POLISH
VOL. XL/2
JOURNAL
2007
OF
SOIL
SCIENCE
PL ISSN 0079-2985
Soil Genesis
JERZY MELKE*
WEATHERING PROCESSES IN THE SOILS OF TUNDRA
OF WESTERN SPITSBERGEN
Received March 29, 2007
Abstract.The soils studied represent Gelic Cambisols and Gelic Gleysols of Calypsostranda, Western
Spitsbergen. They are characterized by varied basic properties and total composition. The studies
allow us to conclude that the relationship Fed/Fet % facilitates to the determination of the soil
weathering degree from the studied indicators, while the Parker’s indicator, although giving similar
results like the relationship Fed/Fet %, requires increased workload in the laboratory. The usage of the
remaining indicators needs further studies on a larger scale and on more varied soil material.
The chemical weathering processes of rocks lead to products whose chemical
composition is changed in relation to the final material. Chesworth [8] classifies
the main elements into three groups based on their behavior in the environment: (a)
the least mobile: Si, Al, Fe, and Ti, which remain in place, (b) elements with the
medium mobility of alkaline earths: Ca, Mg, removed as acidic carbonates and
settled repeatedly as carbonates, and (c) the most mobile, alkaline metals: Na and
K, which are generally formed in water solutions to the point of precipitation in the
evaporation process.
Iron contained in primary minerals is released under the influence of
weathering processes and it is removed into the surrounding environment. Under
its influence and together with the passage of time, secondary iron minerals are
formed. They are crystal compounds, for example, goethite, lepidocrokite,
hematite, poorly ordered - ferrihydrite, also amorphic. According to Mehra,
Jackson, citrate buffer with strong reductive reactionary, dithionite [16] extracts
from soil iron soil oxides (Fed), which are often described as free iron. Citrate
buffer does not disturb the crystal net of silicates or soil aluminosilicates. The Fed
content increases with the passage of time in relation to total iron in weathered
material, the parent material of soils. This dependency was used to determine the
relative age of the river or sea terraces [1, 2, 3, 18] as well as to determine the
*Prof. J. Melke, DSc.; Department of Soil Science, Maria Curie-Sk³odowska University,
Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
218
J. MELKE
intensity of the soil weathering processes [5, 6, 14, 15, 17]. The weathering
processes in soils were also studied using the indicators based on the content of
main elements [27] or the mineralogy of the feldspars [22], while Baumler and
Zech [4] as well as Souri et al. [24], used the indexes of chemical weathering of
soils that had been previously prepared by geologists.
For the research, two soil units were chosen in which the weathering processes
are most advanced, that is brown soils (Gelic Cambisols) and gley soil (Gelic
Gleysols). Brown soils (Gelic Cambisols) are formed mainly on surfaces which are
mechanically stable and in which movements of the cryogenic material of soil
profile are not observed. This phenomenon is present in gley soils which are found
in sorted circles, mud boils or in striped soils. An additional characteristic which
can be seen in both studied units is the thickness of profile, in comparison with, for
example, weakly developed soils, reaching up to 70 cm.
The aim of this work is to determine the intensity of weathering of soils of the
Bellsund coastal area (Western Spitsbergen) using the relation Fed/Fet and the
indicators of chemical weathering such as, among others, the Parker’s indicator or
the indicator of potential erosion (Modified Potential Weathering Index), and their
interdependencies.
STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODS
The analyzed soil profiles were located in the sea plain Calypsostranda, Wedel
Jarlsberg region (ö=77°33’N ö=14°30’E), Western Spitsbergen. They represent
brown arctic1 soils (Gelic Cambisols2) and gley soils (Gelic Gleysols), FAO
UNESCO Revised Legend [10]. In the soil material, the grain size distribution was
analyzed using the Bouyoucos-Casagrande method in the modification of
Prószyñski; sand fractions were separated on a sieve Ø 0.1 mm, pH was measured
electrometrically in 1M KCI, CaCO3 was obtained using the Scheibler apparatus,
and organic carbon determined with the Tiurin’s method [13]. Free iron Fed was
extracted with a sodium citrate with dithionite [16]. The samples for the total
composition were combined into solution with concentrated acids (HF, HCIO4,)
and diluted in 6M HCI. Iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
and titanium were marked using the AAS technique, while silica was calculated
from the difference [25] taking into consideration the loss on ignition [25]. In this
work, the following indicators of weathering were analyzed:
1) The Parker’s indicator (1970), based on interrelations between alkaline
elements and alkaline earths as well as the strength of their binding with oxygen:
1
Systematics of Polish Soils [26].
FAO UNESCO Revised Legend [10].
2
WEATHERING PROCESSES IN THE SOILS OF TUNDRA OF WESTERN SPITSBERGEN
Parker =
2Na 2O MgO 2K 2O CaO
100 .
+
+
+
0.35
0.90
0.25
0.70
219
(1)
The numerical value of the indicator should decrease with the increase of rock
weathering from >100 ® to 0. A slight correlation between the Parker’s indicator
and the degrees of rock weathering [9] was observed. The above-mentioned
indicator was used for acidic, basic, and neutral rocks. The Parker’s indicator is an
appropriate indicator for studying of the mobility of alkali metals and alkaline
earths in soil profiles.
2) Indicator of potential erosion (Modified Potential Weathering Index):
MPWI =
[Na 2O + K 2O + CaO + MgO] 100
,
Na 2O + K 2O + CaO + MgO + SiO 2 + Al 2O 3 + Fe 2O 3 ]
(2)
introduced by Reiche in 1943, modified by Vogel [28], is calculated from the mole
relationships of individual elements and it determines the relationship of the
mobile and non-mobile elements. The obtained numerical value decreases with the
intensity of the weathering processes.
3) Indicator CIA (Chemical Index of Alteration) introduced by Nesbitt and
Young [19] is based on the mole relationship of the non-mobile aluminum to the
mobile alkali metals and alkaline earths. The Ca, Na, and K content, together with
the intensity of weathering processes, decreases in a given environment, while the
numerical value of the indicator increases:
CIA =
Al 2O 3 100
.
Al 2O 3 + CaO + Na 2O + K 2O
(3)
4) Indicator CIW (Chemical Index of Weathering) authored by Harnois [11], is
calculated from the mole relationships of the elements in equation:
CIW =
Al 2O 3 100
.
Al 2O 3 + CaO + Na 2O
(4)
The indicator is based on the non-mobility of aluminum and the mobility of Ca
and Na. The numerical value increases with the intensity of weathering processes.
The omission of potassium results from the following reasons: (a) it is absorbed by
minerals, (b) it is more strongly bound by the sorptive complex of soils than ions of
sodium or calcium, and (c) in the cultivated soils the potassium fertilizers are used.
5) Indicator PI (Product Index) proposed by Ruxton [23] based on the mole
relationships of the given elements. The numerical values decrease together with
the degree of the rock weathering:
220
J. MELKE
PI =
SiO 2
.
Al 2O 3 + Fe 2O 3 + TiO 2 + SiO 2
(5)
6) Indicator of Kronberg, A and B, introduced together with Nesbitt [19], is
based on the mole relationships of the analyzed elements:
A=
SiO 2 + CaO + K 2O + Na 2O
,
Al 2O 3 + SiO 2 + CaO + K 2O + Na 2O
(6)
CaO + K 2O + Na 2O
.
Al 2O 3 + CaO + K 2O + Na 2O
(7)
B=
The indicators illustrate the degree of hydrolysis of silicones and the
accumulation of aluminum sesquioxides and silica with the simultaneous release
of alkali metals and alkaline earths. This process links the transformation of easily
weathering primary materials with the creation of new products and the
accumulation of residual oxides during the weathering processes. The numerical
values of both indicators decrease during the development of soils. Indicators A
and B can be used for grouping of soil horizons or profiles. For the direct
comparison of individual indicators of weathering, part of them was normalized in
relation to the percent content Fed to Fet.
RESULTS
The basic characteristics of the studied soils were presented in Table 1, the total
composition with free iron Fed in Table 2. The particle-size composition varies
from loamy sand to heavy clay. Most of the profiles contain an increased amount of
silt faction, particularly in the upper genetic horizons. The reaction of the soils
researched is generally alkaline resulting from the presence of calcium carbonates.
The carbonate content in the profiles of Gelic Cambisols has a decreasing
character, while in Gelic Gleysols; the carbonate content in the profiles is
disorganized. Organic carbon ranges from 1.7 to 99.6 g kg-1 and it decreases in the
soil profiles together with depth. The content of iron, sodium, potassium, and
titanium in the soil profiles decreases with depth. This is also true for the loss on
ignition (LOI). The content of silica, calcium, and magnesium increases with
depth. Aluminum behaves variably, its content in part of the profiles decreases
with depth and it increases in others. The content of Si, Fe, Al, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Ti,
and Fed in the studied soil material is variable.
The numerical values of the weathering indicators shown in Table 3 indicate
that the humus horizon of the studied soils is characterized by a higher intensity of
the weathering processes in comparison with other genetic horizons; the strongest
WEATHERING PROCESSES IN THE SOILS OF TUNDRA OF WESTERN SPITSBERGEN
221
TABLE 1. BASIC PROPERTIES OF THE STUDIED SOILS OF CALYPSOSTRANDA,
WESTERN SPITSBERGEN
No.
Horizon
soil
profile
Depth
(cm)
Soil size fraction (mm)
>1
1-0.1
0.1-0.02
< 0.02
pH
<0.002
C-org.
CaCO3
(1M
KCl)
(%)
-1
(g kg )
Gelic Cambisols
Ak
1-8
8
17.4
43.6
39
19
6.62
99.60
8.0
108.8
1
2
3
4
5
BCk
17-30
81
38.6
32.4
29
10
7.65
26.70
Ak
1-4
28
47.6
39.4
13
0
6.90
23.70
90.0
Bwk
5-17
24
50.3
38.7
11
1
6.70
12.80
104.0
12.0
BCk
29-42
73
60.9
25.1
14
4
6.80
11.60
A
1-7
31
43.7
33.3
23
5
7.43
14.35
39.2
Bwk
10-21
59
53.4
22.6
24
3
7.76
5.51
120.0
Ck
56-65
66
82.6
9.4
8
1
8.21
1.90
215.9
0.0
Ak
1-7
44
46.1
31.9
22
7
7.10
33.11
Bwk
14-23
26
55.7
21.3
23
6
7.23
7.57
14.3
Ck
56-65
60
64.6
18.4
17
6
7.91
2.47
150.0
12.3
A
1-7
17
40.4
29.6
30
6
7.23
18.47
Bwk
12-25
81
32.9
31.1
36
8
7.70
6.86
286.2
Ck
<35
88
50.5
20.5
29
8
7.95
4.13
356.6
Gelic Gleysols
Ak
0-5
23
10.5
17.5
72
25
7.18
11.43
16.1
C1gk
15-25
19
11.0
16.0
73
27
7.21
10.15
56.3
21.0
6
7
8
9
C2gk
40-50
28
9.9
19.1
71
25
7.21
12.33
C3gk
60-70
31
41.2
18.8
40
13
7.15
11.83
14.1
Ak
0-5
62
40.8
27.2
32
8
7.50
6.30
398.0
C1gk
15-25
55
39.7
27.3
33
11
7.60
1.70
398.0
370.0
C2gk
42-56
55
38.2
28.8
33
9
7.50
2.50
Ak
0-5
28
9.3
33.7
57
18
7.40
16.20
130.0
C1gk
20-39
40
13.7
33.3
53
20
7.30
9.90
142.0
205.0
C2gk
52-61
26
7.5
32.5
60
23
7.30
4.80
A
2-7
47
24.9
23.1
52
15
6.90
14.20
0.0
C1g
22-33
21
24.4
26.6
49
13
6.40
9.60
0.0
C2g
43-52
37
19.8
23.2
57
21
6.50
8.40
0.0
222
J. MELKE
TABLE 2. TOTAL COMPOSITION AND Fed OF THE SELECTED SOILS OF CALYPSOSTRANDA,
WESTERN SPITSBERGEN
No. Hori- Depth
soil zon
(cm)
profile
LOI*
SiO2
Fe2O3
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
TiO2
Fed
-1
(g kg )
Gelic Cambisols
Ak
1-8
201.9
577.35
56.14
81.38
22.04
17.74 13.08
20.03
9.80
16.91
17-30
80.2
659.97
51.78
79.59
37.19
42.99
9.99
27.37
10.12
17.53
Ak
1-4
59.3
734.59
30.88
48.88
71.93
26.03
6.71
12.38
8.75
9.44
Bwk
5-17
39.1
769.22
24.01
42.39
78.87
24.33
4.96
9.34
7.38
7.94
BCk
29-42
36.2
788.95
38.12
59.76
23.24
16.52 10.17
16.34
10.17
11.45
1-7
47.5
746.77
51.49
69.19
25.37
22.75 12.27
15.83
7.93
23.89
Bwk
10-21
29.0
738.34
44.89
55.02
61.96
37.47 12.98
13.55
6.05
19.12
Ck
56-65
19.3
750.52
29.04
37.16
100.11 42.61
6.92
9.57
4.30
9.37
Ak
1-7
85.0
728.97
50.66
68.69
12.10
14.29 10.48
18.97
10.36
22.66
Bwk
14-23
37.5
793.96
44.70
61.68
10.21
16.79 10.18
16.17
8.29
21.95
Ck
56-65
23.3
732.56
37.65
44.23
90.26
44.90
7.08
12.53
6.88
15.46
A
1-7
51.4
727.54
55.68
83.49
11.66
20.54 14.60
21.68
12.48
24.00
12-25
33.2
700.08
45.15
61.73
71.75
52.36
8.29
16.70
9.88
19.40
<35
27.5
695.79
35.59
56.04
101.64 50.76
6.05
15.65
10.39
12.44
1
BCk
2
A
3
4
5
Bwk
Ck
Gelic Gleysols
Ak
0-5
45.0
521.04
97.92
183.71
23.53 34.94
31.90
43.24
18.04
16.74
C1gk 15-25
43.7
585.68
73.56
166.97
26.49 29.03
23.88
36.12
13.94
15.52
C2gk 40-50
44.2
591.39
75.79
161.78
19.83 27.62
26.27
37.37
15.16
14.05
C3gk 60-70
31.7
733.66
55.96
98.34
9.31 18.67
19.10
24.18
8.67
18.94
Ak
29.0
718.67
24.60
43.79
121.56 38.82
5.13 11.54
6.49
6.54
C1gk 15-25
18.5
716.92
26.74
44.95
126.20 41.58
5.50 11.89
7.30
6.78
C2gk 42-56
23.6
720.27
29.01
42.76
117.35 41.64
5.81 11.80
7.32
7.50
Ak
50.7
663.99
43.32
94.30
60.08 33.10
14.40
25.05
14.59
11.26
C1gk 20-39
37.2
668.78
46.22
91.10
72.32 35.82
7.45
25.48
15.18
11.60
C2gk 52-61
31.4
632.82
44.35
96.64
105.83 36.78
11.23
25.42
15.05
10.48
A
2-7
53.9
474.85 108.94 164.27
33.67 44.48
33.09
37.07
48.91
14.69
C1g
22-33
44.2
467.01 114.40 169.79
33.79 45.82
33.12
39.15
51.93
13.99
C2g
43-52
41.6
514.77
26.62
36.78
45.70
13.76
6
7
8
9
0-5
0-5
*Loss in ignitron.
94.61
168.07
29.33
41.75
WEATHERING PROCESSES IN THE SOILS OF TUNDRA OF WESTERN SPITSBERGEN
223
TABLE 3. WEATHERING INDICES* CALCULATED FOR THE SOILS OF CALYPSOSTRANDA,
WESTERN SPITSBERGEN
No.
profile
horizon
Depth
(cm)
Kronberg
CIW
CIA
Parker
MPWI
A
B
PIx100
Fed/Fet
(%)
Gelic Cambisols
1/Ak
1-8
56.92
49.43
39.58
10.46 92.89
50.57
88.31
43.07
BCk
17-30
48.64
41.18
53.78
15.29 93.94
58.82
89.92
48.39
2/Ak
1-4
25.64
23.95
42.21
14.39 96.63
76.05
93.99
43.71
Bwk
5-17
21.86
20.77
39.31
14.07 97.19
79.23
95.11
47.25
BCk
29-42
50.32
43.80
33.73
7.69 95.95
56.20
93.24
42.95
3/A
1-7
51.06
45.33
37.50
9.34 95.13
54.67
91.87
66.34
Bwk
10-21
29.11
27.01
49.60
15.41 96.22
72.99
93.20
60.91
Ck
56-65
16.12
15.43
51.77
18.99 97.55
84.57
95.41
46.14
4/Ak
1-7
63.65
53.48
32.78
6.69 94.97
46.52
91.54
63.94
Bwk
14-23
63.60
53.88
30.34
6.22 95.78
46.12
93.04
70.22
Ck
56-65
20.11
18.94
52.55
18.76 97.00
81.06
94.16
58.70
5/A
1-7
64.86
54.86
40.50
8.18 93.98
45.14
90.14
61.62
Bwk
12-25
29.99
27.57
54.55
18.73 95.63
72.43
92.01
61.43
Ck
<35
22.34
20.93
58.77
21.26 96.13
79.07
92.77
49.98
37.62
33.10
41.13
12.37 89.27
60.23
86.31
50.98
Mean
Gelic Gleysols
6/Ak
0-5
65.86
56.39
81.75
16.93 84.82
43.61
76.65
24.44
C1gk
15-25
65.63
56.89
67.44
14.21 87.03
43.11
81.09
30.17
C2gk
40-50
67.12
57.47
68.62
13.51 87.41
42.53
81.38
26.51
C3gk
60-70
67.04
56.89
45.66
8.11 93.06
43.11
89.56
48.39
7/Ak
0-5
16.03
15.32
56.21
21.01 97.09
84.67
94.73
37.98
C1gk
15-25
15.86
15.17
58.79
21.81 97.03
84.83
94.46
36.23
C2gk
42-56
16.09
15.36
56.76
20.99 97.15
84.64
94.54
36.98
8/Ak
0-5
41.50
37.07
58.99
16.33 93.17
62.93
88.91
37.16
C1gk
20-39
38.79
34.71
56.81
17.26 93.48
65.29
89.02
35.86
C2gk
52-61
31.43
28.84
69.05
21.66 93.14
71.15
88.16
33.78
9/A
2-7
58.69
51.33
82.83
20.51 85.41
48.67
73.12
19.28
C1g
22-33
59.43
51.75
85.02
20.94 84.85
48.25
71.94
17.48
C2g
43-52
63.38
55.10
74.77
18.04 85.74
44.90
75.28
20.80
44.09
38.68
61.05
16.96 84.25
54.65
78.11
29.77
Mean
*For explanation see chapter Study Area and Research Methods.
224
J. MELKE
70
60
60
50
40
r= -0.1537
40
30
30
20
20
10
20
40
Fed/Fet %
60
10
80
MPWI
Parker
50
16
14
r = - 0.5231
12
10
40
8
30
6
20
40
Fed/Fet %
60
4
80
100
20
100
40
Fed/Fet %
60
80
60
80
r = 0.6739
95
PI x 100
80
70
r= 0.1674
90
85
r = 0.6797
:
Kronberg-A; Kronberg-B
80
18
r = - 0.8304
60
80
50
40
30
60
20
70
60
40
Fed/Fet %
22
80
90
20
24
90
20
r= -0.1674
CIA
CIW
50
75
Kronberg-A
Kronberg-B
20
40
Fed/Fet %
60
80
70
20
40
Fed/Fet %
Fig. 1. Correlation indices between the relationship Fed/Fet % and the weathering indices (CIW, CIA,
Parker, MPWI, Kronberg - A, Kronberg - B, Pl x100).
intensity of the weathering processes is in the case Fed/Fet%. Brown arctic soils
(Gelic Cambisols) indicate a definitely increased variation of the values of the
discussed indicators in the profile than arctic gley soils (Gelic Gleysols), in which
the numerical values of the weathering indicators are often varied. Therefore, in
the studied soils we can observe not only a varied rate of the weathering process in
the profiles, but also between the soil units. If we assume that brown arctic soils are
characterized by a more advanced process of weathering, then this is confirmed by
the average relationships of Fed/Fet %, the Parker’s indicator, and MPWI. The
relationship Fed/Fet % clearly divides Gelic Cambisols and Gelic Gleysols.
WEATHERING PROCESSES IN THE SOILS OF TUNDRA OF WESTERN SPITSBERGEN
225
Regardless of the critical remarks of Price and Velbel [21] about including iron
to the weathering indicators (the change of valence Fe3+ to Fe2+ leads to a change
in solubility of iron compounds), iron varies two units of soil in the same
physiographic unit, i.e., in Calypsostranda. When the average values of the used
indicators are compared, it can be noted that the Parker’s indicator, MPWI, and the
ratio Fed/Fet % indicate a more advanced rate of weathering in Gelic Cambisols
than in Gelic Gleysols, while the remaining indices (CIW, CIA, Kronberg A,
Kronberg B, Pl x 100) point to Gelic Gleysols. It should be added that the average
Parker’s indicator and the average relationship Fed/Fet % were characterized with
a largest numerical variability between Gelic Cambisols and Gelic Gleysols.
The determination of the weathering degree of soil material using the chemical
indicators carries large difficulties because of the lack of appropriate examples as
in the case of rocks. With age of soils not only the amount of iron, in the form of free
soil oxides, but also the relationship Fed/Fet% and the degree of weathering of a
given genetic horizon of soil increase [18]. The Parker’s indicator shows the
processes of the removal of alkali metals (Na, K, Ca, Mg,) from the environment:
the effects of these processes are low numerical values [24].
The coefficients of the correlation between Fed/Fet % and the discussed
indicators of weathering are shown in Fig. 1.
The significant values r are marked with bold font. The significant correlation
was observed between Fed/Fet % and the Parker’s indicator (r= -0.8304), Pl x 100
(r=0.6797), Kronberg-A (r=0.6739), and MPWI (r= -0.5231), while the indicators
CIW, CIA, Kronberg-B do not indicate any significant correlation with Fed/Fet %.
CONCLUSIONS
The study allows the following generalizations:
1. The relationship Fed/Fet % allows to determine the degree of soil weathering
from the studied indicators in a simple manner.
2. The Parker’s indicator and the relationship Fed/Fet % give similar results,
but the Parker’s indicator requires increased workload in the laboratory.
3. The usage of the remaining indicators requires further studies on a larger
scale and on more varied soil material.
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PROCESY WIETRZENIA W GLEBACH TUNDRY SPITSBERGENU ZACHODNIEGO
Badane gleby reprezentuj¹ gleby Gelic Cambisols oraz Gelic Gleysols zlokalizowane na
Calypsostrandzie, Zachodni Spitsbergen. Charakteryzuj¹ siê zró¿nicowanymi w³aœciwoœciami
podstawowymi a tak¿e sk³adem ca³kowitym. Przeprowadzone badania pozwalaj¹ na nastêpuj¹ce
uogólnienie. Stosunek Fed/Fet% pozwala w sposób prosty okreœliæ stopieñ wietrzenia gleb z poœród
badanych wskaŸników. WskaŸnik Parkera daje podobne rezultaty jak stosunek Fed/Fet%.
Stosowanie pozosta³ych wskaŸników a tak¿e wskaŸnika Parkera wymaga dalszych prac na bardziej
obszernym i zró¿nicowanym materiale glebowym.