJLVWHUHGYRWHUZKRGRHVQRW
KDYHDQRWKHUDFFHSWDEOHIRUPRILGHQWLILFDWLRQ´:LWKWKLVDFFRPPRGDWLQJ
FKDQJH*HRUJLD¶VYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZZDVHYHQWXDOO\XSKHOG
%RWKWKH,QGLDQDDQG*HRUJLDYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVGLVDGYDQWDJH
PLQRULW\ YRWHUV EXW WKH 7H[DV YRWHU LGHQWLILFDWLRQ ODZ LV HYHQ OHVV
IRUJLYLQJ ,QVWHDG DIWHU UHFHLYLQJ DSSURYDO IURP WKH Shelby County
GHFLVLRQ7H[DVGHFLGHGWRGHYLDWHIURPWKHVHODZVZKLFKIHGHUDOFRXUWV
KDYHXSKHOGDQGLQVWHDGHQDFWHGDYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZWKDWSURYLGHG
HYHQ OHVV SURWHFWLRQV IRU PLQRULW\ YRWHUV )RU H[DPSOH HYHQ DV WKH
IHGHUDOFRXUWVDUWLFXODWHGWKHQHHGIRUOHVVUHVWULFWLYHYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQ
UHTXLUHPHQWV 7H[DV OHJLVODWRUV ZRUNHG WR HQDFW PRUH UHVWULFWLYH YRWHU
LGHQWLILFDWLRQUHTXLUHPHQWVGHQ\LQJSXEOLFRUVWDWHVWXGHQWLGHQWLILFDWLRQ
EXWDFFHSWLQJJXQRZQHUVKLSLGHQWLILFDWLRQZKLFKZKLWHVDUHPRUHOLNHO\
WRKROG6XFKUHTXLUHPHQWVKDYHGUDZQDQXPEHURIFULWLFLVPVDQGDUH
FXUUHQWO\ EHLQJ VXFFHVVIXOO\ FKDOOHQJHG LQ IHGHUDO FRXUW EXW WKH
6XSUHPH&RXUWKDV\HWWRZHLJKLQRQWKHGHEDWH
:KHQWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWGRHVILQDOO\GHFLGHWRZHLJKLQLWVKRXOG
FRQVLGHUWKHKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WRIYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZVVXFKDV7H[DV¶
ODZ $OWKRXJK VXSSRUWHUV RI WKH 7H[DV ODZ PD\ SRLQW WR WKH UHFHQW
6XSUHPH&RXUWUXOLQJXSKROGLQJWKH,QGLDQDYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZWKH
&RXUW KDV SUHYLRXVO\ UHFRJQL]HG WKHLPSRUWDQFH RI KLVWRULFDO FRQWH[WLQ
YRWLQJULJKWVOLWLJDWLRQ)RUH[DPSOHLQWKHFDVHWhite v. Regester
WKH6XSUHPH&RXUWKHOGWKDWPXOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWVLQ'DOODVDQG%H[DU
FRXQWLHVLQ7H[DVPXVWEHFKDQJHGWRVLQJOHPHPEHUGLVWULFWVEHFDXVHRI
Id.
&RPPRQ&DXVH*DY%LOOXSV)GWK&LU
Id. DW
See generally 9HDVH\Y$EERWW1RWK&LU$XJ
VOLSRSLQLRQavailable atKWWSZZZVFRWXVEORJFRPZSFRQWHQWXSORDGV
9HDVH\RSLQLRQWK&$SGI >KWWSSHUPDFF.'*)/7@ QRWLQJ
ZLWKDSSURYDOWKDWWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWIRXQG³6%VSHFLILFDOO\EXUGHQV7H[DQV
OLYLQJLQSRYHUW\ZKRDUHOHVVOLNHO\WRSRVVHVVTXDOLILHGSKRWR,'DUHOHVVDEOH
WRJHWLWDQGPD\QRWRWKHUZLVHQHHGLWDGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHQXPEHURI7H[DQV
OLYLQJ LQ SRYHUW\ DUH $IULFDQ±$PHULFDQV DQG +LVSDQLFV DQG $IULFDQ±
$PHULFDQV DQG +LVSDQLFV DUH PRUH OLNHO\ WKDQ $QJORV WR EH OLYLQJ LQ SRYHUW\
EHFDXVH WKH\ FRQWLQXH WR EHDU WKH VRFLRHFRQRPLF HIIHFWV FDXVHG E\ GHFDGHV RI
UDFLDOGLVFULPLQDWLRQ´
Id.PDQXVFULSWDW±
3DUWVRIWKH$FWKDYHUHFHQWO\EHHQVWUXFNGRZQE\WKH86)LIWK&LUFXLW
&RXUWRI$SSHDOVSee id.PDQXVFULSWDW
86±
LOUISIANA LAW REVIEW
>9RO
WKH KLVWRU\ RI SROLWLFDO GLVFULPLQDWLRQ²DQG WKH UHVLGXDO HIIHFWV RI WKDW
GLVFULPLQDWLRQ²DJDLQVW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDQG/DWLQRV,QFRQWUDVWLQ
Whitcomb v. ChavisMXVWWZR\HDUVEHIRUHWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWXSKHOG
WKHXVHRIPXOWLPHPEHUGLVWULFWVLQ0DULRQDQG/DNH&RXQWLHV,QGLDQD
ZKHUHSODLQWLIIVKDGVLPLODUO\DUJXHGWKDWWKHYRWHVRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
ZHUHGLOXWHG7KHNH\GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKH7H[DVODZDQGWKHVHFDVHV
LVWKHOHJDF\RIGLVFULPLQDWLRQWKDWSODJXHV7H[DVSROLWLFV7KXVKLVWRU\
PDWWHUVDQGLQWKHFDVHRIYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZV7H[DVGHOLEHUDWHO\DQG
NQRZLQJO\PDGHWKHLUVWDWH¶VYRWHULGHQWLILFDWLRQODZPRUHUHVWULFWLYHWKDQ
WKRVHRIRWKHUVWDWHV7KH&RXUWVKRXOGNHHSWKHOHVVRQVRIWKHSDVWLQPLQG
ZKHQHYDOXDWLQJIXWXUHFKDOOHQJHVWRVXFKODZV
&21&/86,21
$PRUHQXDQFHGDQGFRPSOHWHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHILJKWIRU$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQ HQIUDQFKLVHPHQW LV QHFHVVDU\ WR LQIRUP PRGHUQ SROLWLFDO DQG
OHJDOEDWWOHVRYHUYRWLQJULJKWV-XVWDVWKH9RWLQJ5LJKWV$FWRIZDV
QHFHVVDU\ WR FRPEDW WKH WDQJHQWLDO PHDQV RI $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ
GLVIUDQFKLVHPHQWLQWKH-LP&URZ6RXWKWRGD\IHGHUDODXWKRULWLHVPXVW
EHJLYHQWKHWRROVWRUHPDLQYLJLODQWHQIRUFHUVRIFLYLOULJKWVZKHUHVWDWHV
DUHXQZLOOLQJO\RUXQDEOHWRKDOWHIIRUWVWRUHVWULFWPLQRULW\YRWLQJSRZHU
6XFK WRROV DUH QHFHVVDU\ EHFDXVH PLQRULW\ YRWHUV DUH VWLOO YXOQHUDEOH WR
VWDWHDWWHPSWVWRVWULSWKHPRIWKHLUYRWLQJULJKWVWKURXJKIDFLDOO\QHXWUDO
EXW SUDFWLFDOO\ GLVFULPLQDWRU\ OHJLVODWLRQ 7KLV YXOQHUDELOLW\ KDVRQO\
LQFUHDVHG DV D UHVXOW RI UHFHQW 6XSUHPH &RXUW GHFLVLRQV ZKLFK KDYH
GLVSOD\HG GLVWRUWHG MXULVSUXGHQWLDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJV RI WKH $FW DQG KDYH
EHHQ DFFRPSDQLHG E\ JURZLQJ PLVFRQFHSWLRQV RI WKH JHQHUDO SXEOLF
VXUURXQGLQJWKHH[HUFLVHRIWKHULJKWWRYRWH7RUHYHUVHFRXUVHDQGGULYH
WRZDUGJUHDWHUSURWHFWLRQIRUPLQRULW\FLWL]HQVDQLQFUHDVHGDZDUHQHVVRI
WKH 9RWLQJ 5LJKWV $FW DQG LWV KLVWRU\ LV QHFHVVDU\ 6XFK DZDUHQHVV LV
HVVHQWLDO WR VHFXUH WKH IXWXUH RI $PHULFDQ GHPRFUDF\ DQG HQVXUH WKH
WURXEOHGSDVWZLOOQRWEHUHSHDWHG
7KH6XSUHPH&RXUWFDQHURGHRUVWUHQJWKHQRXUGHPRFUDWLFFXOWXUH
EXW LQ WKHODVWIHZ \HDUVLW KDV EHHQ XQGHUPLQLQJ LW 'HPRFUDF\ LV QRW
VWDWLF²LWDGYDQFHVDQGUHWUHDWV²EXWODWHO\ZHKDYHEHHQUHJUHVVLQJ
Id.
86
Id.
See supra3DUW,,
See supra3DUW,9'
See supra3DUW,9&