National Art Education Association
Native American Symbolism in the Classroom
Author(s): Barbra L. Wardle
Source: Art Education, Vol. 43, No. 5 (Sep., 1990), pp. 12-24
Published by: National Art Education Association
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10"Acomavessel, by Dolores Lewis,
daughterof LucyLewis,featuringdeer witha
heartline and corn symbols. Private
collection.
i ;?
tr
12 ArtEducation/September1990
.-.., 2.?
sc .Y.?2?
-:
:??
BarbraL.Wardle
Native
American
in
Classroom
the
Symbolism
Inthisexcitingtimeof changeand
growthin arteducation,teachingartskills
fromthe disciplinesof aesthetics,art
is
criticism,arthistory,andartproduction
considerable
Educareceiving
emphasis.
torsareconcernedwithwhatto teach, how
to teach it,and howto evaluatethe
effectivenessof theirefforts.
Muchof the artthatis taughttodayis
eitherWesternEuropeanby artistssuch
as Michelangelo,
Rembrandt,
Monet,or
ModernAmericanby artistssuch as
Homer,Hopper,Pollock,or Wyeth.Art
fromotherculturessuch as African,
NativeAmeriJapanese,Pre-Columbian,
can, and BlackAmerican,has seldom
been includedas a regularpartof the
curriculum
forarteducation.Manyproponentsof a discipline-based
approachare
veryvocalin encouragingthe inclusionof
multi-cultural
artworkswithinthe curriculumframework
used (Clark,Dayand
Greer,1987;Greer,1977;Chapman,
1978, 1985; Hubbard,1987).
We are also seeing an increaseof
studentswithinthe publicschoolsystem
fromvariedethnicorculturalbackgrounds.
MoreNativeAmericanfamiliesare either
movingfromreservationsor are sending
theirchildrenawayforeducation.There
are
morechildrenfromChicano,Cambodian,
Central
Laotian,Nisei,Afro-American,
American,etc. populationsindistricts
acrossthe country.Ethnicpopulations
that
once remainedtightlygroupedin specific
areasare movingintomostdistricts,
theircultureandartworkswith
bringing
them.Americaonce tookgreatpridein
beingthe "melting
pot"of the worldand
welcomedimmigrants
frommanycountries.Thefirstemphasiswas to "Americanize"newcomers,orto helpthemto blend
in.Often,intheireffortsto becomeAmeritheirtradican, immigrants
downgraded
tions,language,culture,andartsinfavor
of those dominantinAmerica.As educators,we can andshouldencouragethe
andvaluingof imagesand
understanding
artworksfromsuch culturesbytheir
inclusionwithinschoolcurricula.
A discipline-based
approachleads
teachersnaturally
intosubstantivestudyof
multi-cultural
art;thiscan aidstudentsin
developingforboththe artsandthe
cultureswhichproducethem.Forexample,
the studyof NativeAmericanartscan
assist studentsto gainmeaningfromthe
artworks.Discussionsof basic issues
ArtEducation/September1990 13
Sun symbols.
I -IE I
aboutartcan be raisedfromartactivities
derivedfromvalidNativeAmericanart
worksandartists'attitudesandmethodsof
creatingart.
Sincecolonialtimes,NativeAmericanor
Indianartworkshavebeen viewedas
less desirableor sophisticated
"primitive",
thanEuropeanartifacts.Throughthe
nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,
art
the creationandcollectionof "Indian"
workssuch as weavings,pottery,basketry,
jewelry,etc. has been treatedas a curiosof arttraditions
ity,ratherthanpreservation
andobjects(Maxwell,1984;Waters,1964,
Bedinger,1973).NativeAmericancultures
but
andartifactsarestillviewedas "Indian,"
are becomingmoreand morerespected
withinoursocietytoday.These are not
arts"fromothercountries,but
"immigrant
ratherthese are beautifulexpressionsof
culturesthatpre-datemuchof whatis
recognizedas "fineart"today.Thereis a
richnessof expressioninthe symbolism
used by NativeAmericanartistsof boththe
pastandthe presentthatprovidesaccess
to bothmeaningandfeeling.
Manyof the symbolsinherentin Native
Americanartcan be tracedto the earliest
of the westernhemisphere,
civilizations
andareoftenverysimilarto symbolsused
in earliersocietiessuch as Sumerian,
Greek,Egyptian,andothers.Meaning
14 ArtEducation/September1990
\
withinNativeAmericanartis expressed
throughgraphicsymbolismof at least four
types:
1. Symbols,such as people,spirits,
corn,animals,water,whirlinglog, etc.
2. Color,witheach colorhavingspecific
meaningandassignedproperties.
3. Use of naturalmaterials,stone, bone,
feather,wool,clay,or leather.
4. Materials
fromwhichandtechniques
the
artworkis made.
which
through
Althoughsymbolsarethe visualrepresentation,theyare notthe onlyfactorsto
considerindevelopingan aestheticawareness in NativeAmericanart,as thereare
manydifferentversionsof similarsymbols.
of artistto culture
Itis also the relationship
of viewerto culture
versusthe relationship
thatcan give richaestheticexperience.
Exposureto NativeAmericanartists'
attitudestowardmaterials,environment,
andself-expressionis one of the rewards
fordiscussionof NativeAmericanartand
artists.Forexample,cornis a symbolfor
etc. in manytribal
food,immortality,
fertility,
cultures.Itis oftenthe customto give corn
pollenorcornmealto anotherorto the
earthitselfin returnformaterials.So, not
as an artisticsymbol,
onlyis cornimportant
butthe act of givingthe mealor pollenis
socialevent,expressing
an important
materials.Onlyas much
the
for
gratitude
materialas is needed is taken,andeveryare scarce
thingtakenis used. Materials
and obtainedonly throughhardworkor
sacrifice, so are valued, expended carefully,never wasted.
Symbols:
Varioussymbols have strong meaning in
NativeAmericanart,which can be religious, power raising,medicinal,ceremonial,or simplypersonal to the artist.One
responsibilitythat educators should be
conscious of is that we teach students to
respect symbols fromother culturesas
havingspecial significance.The following
are a few symbols used by many different
tribes and the general meanings attached
to them in such societies:
CORN
Amongsuchtribesas Pawnee,Hopi,
Navajo,and Pueblo,cornis richlysymbolic.Bluecornmealis an especially
spiritual
giftwiththe PuebloandHopi
customs.Such modernartistsas Maria
San Ildefonsopotter,scattered
Martinez,
bluecornmealon the earthbeforeshe
gatheredclay (NPS,1985);MarieRomero
andherdaughter,LauraGachupin,Jemez
potterswhouse cornsymbolson their
pottery,continuethese customs.Forthe
Navajo,the giftof cornor use of the corn
symbolinsilverorweavingis used to
conveyspecialgiftsorpowers.
^
1OO
SUN
The sun symbol is considered one of the
mostpowerfulof allsymbols;it is masculine,a symbolforlife,forwarmth,of rebirth
andreawakening,
the bringerof life.Many
Plainstribessuch as the Cheyenne,Crow,
Dakota,Assiniboin,Ojibway,andHidatsa
Sun Danceto seek
performa traditional
favorsfromthe gods inthe formof victories,life,good health,good hunting,
repaymentof debts,andotherdesired
results(Highwater,
1984).Theyhonorthe
sun invariousways, such as usingthe sun
symbolon artifacts,fordances, songs, and
poetry(Waters,1964;Bennett,1987).For
example,the followingexcerptis froma
poemused bythe Pawneeduringthe Hako
Ceremony:
Awake,0 Mother,fromslumber!
Inthe east comes dawnwhereallnew life
begins.
TheMotherawakensfromsleep;
She rises, forthe nightis over;
Andthedawncomes
Inthe east wherecomes new life.
Daylighthas come!Dayis here!
Nowsee, the rayof ourfatherSun come
uponus.
Itcomes overall the land,passingintothe
lodgeto touchus andtogive us strength.
1984
Highwater,
u^
/^y
E
r
I
Cornsymbols.
Pueblo pot, featuringPueblo and corn designs by Laura
Gauchupin,Jemez Potter,Jemez Pueblo. Privatecollection.
ArtEducafton/September1990 15
WHIRLINGLOG or SWASTIKA
I
U,
I
L
Whirlinglog or swastika symbols.
___
K
Ea
J/
I
This symbol, long used by Native
Americans, has gained a distorted meaning in the twentieth century because of its
adoption as the predominant symbol of the
Nazi party of Germany during World War II.
The centuries-old meanings for the whirling
log or swastika include prosperity, a sun
symbol, immortality,and a representation
of the four great travels undertaken by the
Hopi before settling permanently in the
Four Corners area of Arizona (Waters,
1963). The symbol was also used in antiquity by a variety of near Eastern and Asian
cultures. There are two distinct symbols,
one clockwise with tails bent backwards,
which is the solar or good symbol. The
is the
otherrotatescounter-clockwise,
blacksymbolof night,andbecamethe
Nazisymbol.Theswastikais also a formof
quadra-mandala, symbolizing four stages
of life -childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
WATER
9i19
~~~s~~~~;;zt~~"Op
Watersymbols.
16 ArtEducation/September1990
The various symbols for water mean
giver of life, endurance, peace, plenty, and
especially sustenance, and are often used
as bands or borders of decoration. Water is
used for purification and is very important
in ceremonies by most tribes. Water is
considered a gift from the spirits and is
received by sacrifice, ceremony, or by gifts
of
beingoffered.The Hopihave a tradition
with
the magicwaterjarthatwas carried
themon theirvariousjourneys.Thewater
jarwas buriedinthe groundto insurea
goodwatersupplyas longas the clan
remainedon thatsite. Thejarwas the last
possessionremovedwhenthe clanleftthe
area.
DEER WITH HEART LINE
The symbol of a deer or other animal
with a white and red arrow running from
the mouth to the heart or center of the
figure is used in most Pueblo, Navajo,
Plains, and tribal art. Lucy Lewis, Acoma
potter, traced the symbol back to early
Mimbres and Anasazi pottery remnants and
has used itextensivelyin herwork.
Meaningsincludea requestto the spirits
fora successfulhunt,an apologyto the
animal,the wishforquickcleandeathwith
littlesuffering,foraccuracyof the arrowor
lanceshot,anda promisethatthe meat,
hide,etc. so gainedwillbe used wisely
andfully.Thisis a verypowerfulsymbol,
andwas oftengivento wishthe recipient
wellin huntingorotherfutureendeavors.
(Dittert,1985).
1-
(%4
Animal
withaa heart
heart
linesymbols.
symbols.
Animal
with
line
ArtEducation/September1990 17
YEI, KACHINA,KATSINA, CACIQUE
These are some of the namesused for
the spiritsin NativeAmericanmythology
f -_
\ _
andstill
whocreatedthe worldoriginally
guide,protect,andassist the variousculintheirlives.Eachof these spirits
1tures
or
has differentappearances,virtues,
andeach playsa different
characteristics,
role inthe livesof the people.Theyare
Bk~~~iS~ ^^
~~sacred, ~ andoftentheirimagesare used to
seek theirhelpeitherinceremonialor
ritualways. Some yei or kachinaare good
spiritsandhelp,butothersare mischevious or evil,andwillcause harmifthey
(Waters,1963)(Bennett,1983).
,^n>)?
'^yS
tcan.
Yei symbols.
HopiKachina,circa 1920, Second Mesa, Arizona,
unknownartist.Now in privatecollection.
18 ArtEducation/September1990
LIGHTNINGOR ZIG-ZAG LINE
Thelightning
or zig-zagsymbolis
sometimesused as a referenceto the
powerof the spirits.Itis sometimesused
alone,as LucyLewisused it,orthe spirit
figureis shownholdinglightningbolts.
Also,the zig-zaglinesometimesrefersto
water,especiallyas a borderdesign.
Lightningsymbols.
Pot withlightningsymbols.
ArtEducation/September1990 19
Photo? Viviennedella Grotta
1989.
Color Symbolism
Theuse of coloris also symbolic;formany
tribes,colorshave individual
meanings,
andcolorgroupingsalso have import.
Also,tribeshavespecialcolors,such as
yellowandgreenforSioux;red,white,and
blueforCherokee,etc.
COLORS
MASCULINE
Thedomainabovethe earthbelongsto
FatherSky,so elementsfromtheresuch
etc. are all
as the sun,colors,lightning,
masculine.Theskycolors- blue,purple,
blackandgreyandyellow,areconsidered
masculinecolorsin Hopi,Pueblo,and
Navajocultures;in some, such as Mohawk, green is also included as a mascu-
linecolor;inothercultures,green is
considereda femininecolor.
FEMININECOLORS
The earth and its features are consid-
20 ArtEducation/September1990
ered feminine, including all crops grown.
Mother Earth is the feminine domain, so all
earthtones, orange,red,tan,brown,and
whitearefemininecolors.
Thechoiceof colorsused withina
amountsof power
designconveydiffering
to the userorwearerof the artifact.Some
designswillincludebothmasculineand
femininecolors,andare consideredthe
mostpowerfuldesignsof all.
INDIVIDUAL
COLORS
fromtribeto
Thereis some variation
are
tribe,butbasiccolorcharacteristics
similar.Colorsalso havedifferentmeanways,orwhen
ingswhenused indifferent
combinedwithothercolors,butoverall
meaningsare stillthe same.
BLUE:mostsacred,spiritual
color,
loyalty,purity,also used forwateror
sorrow,colorof the South.
RED:anger,bravery,blood,courage,
wealth,love,beauty,colorof the
East.
YELLOW:
mostsacred,warmth,love,
bravery,plenty,colorof the West.
GREEN:new life,growing,spiritual,
also eternity.
BLACK:
strength,death,night,enduring,verypowerful.
BROWN:earth,strength,welcoming,
warmth,rest.
ORANGE:hot,evening,fire,earth
color,pride.
WHITE:purity,sacred,newbirth,color
of the North.
Inclusionof NaturalMaterials
Thesymbolismgainedthroughthe use of
naturalmaterialssuch as eagle feathers,
bearclaws,porcupinequills,or carved
fetishesis varied.Inmostcases, the use of
the materialcarrieswithit allof the characteristicsof the animalitrepresents.For
example,the use of eagle feathers conveys the superioreyesight,strength,and
powerof the eagle to the user. Bearclaws
or a smallcarvingorfetishof a beargives
the userthe strength,power,andferocity
of the bear.Eachanimalhas characteristics such as these whichare desirablefor
the useror creatorof the particular
art
work,andthus are used as symbolsof the
wantedpowersor abilities.Some animals
havespecialsignificanceto a tribe;for
example,the bearto the Mohawk;the
buffaloto the Cheyenneand Dakota,the
deerto Ojibway,Nez Perce,Acoma,and
Zuni;the pantherto the Seminole,etc.
Methodsand MaterialsUsed
Mostif notallauthenticNativeAmerican artworksare handcrafted,
using
traditional
methodsindigenousto the
tribeorcultureof the artist.
particular
a
methods
Crafting pot by handbuilding
ratherthana potter'swheel requiresa
differentset of skills,createsdifferent
forms,anditdemandsmuchmoretime
involvement.The inclusionof personally
significantshapes, symbols, and design
add to the beauty of the object. Objects
can often be dated by the materialsused,
as the availabilityof materialschanged
throughtime. Glass beads, for example,
were not availablepriorto the coming of
the tradersand furtrappersin 1823. They
were tradedfor furs, food, and other
valuables worthconsiderablymore than
theircost to the traders.
Teaching Suggestions
When using Native Americansymbols as
shown in artworks, it is importantfor
students to understandthe processes of
creationused, the attitudesandbeliefsof
the artist,andespeciallythatsuch objects
oftenhave a ceremonialor religious
significanceor meaningto theirculture.
Tellingstoriesor mythsof the use of the
objectsordevelopmentof the symbolare
usefulmethodsto involvestudentsin
of the objector symbol.
exploration
the
Placing symbolintimeortracingthe
symbolthroughhistoryandothercultures
helpsgive meaningto boththe symbols
andthe worksusingthem.Showingways
the symbolsare used inthe different
societiesor are depictedindifferentmaterialscan be an effectiveway of give meaningto symbols.
Some of the best teachingstrategies
devisedfordevelopingaestheticskillsare
questioninganddiscussion.Silverman
(1987)recommendsthe use of questioning
strategiesto helpstudentsgainimportfrom
artworks.These workespeciallywellwith
symbols.He has suggestedsuch questionsas:
Ifan artistmakessomething,does that
makeitart?Mustthe objectbe recognizable?Cana usefulobjectbe a workof art?
Is there a set of criteriathat is shared by all
worksof art?Ifso, whatare the criteria?Is
allartbeautiful?Cansomethingthatis ugly
orprimitive
be art?Canwe tellwhatthe
artistwas tryingto say? Is it important
that
we understandthe message of the artist,
or can we developourowninterpretation
or meaning?
Suchquestionsleadteachersand
studentsintoaestheticdiscussionsthat
dealwithfundamental
questionsaboutart.
Bydiscussingthe attitudesandbeliefsof
multi-cultural
artists,a teachercan lead
intoa discussionof the students'beliefs,
andsymbolsfromtheir
feelings,traditions,
ownlives.
ArtistExample:LucyLewis
Specificquestionsaboutspecificsymbols
or artmodescan be usefulin helping
studentsgainmeaningfromsuch symbols.
Onewayto developspecificquestions
wouldbe to choose a particular
artistand
examinehis/herworksforsymbolism.One
ArtEducation/September1990 21
LucyLewis,Acoma
Potter,at age 86,
demonstratingcoil
buildingwithclay during
a workshopon Acoma
Potteryat Idlewild,
California.
a
4
I
I
I
i
~
I
v
1.
ij
S;
j
I
;1
0
11
I1
it6t
/
I
22 ArtEducation/September1990
J
NativeAmericanartistwhose workis rich
withsymbolismis LucyLewis
Lucywas bor inAcomaPueblo,or Sky
City,builton a highmesa in southcentral
NewMexico.TheAcomahave livedthere
since the 12thcenturyA.D.Theonly
access to Acomaforcenturieswas to climb
a series of laddersup a 200-footcliff.Such
the
enemiesas the Spanishconquistadors,
U.S.
the
even
and
Cavalry
Apache,Yaqui,
triedto conquerAcoma,butitwas never
capturedandremainsindependentand
even today.Thereis a road
self-governing
to
Acoma
the
cliffs
now,butit is still
up
and
winding,so the Pueblois
verysteep
stillisolated.
Lucystartedmakingpotteryas a young
girl.She woulddig andprepareherown
clay,makeandfireherpots,carrythem
downthe hill,andsell themfroma small
standbesidethe highway.She studiedthe
designson ancientshardsandpotsfrom
hervillageandfromotherareas such as
ChacoCanyon,to patternherworkafter
thatof herancestors.Lucytracedthe
originforthese designsto the Mimbres
andAnasaziculturesof southernNew
MexicoandArizonawhichflourished
and
centuriesago. Hercraftsmanship
beautifuldesignhave madeherworks
morevaluable.Herpots are
increasingly
in bothshape and
beautifully
symmetrical
forherdesigns is
The
design.
background
coil
on
a
white
buff-colored,
slip
polished
builtclay.She has concentratedon two
Acoma vase by LucyLewis,featuringdeer witha
heartline design, privatecollection.
basictypesof design,paintedwithhandmadeyuccabrushesand naturalpigments.
1. Fine Line Blackon WhiteDesign:
Thefinelineblackon whitedecorations
utilizemostlygeometricpatternfilledwith
veryfineblacklines,emulatingancient
Anasazipatterns.These oftencontain
orzig-zagpatternsthatbecome
lightning
almostopticalillusions.Lucy'sdaughter
Doloresquoteshermother,"Thelightning
patternscame fromthe ruinsat Chaco
Canyon(inNewMexico).These are very
us of the
powerfuldesigns,reminding
of
rain
and
spirits sky
(mostimportant
dietiesinthe drydesertlandof the
Acoma)."(Otero,1986.)
2. DeerWitha HeartLine
animalor birddesigns such
Polychrome
as the deerwitha heartline,or birds,are
the second majordesignused by Lucy
Lewisin herwork.These designs also are
paintedwithyuccabrushesand natural
pigments,usingblack,red,andochreon
whitebackgrounds.
Theparticular
animal
or birdis chosenwithcare,becausethe
use of the imagecarriesthe wishforthe
userorownerof the potto also receivethe
of the chosen
poweror characteristics
image.
Lucysaid,"Ourpots are veryimportant.
Theyare used forreligiousceremonies
andinourlives.Itis a mustthatwe save
ourpatterns(usedon pots),because you
can nevertellwhenyou are goingto leave
thisearth"(Otero,1986).
Thecrisplineworkandflatstylizationof
the formsof Lucy'sworkare as recognizableas a signature,settingherworkapart
fromthe ancientpieces thatwere her
as wellas fromworksby other
inspiration
NativeAmericanartistsusingsimilar
designs.Thequalityof hercraftsmanship
is evidentinthe clean linesand shapes of
herpotsas wellas the beautifulpainting.
Thesymbolicmeaningsdenotedby these
designsmakethe workseven more
significant.
to Silverman's
Referring
questions,
(1987)can these designsbe analyzed
accordingto the use of the elementsand
principlesof designinsuch areas as use of
color,composition,positiveandnegative
is
shape, etc.? Forexample,howimportant
the whiteborderaroundthe heartlineor
arrow?Wouldthe designbe less effective
withoutthis?Isthe designan accurate
Art Education/September1990 23
renderingof a realdeeror a symbolthat
representsa deer? IfLucyhadpainteda
of a deer,would itchange
realisticportrait
the feelingor impactof the design?
Ifstudentswereaskedto createdesigns
fromtheirownculturalheritage,whatkinds
of designswouldtheymake?Whattypeof
artwas important
to theirancestors?What
symbolcouldtheydesignto reflecttheir
ownlivesandculturetoday?Iffuture
archaeologistsfoundartfromourtime,
whatinformation
wouldthe artworkgive
themaboutourlives?Claypotscan be
meantto be usefulobjects,forstoring
seeds, food,etc.;theycan have religious
significance,orcan be artobjects.Could
these pots be used? Does the painted
designmakethemmoreuseful?Without
knowingthe originandtechniquesof their
creation,wouldtheybe classifiedas
art?Contemporary
art?Isthe
primitive
of
the
texture
implied
designpleasing?
Discussioncouldfollowabouthowgroupingsof linescreateimpliedtextureon a
surface.Does knowledgeof the meaning
andhistoryof the designmakethe pot
moreinteresting?
LucyLewisis one of the mostimportant
NativeAmericanartiststodayforthe
beautyof herwork,butmoreimportantly,
of
forhereffortsto preservethe traditions
herpeopleinteachingthe methodsand
aestheticattitudesof Pueblopotteryto
others.She andherchildren,especially
EmmaandDolores,are stronglyinvolved
inteachingandpreservingthese skillsfor
the future.
Eachof the fourdisciplines,aesthetics,
artcriticism,arthistory,andartproduction,
is involvedwhenexploringartworksfroma
culturesuch as NativeAmerican.As
teachersandstudentsbecomemore
awareof the artworks,methods,and
therecan be an enriched
derivation,
awarenessof the cultureand people
andattiinvolvedas well.Relationships
tudescan be comparedwiththe students'
ownculturalheritage,attitudes,and
environment.
As a methodof developingfurther
awareness,studentscan be encouragedto
developtheirownsymbolsthathave
meaningfromtheirlivesforuse in artwork.
These symbolscouldbe expressedin
some of
differentmedia,eitherreplicating
the NativeAmericanarts,or developing
the symbolsintotheirownworks.
24 ArtEducation/September1990
Mostof the examplesused inthis article
arefromthe AmericanSouthwesttribes,
buteveryregionof the Americashas indigenousNativeAmericancultureswith
andartifactsof their
symbols,traditions,
own.Studythe tribesnearby,learnof their
culture,inviteartiststo visit,ask students
to bringtheirownculturesintothe classroom,inviteparentsor otherrelativesto
sharetraditions
andsymbolswithyour
students.
As educators,we can providestudents
withimagesand information
of cultures
such as NativeAmericanto increasetheir
awarenessof the valueandbeautyof
customs,artifacts,andsymbolsfromthose
societies.Inaddition,we can encourage
studentsto explorevariouscultures,
andsymbolsof theirownto
traditions,
sharewithotherstudentsandto enrich
theirownlives.
BarbraL. Wardleteaches ArtEducationat
BrighamYoungUniversityand Utah Valley
CommunityCollege, Utah.
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