Farming the Historic Landscape: an
introduction for farm advisers
On 1st April 2015 the Historic Buildings and Monuments
Commission for England changed its common name
from English Heritage to Historic England. We are now
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Although this document refers to English Heritage, it is
still the Commission's current advice and guidance and
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We are the government's expert advisory service for England's historic environment.
We give constructive advice to local authorities, owners and the public. We champion
historic places helping people to understand, value and care for them, now and for the
future.
HistoricEngland.org.uk/advice
Farming the
historic landscape
An introduction for
Farm Advisers
Acknowledgements
The text of this booklet was prepared by Steve Trow and Sarah Tunnicliffe with kind assistance from Piran Borlase-Hendry,
Jez Bretherton, Karen Dorn, Joy Ede, Kate Fearn, Adrian Gascoyne, Kaley Hart,Vince Holyoak,Victoria Hunns, Richard
Knight, Jeremy Lake, Michael Lewis, Bob Middleton, Andrew Patterson, Steve Pod, Neil Redfern, Nick Russell, Ken Smith,
Melanie Solik, Paul Stamper, Margo Teasdale, David Went, Jenifer White, Philip White and Christopher Young and with initial
inspiration from Farming Historic Landscapes and People, published in 1992 by English Heritage and MAFF. Judith Dobie
painted the illustrations on page 8.
The photographic illustrations were sourced by Damian Grady with additional contributions from Sam Alston, Stan
Beckensall, Bob Croft, Cornwall County Council, Devon County Council, Bob Edwards, Essex County Council, Peter
Gaskell, David Green, Peter Herring, David Hopkins, Jeremy Lake, Andy Lowe, Edward Martin, Dave McLeod, Ministry of
Defence, Steve Minnit, Oxford Archaeology Unit, Dominic Powlesland, Ken Smith, Melanie Solik, Phil Richardson, Neil
Rimmington, Margo Teasdale, Roger C Thomas, Diura Thoden Van Velzer, Philip White, Robert White and Tim Yarnell.
Front cover: Nine Stone Close stone circle, Harthill Moor, Derbyshire. Photograph Peak District National Park
Back cover: FWAG Farm Adviser with land managers. Photograph FWAG
CONTENTS
page
Our dynamic landscape
2
Today’s countryside
Farming and the historic landscape
2
Understanding historic landscapes
2
6
Why the landscape looks the way it does today 6
A ‘seamless’ landscape
9
Historic landscape character
10
Field patterns and field boundaries
12
Ancient trees
13
Designed landscapes
14
Archaeological sites
Archaeological sites in grassland,
moorland and heathland
Archaeological sites on arable land
Archaeological sites in wetlands
Historic water features
Archaeological sites in woodland
15
15
17
19
20
20
Historic buildings and
ruinous structures
22
The character of historic buildings
Ruinous structures
22
Protection and management
of the historic environment
26
World Heritage Sites
Historic parks and gardens, and
historic battlefields
Scheduled monuments
Isolated historic finds, metal-detecting
and treasure
Historic buildings and the law
Conservation areas
Hedgerow regulations and tree
preservation orders
26
25
page
Environmental impact assessment for
uncultivated land and semi-natural areas
Cross-compliance conditions
Access
30
Sources of information, advice
and assistance
31
MAGIC
Historic environment records
Historic environment countryside advisers
Historic buildings conservation officers
English Heritage
FWAG
Portable Antiquities Scheme finds liaison officers
Defra
Defra agri-environment schemes
The Rural Enterprise Scheme
Grants for historic buildings, monuments
and designed landscapes
Other sources of assistance
31
Joining it all together:
whole farm plans
35
Further reading
37
30
30
31
31
32
33
33
33
33
33
34
34
34
26
27
28
29
29
29
1
OUR DYNAMIC LANDSCAPE
The way our countryside looks, and the ways we live in it, are products of our
choices, and we must let go of any fantasies about nature and timelessness and
stasis. We must choose the countryside we want. We have to ask, what is the
countryside for? John Lanchester, The Guardian, 25 October 2004
TODAY’S COUNTRYSIDE
The countryside today is the result of successive
generations of farmers working and shaping their land
during the last six thousand years.The traces of their
fields, tracks, homes and burial places are inextricably
interwoven with what we can see in the landscape
today. Many of these historic features are still visible as
traditional buildings, ruins, ancient monuments, historic
field boundaries and veteran trees: many more survive
as buried archaeological remains that can no longer
be seen by the casual observer. Because of this, the
landscape is our most precious historic document. It
contains the only evidence we have for most of our
human history, and it provides an unparalleled insight
into people's ways of life and beliefs through time. Its
intricate mosaic of village, farm, common, parkland and
woodland reflects the long and complex story of our
ancestors, a story in which every farmstead and estate
in England has played its part.
If we understand this history, we understand that the
countryside has always changed and must continue
to change if rural businesses and communities are to
flourish. Not everything from the past can or should
be preserved, and caring for our heritage is not about
fossilising it.The countryside must continue to be a
place where people can live and work, and it must
not be regarded as a museum of the landscape.
Nevertheless, it is important that those who manage
the countryside appreciate the fragility of the historic
features in their care. Historic sites are unique: each
tells its own story and many contribute to the
aesthetic value of the landscape.They cannot be
re-created like some scarce habitats or be the subject
of a recovery programme like some threatened
species. Once they are lost, they are gone forever,
so we need to consider carefully the impacts of our
farming practices.
2
We need to make thoughtful choices informed
by an understanding of what is special or beyond
replacement. And we need to recognise the potential
for making the past serve the future, for example
through the sensitive conversion of redundant
traditional buildings to new uses.
We need to do this not only because this heritage
is fundamental to our sense of place and feeling of
belonging, but also because it plays an important
part in the prosperity of the countryside. Properly
conserved, our historic places provide employment,
support tourism and encourage inward investment.
They are, therefore, an asset we squander at our peril.
FARMING AND THE HISTORIC LANDSCAPE
Farmers are the principal stewards of our rural
heritage.Together, farmers in England own well
over half a million traditional buildings (including
some 60,000 listed structures), thousands of miles
of historic field boundaries and the great majority
of archaeological sites. Farmers are of central
importance in managing the historic landscape.
The pressures on the historic character of today’s
countryside are greater than ever before. As
agriculture has intensified and restructured, many
historic sites in the countryside have been damaged
or destroyed.Traditional farm buildings, historic field
boundaries and ancient field patterns have become
less relevant to modern farming operations. Many
have been lost or neglected, and distinctive features,
such as parkland and field trees, are in decline. Arable
cultivation is causing particular damage.The increasing
power of farm machinery and more intensive tillage
practices mean that archaeological sites that have
survived for many centuries can now be destroyed
in only a few hours.
1 Prehistoric stone circles on
Bodmin Moor, surrounded by
remains of post-medieval tin-mining,
attest to former ritual and industrial
landscapes. NMR 21900-09
© English Heritage.NMR
1
The great majority of farmers value the history
of their land and try to care for it wherever they
can. Reconciling care for the environment and the
requirements of business, though, can often be
difficult to achieve without advice, support and the
right policy framework.
Changes in attitudes to agriculture now provide an
unparalleled opportunity to prevent further loss.
Conservation of the heritage is increasingly being
recognised as an integral part of the drive towards
a more sustainable farming industry. Changes in
the subsidy regime and in rural development
programmes now offer important new opportunities
to maintain and enhance the historic aspects of
the farmed landscape.
To achieve these aims, advice to farmers must be
comprehensive and take into account the character
of the landscape. It must aim to safeguard natural
resources, biodiversity and heritage, and it must
enshrine these environmental concerns in farm
business planning.The provision of integrated whole
farm advice will put farming back at the heart of
conserving the historic character of the countryside.
3
2
Why we need to manage the heritage of
our farmland with care
Since World War II, intensive agriculture has damaged
many aspects of the historic environment. Here are
some examples of the problem:
2 Nearly 3,000 nationally important archaeological sites are
regularly ploughed, including many prehistoric long barrows:
the oldest visible monuments in our landscape.This site in the
Yorkshire Wolds, seen as a diagonal soil mark, was once the
longest earthen long barrow in England. Now levelled by
ploughing, it is no longer visible on the ground. (Photograph
English Heritage)
3
3 In Cambridgeshire, only a tenth of prehistoric burial mounds
survive as significant visible structures. Mounds like this one,
which stood nearly two metres high in the 19th century, were
reduced to an average height of 20 centimetres by 2002.
None may survive as appreciable earthworks within 30 years.
(Photograph Cambridgeshire County Council)
4 Medieval ridge and furrow, once the defining characteristic of
the Midlands landscape, is seriously threatened by the loss of
permanent grassland. As much as 94% has been destroyed in
the East Midlands. Surviving areas are still being lost, together
with earlier sites previously protected under grassland. Here, in
Northamptonshire, ploughing has destroyed ridge and furrow
and half of an underlying Iron Age fortification.
(NMR 21405-24 © English Heritage.NMR )
4
5 Many thousands of historic farm buildings are in disrepair.
Analysis of local authority Buildings at Risk registers shows
farm buildings to be the single most important category of
endangered building.This field barn in the Yorkshire Dales is in
imminent danger of collapse unless repairs are carried out.
(Photograph Peter Gaskell)
6 Parkland is also threatened. In Staffordshire, recent survey
showed that over 60% of parks are now poor quality semiimproved grassland. Others are totally improved, intensive or
amenity grassland.The removal of many hedges and field trees
has also caused losses of biodiversity and historic character, as
can be seen in this photograph of north-west Essex.The Tree
Council estimates that, of the 1.8 million hedge trees, nearly
a third may disappear from the landscape within the next
25 years. (Photograph Adrian Gascoyne)
5
4
6
What we can achieve when we do
7
In recent years, active management has helped to
counteract this damage, maintain landscape character
and conserve the heritage of our countryside. Here are
some examples:
7 These rare prehistoric carvings on the floor of a rock shelter at
Ketley Crag in Northumberland were being damaged by stock
erosion. Agri-environment funding has enabled the farmer
to change husbandry practices in order to preserve the
4,000-year-old rock art and create of a public access and
interpretation trail. (Photograph Stan Beckensall)
8 When discovered in 1987, this Roman fort at Cudmore in
Devon (seen as a rectangular shape in the photograph) was
being damaged by ploughing. An agri-environment scheme for
this nationally important archaeological site has now secured
its conversion to pasture, preserving a unique fragment of the
history of the Roman conquest in the south west. (Photograph
8
Devon County Council)
9 Within the internationally important Stonehenge World
Heritage Site, many archaeological monuments are being
damaged by ploughing. An agri-environmental scheme special
project, begun in 2002, has already returned over 500 hectares
to grassland.This is a key contribution to the aims of the World
Heritage Site management plans for Avebury and Stonehenge
and will safeguard these iconic landscapes for future generations.
(NMR 15077-22 © Crown copyright.NMR )
10 Ecclerigg Barn in the Lake District National Park is one of nearly
a thousand traditional farm buildings restored in the Park with
the aid of agri-environment scheme funding.This helps to
maintain much-valued sense of place, provides valuable
accommodation for farm activities, creates local employment
and maintains important rural skills. (Photograph Andy Lowe,
9
Lake District National Park)
11 Agri-environment schemes have helped to restore many parks
in the last decade, retaining their contribution to the landscape
and protecting important habitats and heritage. Restoration of
parkland at Knepp Castle in West Sussex has included the
reversion to pasture of large areas of the park previously in
cultivation, restoration of lakes and protection of archaeology
and field trees. Public access has also been extended.
(Photograph Defra)
11
10
5
UNDERSTANDING HISTORIC LANDSCAPES
Why is Herefordshire more like rural Essex than either is like Cambridgeshire?
Herefordshire and Essex are lands of hamlets, of medieval farms in hollows of
the hills, of lonely moats in the claylands, of immense mileages of little roads and
holloways, of intricate footpaths, of irregularly-shaped groves and thick hedges
colourful with maple, dogwood and spindle, of pollards and ancient trees.
Cambridgeshire is a land of big villages, wide views, brick farmhouses in exposed
positions, flimsy hawthorn hedges, ivied clumps of trees in corners of fields, few, busy
roads and above all of straight lines. Oliver Rackham, The Illustrated History of the Countryside, 1994
12
but it is the interaction of people and nature which
has established the detailed grain of the landscape’s
character and local sense of place. For this reason,
our historic inheritance is now recognised as an
integral part of the environment – indivisible from
the natural world. It is therefore often referred to
as the historic environment.
The human imprint on the landscape is fundamental.
There is barely a hectare of countryside that has not
been shaped by humankind, whether through careful
management or by ruthless exploitation. In many
places, this process of change has been continuous,
and much of the landscape has altered radically
within living memory. Other areas have stayed largely
unchanged for centuries. In a very few places, our
present-day surroundings would seem quite familiar
to our pre-Roman ancestors: elsewhere, our
grandparents would find it difficult to recognise
the countryside where they grew up.
WHY THE LANDSCAPE LOOKS THE WAY
IT DOES TODAY
Today’s landscape is rather like a complex and multilayered puzzle. Ancient and modern places exist
side-by-side, and natural and man-made features are
inextricably interleaved. It is the kaleidoscopic variety
of patterns created by these complex relationships
which gives the countryside its boundless diversity and
its endless fascination, and it is the analysis of these
patterns that allows us to chart its evolution.The
character of the countryside depends on many things.
Geology and soils are its basic building blocks,
6
Throughout history, farmers and landowners have
been the greatest shapers of the countryside, gradually
clearing the forests and setting out the land. When
populations expanded, they extended farming into
areas normally considered as marginal and even
reclaimed land from the sea. When populations
were in decline, they abandoned prime farmland and
allowed it to revert to semi-natural form. Much of
this activity has been cyclical and highly dependent
on economic trends in agriculture and investment
by landlords. For example, our chalk and limestone
downlands, extensively cultivated in prehistory, were
12 This modern farm at Bosigran in
13 Padbury, Buckinghamshire, in
14 Padbury, Buckinghamshire, in
Zennor, west Cornwall, uses the
intricate pattern of 2,000-year-old
fields first established by farmers
living in the courtyard house
settlement set among the smallest
fields (centre top).
Photograph Cornwall County Council
1953, with well preserved medieval
ridge and furrow under grassland,
hedges and field trees. Photograph
Ministry of Defence
2003, where intensification has led
to the destruction of archaeological
remains, loss of character and a
decline in biodiversity. Photograph
English Heritage
13
turned to grassland as medieval landlords turned to
intensive wool production. In modern times, the
downlands have been reverted to arable cultivation,
a process that has swept away most of the evidence
for earlier farming systems. Similarly, the great medieval
open fields of the Midlands, that were put to grass and
hedged or walled through the Enclosure Acts, have
been largely returned to arable cultivation, with few
traces surviving of our ancestors’ strip farming.
Our most valuable habitats were also created by
farmers and are, therefore, historic features in their
own right. Some, such as woodpasture, were the result
of careful and delicate management to maximise the
returns from medieval grazing land. Others, such as
heathland, resulted from long-term over-exploitation
of poor soils by prehistoric farmers.
14
Today, farming continues to be the most significant
process shaping the landscape but, after decades of
intensification, its emphasis is changing. Increasingly,
farmers are concerned with maintaining the quality of
the landscape and conserving its environmental assets
– including the historic features which themselves chart
the fundamental influence of farmers on the landscape.
7
15
16
17
18
Paintings by Judith Dodie, English Heritage
8
15 A view of the English
16 By AD 200, the Bronze Age
17 By AD 1600, the Roman farm
18 The scene today, some 6,000
countryside around 2000 BC.
By the Bronze Age, the land had
already been farmed for some
2,000 years and much of the
natural woodland had been cleared.
A disused Neolithic long barrow is
a landmark on the sky-line.
settlement has been replaced by
a Roman farmstead, although many
of its fields remain in use. A hilltop
fort, built to protect grain stores
in the Iron Age, was already
abandoned before the Romans
arrived.
and its Saxon successor lie buried
beneath the medieval cultivation
ridges, now down to grass.The
ancient long barrow, burial mounds,
hillfort and some prehistoric fields
are still visible features in the
landscape.
years after farming started.
19th-century enclosed fields overlie
the medieval and earlier landscape.
Prehistoric remains are still visible in
the grassland, but arable cultivation
has eroded other ancient remains.
A ‘SEAMLESS’ LANDSCAPE
In the past, archaeologists were often concerned
with understanding single historic sites of the distant
past: evidence from prehistory, the Romans or the
medieval period. More recently, they have attempted
to understand the development and meaning of the
landscape as a whole. With this has come an increasing
interest in modern features, including those from
the Industrial Revolution, the World Wars and later.
The study of history and archaeology has become
better integrated. It is now generally accepted
that ‘archaeology starts yesterday’ and that even
comparatively recent features have a significant
story to tell.
It has also been recognised that buildings, ruins, buried
archaeological sites, traditional boundaries, the creation
of parks and field patterns, and isolated finds are all
varied types of evidence for the same process of
landscape development and change. Buildings are
abandoned and become ruins.These eventually decline
until they are no more than undulations in the ground.
Subsequent ploughing levels the undulations until only
buried features survive, visible as marks in the soil or
in the growing crop. Sometimes only scattered finds
remain, and subsequent abandonment of farmland
may conceal even these subtle traces as woodland
re-encroaches on former fields or as flooding cloaks
them in layers of silt.
are important because they provide dramatic timedepth in the landscape, linking us to our earliest
ancestors. As 99% of our history pre-dates written
records, those sites are the repository for most of
the story of humankind.
Despite these different values, all remains – buildings,
archaeological sites and landscape features – are
important in interpreting the past. It is the totality
of our historic landscapes that gives the best picture,
with each type of evidence providing different, but
essential, information.
Our increasing understanding of landscape
development is based on the recognition that, if we
want to look after this heritage effectively, we need to
manage it both at the landscape and at the site-specific
scale. In the following sections, the various types of
historic feature and their management requirements
are considered, starting with the landscape as a whole,
then focussing on individual archaeological sites and
buildings. Although each has its own particular
management requirements – and very often its own
legal framework – it is important not to lose sight of
the fact that the features combine to form a single
historic narrative in which the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts.
These different types of historic site are valued by
society for different reasons. Historic boundaries,
parklands, fieldscapes and ancient trees are valued
because they are fundamental to the character of the
present-day landscape and provide important wildlife
habitats. Historic buildings are appreciated because
they too are prominent contributors to landscape
character, have capacity for re-use and retain
considerable economic value. Archaeological sites
9
HISTORIC LANDSCAPE CHARACTER
Landscape character is the quality that makes one tract
of countryside readily distinguishable from any other.
Although society may value some landscapes more
highly than others, it is important to recognise that
every part of the countryside has its own character,
defined by a distinctive pattern of attributes that occur
consistently.These include physical aspects, such as
geology, soils and vegetation, and human aspects, such
as land use, settlement pattern, and historical and
cultural influences. In recent years, a great deal of
effort has been put into mapping, analysing and
describing landscape character – a process known as
characterisation.The purpose of this work is to aid
our understanding of the development and
importance of our surroundings.
Characterisation is not a form of designation. It does
not impose specific constraints on land or require the
issuing of permissions. Instead, it is a tool designed to
guide decisions on where development is most
appropriate and where beneficial management can
help to conserve or strengthen the defining character
of the landscape.
There are two complementary national approaches to
understanding the character of the countryside that
form an essential background for anyone investigating
the historic aspects of landscape.The Countryside
Character approach – developed by the Countryside
Agency working with English Nature and English
Heritage – forms the starting point.This provides a
national character map of 159 Countryside Character
Areas which, in turn, give the context for more local
Landscape Character Assessment.
Although historic elements are an important element
of Landscape Character Assessment, Historic
Landscape Characterisation is a more specific tool
developed by English Heritage to provide a more
detailed understanding of the historic dimension of
landscape character. The programme to complete
Historic Landscape Characterisation nationally is being
carried out in collaboration with local authorities
across England, on a county-by-county basis. It provides
a fine-grained analysis of the historic attributes of the
landscape at a level of detail that allows us to better
understand how our ancestors helped to shape the
countryside, and it complements the site-specific
information held in local authority Historic
Environment Records (see page 31).
10
The characterisation process uses archaeological
techniques, supported by studies of aerial photographs,
historic documents and maps, to identify and describe
the time-depth visible in the present-day landscape.
Computerised Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
are used to assign areas with similar characteristics to
a range of historic landscape types.These types may
be based on the shape of fields, the combination of
boundary patterns and surviving woodland, a dominant
industrial process or other factors that explain its
origin and place in the development of the landscape.
The process also takes account of previous phases
of land-use, which are now superseded but can be
charted from old maps and archaeological evidence,
and indicates whether their influence is still detectable
or influential today.
Historic Landscape Characterisation provides a picture
of the whole landscape, no matter how much of it may
be recent or modern, building up a comprehensive
picture of the sequence of changes that contributes
to present character. Although it is a picture of the
present-day landscape, it identifies areas that have
experienced the greatest and least change over time,
pinpointing the survival of aspects that may need
special care to conserve familiar and valued qualities.
For example, it can show the origin and survival of
enclosure patterns, former parkland or common land,
and the historic distribution of woodland: all features
which are among the most distinctive components
of the historic landscape.
Management issues: The Countryside Agency jointly with
Scottish Natural Heritage has published guidance on
how to carry out landscape character assessments. This
guidance and other useful information is available on the
Countryside Agency website at www.countryside.org.uk by
following links to the Living Landscape and Countryside
Character. More detailed information on Historic
Landscape Characterisation is provided on the English
Heritage website at www.english-heritage.org.uk/
characterisation.
The results of each completed Historic Landscape
Characterisation study are normally held by local authority
Historic Environment Records. It should be possible to
make an appointment to see the characterisation details
of any farm and its surroundings. The implications of this
data, however, will normally already be included in any
advice that local authority historic environment staff offer
to farmers or farm advisers or provide as part of the
targeting process for agri-environment schemes.
The illustrations below show the degree of landscape change to South Heath, Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire. Historic maps
on the left are used to create classifications and landscape types seen in the interpretative GIS-based maps on the right, which
show the changes and alterations to landscape through time.
19 Ordnance Survey 2” Surveyor’s
21 Ordnance Survey 1st edition
Drawings 1811. © British Library
6” map 1878. © Sitescope Limited
20 HLC map showing the
22 HLC map showing how the
interpretation of the common
heath (in yellow), surrounded by
irregular shaped ancient enclosures
(purple) and woodland (green).
Image Buckinghamshire County
Council Licence No. 076481 2004
common has been transformed into
regular fields (pale blue areas) by the
parliamentary enclosure act in the
19th century. However, the ancient
fields and woodland still remain
largely unchanged and unaltered.
Image Buckinghamshire. County
Council Licence No. 076481 2004
23 Landline data 2003. Crown
copyright. All rights reserved. Image
Buckinghamshire County Council
Licence No. 076481 2003
24 HLC map highlighting the
influence of the 20th century
on the landscape, showing how
modern settlement has encroached
upon fields created by the
parliamentary enclosure act,
while some of the surrounding
19
20
21
22
23
24
enclosures show some degree
of boundary loss (yellow
enclosures) probably as the result
of modern farming methods.
The ancient wood and enclosures
still remain unchanged. Image
Buckinghamshire County Council
Licence No. 076481 2004
11
FIELD PATTERNS AND FIELD BOUNDARIES
During the thousands of years over which the English
landscape has been farmed, each generation has used
its own techniques and customs to win produce from
the land. In the passage of time, Bronze Age fields
have been subsumed within medieval field systems that
have in turn been reorganised by private enclosure or
Act of Parliament; these later enclosures have been
amalgamated and modified to suit mechanised farming.
This has not been a uniform process of change.
In some places, the earliest field patterns survive as
earthworks, abandoned as climate or population
changes forced once-productive land into rough
pasture, heathland or moor.These earthworks can now
appear as patterns of banks or terraces (lynchets) cut
into the hillside.Traces of medieval and earlier land
tenure are to be found everywhere.They survive in
the irregular boundaries of fields, farms and parishes,
formed by piecemeal clearance of woodland.They
appear in the long curving boundaries created by
medieval ploughing; in the sinuous boundaries of
medieval woods, parks, commons and greens; in the
network of surviving ‘green lanes’; and in the more
regular boundaries of the earliest planned field systems.
Boundaries are not the only important characteristic
of the landscape. Across the Midlands and other parts
of the country, a dramatic change from open arable
production to enclosed grazing land, mainly in the 15th
and 16th century, resulted in the conversion to pasture
of vast areas of communally farmed land. Much of this
farmed land had been cultivated in long narrow strips,
with each villager responsible for widely scattered
holdings in order to share the various qualities of
soil and aspect.This custom had produced an open
landscape, looking rather like a huge patchwork
quilt. Enclosure brought an end to this way of life,
depopulating many villages and leaving grassed-over
plough ridges and furrows inhabited only by sheep.
The evocative remains of these great fields, often
radiating from the earthwork traces of abandoned
villages, once stretched mile upon mile across
wide areas but are vanishing.The return to arable
production in the 19th century and since World War II
has destroyed as much as 95% of the ridge and furrow
in the East Midlands. Recent survey shows that
surviving areas are still being lost.
12
25 Lynchets surviving within the
26 Earthworks at Marston Trussell
enclosed medieval field system,
Bakewell, Derbyshire. Photograph
Peak District National Park
in Northamptonshire show the
site of lost houses, garden plots,
roadways and strip-farmed fields
from the medieval period.
NMR 21459-30 © English
Heritage.NMR
25
26
Management issues: Ancient field systems are among
the most vulnerable of archaeological remains. Surviving
earthworks traces are now comparatively rare and are
particularly valuable where they survive over several fields
or in association with the earthworks of contemporary
settlements. Because they are so extensive, they are often
undesignated, despite their importance. These remains can
survive in improved as well as unimproved pasture and
both can be of equal historical importance. In arable
areas, although boundaries with important hedges are
protected by law, equally significant boundaries marked
by poor hedges or simply ditches remain vulnerable to
removal as fields and farms are enlarged.
27 This species-rich hedge at Acton
28 A veteran tree.
in Suffolk, mentioned as an ‘old
hedge’ in an Anglo-Saxon charter of
AD 1000, includes blackthorn, elm,
dogwood, hawthorn, field maple,
wild plum and wild rose.
Photograph Suffolk County Council
Photograph Defra
27
ANCIENT TREES
Individual trees, including ancient examples sometimes
known as veteran trees, are also a key feature of the
historic landscape, where they survive on commons, in
hedges, in wood pasture and coppiced woodland, and
isolated in fields. In the past, these trees were essential
providers of fodder, firewood and building material.
They were often used to mark property or field
boundaries, and scattered lines of field trees may show
the location of a long-lost hedgerow.Today, as well as
being important for wildlife, trees remain significant
landmarks, are valued as historic and locally distinctive
features, and are venerated as part of the local culture.
It is estimated that approximately 80% of northern
Europe’s ancient trees are in the UK.
Management issues: Many ancient trees surviving
on agricultural land or in field boundaries are under
threat. Losses of veteran trees are particularly serious.
Threats include ploughing around and under the trees,
intensive grazing in parkland, undergrazing of wood
pasture, bracken control, competing woody regeneration,
lack of succession planting and lapsed management
such as pollarding.
28
For advice on the management of ancient trees on
farmland, see the Woodland Trust and the Ancient
Tree Forum leaflet Farming and ancient trees or English
Nature’s Veteran Trees: A guide to good management
at www.english-nature.org.uk.
13
DESIGNED LANDSCAPES
In the Middle Ages, parks were created by aristocrats
for deer hunting and in time were laid out around
most country houses. Idealised landscapes were
created, adorned with lakes, avenues of trees, garden
temples and follies.These parks were often added to
or radically remodelled by successive owners.Today,
landscape parks are a quintessential part of the English
countryside, considered to be one of our most
significant contributions to European culture. Over
1,600 parks and gardens are registered as being of
special historic interest. In addition, lowland wood
pasture and parkland is one of the UK Biodiversity
Action Plan priority habitats. Because of their grassland
and woodpasture management, parks often preserve
earlier archaeological remains. Historic breed lines
are still associated with some parks, as part of the
management of these special places.
Management issues: During the 20th century, rising
labour costs led to the decline of many country houses
and their parks. Parkland became fragmented and was
often turned over to agriculture. Today, many parks remain
vulnerable to development, change and decay. They are
threatened by a lack of resources for their upkeep and
by management detrimental to their character. They are
particularly vulnerable to conversion to golf courses,
deterioration of their buildings or conversion to more
intensive agricultural use.
The management of historic parkland is a complex issue
involving pasture, trees, woodlands, buildings, structures
and views. Even well-intentioned activity, such as tree
planting, can undermine the historic design if it is carried
out without an understanding of the significance of the
site. The first step in aiming for the better protection
and management of registered historic parks should be
to produce a conservation and management plan.
Because of the complex character of designed
landscapes, production of these plans goes beyond the
basic requirements of good environmental and agricultural
practice, and specialist professional input is required. Defra
or English Heritage can advise on the drawing up of plans
and may provide grant-aid for their preparation.
Further advice for farmers and land managers on
managing parkland is provided in the leaflet Farming
the historic landscape: Caring for historic parks available
from English Heritage – www.english-heritage.org.uk/
farmadvice – and on the Historic Environment –
Local Management website at www.helm.org.uk.
14
29 The remains of a Norman
30 Parkland often preserves the
castle survive in the park at Knepp
Castle Estate. An agri-environment
scheme has delivered improved
management and public access.
Photograph Defra
remains of earlier landscapes.
Baggrave Park in Leicestershire
contains the earthwork remains of
a medieval village and its open fields.
NMR 21967-18 © English
Heritage.NMR
29
30
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
If attitudes towards the natural environment can be turned round so radically in just
one generation, why shouldn’t we be able to do something similar for archaeology?
Tony Robinson, New Statesman, December 2003
Archaeological sites survive in a number of forms.
Some are visible as undulations in the ground, some
have been ploughed flat but survive below cultivation
level and others are deeply buried below hill wash or
river valley silts.The value of all these types of site lies
in the story they can tell.
This story can be most clearly understood by
means of archaeological excavation.This is an expensive
process, however, that ultimately destroys some of our
irreplaceable historic evidence. As technology improves,
archaeologists are becoming more adept at gaining
information through surveys rather than excavation
or through very carefully targeted digs.There is also
agreement among archaeologists that excavation
should be restricted to sites that are unavoidably
threatened with destruction, as a result of development
for example, or that will answer particularly important
questions. Other sites should be carefully managed and
held in trust for future generations.
The quality of the information a site can provide when
it is eventually excavated depends on the complex
inter-relationship of different deposits – layers of
building materials, demolition debris, dumped rubbish
or evidence of burning – and the wide variety of finds
they contain. Our entire understanding of a site
can depend on knowing whether a coin or pottery
fragment lies under, in, or above a particular thin layer
of soil.The uncontrolled removal or mixing of these
deposits and finds is like ripping pages from a book:
the more pages we lose the harder it is to understand
the story. Some types of site, such as settlements or
burial grounds, have extremely complex arrangements
of finds and deposits and are more vulnerable to
disturbance than more extensive remains, such as
water meadow or ridge and furrow earthworks.
Nevertheless, all archaeological sites are damaged
by ground disturbance, whether from digging,
development, cultivation, erosion, root growth or
animal burrowing, and they should be managed to
avoid or reduce this disturbance.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN GRASSLAND,
MOORLAND AND HEATHLAND
Generally, the best-preserved archaeological sites
are situated in grasslands, upland moor or lowland
heath, because they have not been subject to modern
ploughing. Here, ancient features often survive as
humps and bumps in the ground or as surviving drystone structures, generally referred to as earthworks.
Earthworks can be single discrete features representing
a single phase of activity, such as prehistoric burial
mounds, but many are part of extensive survivals
reflecting several successive periods of history.
These can include entire settlements and their
surrounding field-systems.
Earthwork sites are often valued more than equivalent
sites in cultivated land because they can be partially
interpreted through surveys, without the need
for excavation, and because they provide better
evidence when they are dug than equivalent sites
on cultivated land.
Management issues: Earthworks and other monuments
tend to survive best in unimproved permanent grazing
land, which will often be important for its wildlife and
landscape values, and good management can be
beneficial to all these interests. Important earthworks can
also survive in improved pasture with negligible nature
conservation value. Here, the composition of the sward is
not an essential factor in conserving the archaeological
importance of the site, and fertility levels can continue to
be enhanced by the application of fertilisers or manure. If
archaeologically significant pasture needs to be improved
by means other than fertilisers or spraying, ground
disturbance should be minimised and direct drilling or slot
seeding should be used rather than ploughing. Although
sites in grassland are generally well preserved, they can be
seriously damaged by erosion around access routes or by
stock. They can also be disturbed by the growth of roots or
rhizomes, and their visual amenity can be lost through the
spread of scrub, bracken or agricultural weeds.
15
The maintenance of appropriate stocking levels (to avoid
undergrazing or overgrazing), scrub management and the
timely management of erosion problems are essential for
the continued conservation and public appreciation of
historic earthworks.
Problems are also caused by the activities of burrowing
animals. Rabbits on archaeological sites should be
controlled and preferably eliminated. If badgers are
causing disturbance, advice on management should be
sought from the appropriate organisations. For scheduled
monuments, this will be English Heritage in the first
instance who will, in turn, consult with English Nature.
For all other sites, Defra’s Rural Development Service
should be contacted.
Moorland and heathland often have extensive areas
of well-preserved historic landscapes. The main
management need for these historical landscapes is
the conservation of the traditional surface vegetation
through correct stocking levels to avoid erosion and control
scrub and bracken growth. On heather moors, periodic
controlled burning or cutting is needed to prevent major
fires removing the peat layers that protect archaeological
sites and heat-damaging above-ground remains.
31 Earthworks survive well on
unploughed chalk downland, such
as this prehistoric field system and
hillfort on the Marlborough Downs,
Wiltshire. NMR 15833-26 © Crown
copyright.NMR
32 Damage to the ramparts of Old
Church Roman Fort, near Carlisle,
31
32
Detailed advice for farmers and land managers on
managing archaeological sites in grassland, moorland
and heathland is provided in the leaflet Farming
the historic landscape: Caring for archaeological sites
in grassland available from English Heritage –
www.english-heritage.org.uk/farmadvice – and on
the Historic Environment – Local Management
website at www.helm.org.uk.
33
16
caused by gathering of livestock at
a water trough. Photograph Neil
Rimmington
33 Damage to earthworks forming
part of Hadrian’s Wall caused by
the creation and partial collapse
of a badger sett. Photograph Neil
Rimmington
34 ‘Red Hills’, the remains of
35 Foxley Farm, Eynsham,
Roman period salt working, visible
as soil marks on cultivated land,
south of the Crouch estuary,
Canewdon, Essex. Photograph Essex
County Council
Oxfordshire. Exceptional conditions
in 1995 revealed a landscape of
prehistoric burial sites as cropmarks
in wheat (top, as green marks) and
barley (bottom, more yellow
ripened crops). NMR 15291-14
© Crown copyright.NMR
34
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES ON ARABLE LAND
Many thousands of archaeological sites are situated on
land used for cultivation of cereal or root crops and
are subject to the inevitable ground disturbance caused
by tillage. Although these sites will have been damaged
in the past, and many may be suffering harm now, the
impact of cultivation is often partial and gradual.
Consequently, many sites on arable land still have high
archaeological potential and would benefit from action
to halt or minimise the impact of ploughing.
The evidence for these sites can take a number of
forms. Despite cultivation, some sites can survive as
low earthworks if they have been shallow ploughed
very occasionally. Where earthworks no longer survive,
sites can often still be detected as soil marks and find
scatters visible when cultivating fields or in the sides
of ditches as they are cleaned. Sites of buildings can
appear as areas of stone and mortar, rubbish dumps as
dark patches, and workshops as areas burned red or
blackened by charcoal.These sites can be associated
with scatters of objects such as burned flints, pottery,
brick or, more rarely, metal objects such as coins.
35
What lies under a growing crop will affect its
performance, especially as it ripens. Old ditches and
pits often retain more moisture than the surrounding
soil and old walls and floors less, affecting the height,
rate of ripening and colouration of crops. As a result,
archaeological sites invisible in the soil can still be
detected as crop marks.These can be accurately
plotted from aerial photographs and, like complexes
of earthworks, can be partially interpreted without
the need for excavation.
Some buried sites are sealed below layers of silt on
flood plains or below hill-wash at the bases of slopes
and provide no surface indications. In contrast with
sites visible as crop or soil marks, which may be
suffering continuing damage from cultivation, these
hidden sites are often excellently preserved and of
considerable importance.
17
Management issues: As the general rule for protecting
archaeological sites is to avoid ground disturbance
wherever possible, managing historic sites on arable
holdings is a major challenge. The increasing weight and
power of farm machines and the repetitive effects of
cultivation gradually take their toll. On arable holdings,
the main sources of damage to archaeological sites are
caused by:
36 Roman mosaics damaged by
38 Furrows scored through a
ploughing at Dinnington, Somerset.
Photograph Somerset County Council
rare late Iron Age burial at West
Heslerton in the Vale of Pickering
show damage caused by a single
planting and cropping of potatoes.
Photograph Dominic Powlesland
37 Two Neolithic long barrows
surviving as grass-covered ‘islands’
in a cereal field in the Test Valley,
Hampshire. NMR 15717-07
© Crown copyright.NMR
36
• Ploughing areas not previously used for cultivation.
This causes the most serious damage, because sites
in these areas are usually the best preserved. It also
begins the process of removing the visible traces of a
site which would allow it to be understood and enjoyed.
• Encroachment on ‘island’ sites in cultivated fields.
Many sites, particularly burial mounds, survive as
isolated grassy islands in arable fields. The
archaeological value of these sites remains high
but gradual encroachment of ploughing into the
uncultivated area will cause serious damage to the
site as well as spoiling its appearance.
• Continued ‘same depth’ cultivation.
In some circumstances, continued cultivation to the
same depth can also cause gradual damage where
soil cover is being compacted or eroded, reducing the
depth of the protective layer of plough soil. The use of
heavier farm machinery, particularly in wet weather,
can cause serious soil compaction, and sites on slopes
are particularly vulnerable to erosion.
• Deeper penetration of the ground.
Implements that penetrate the ground more deeply
than normal, such as de-stoners, sub-soilers and
mole ploughs, will cause serious new damage to
archaeological layers lying just below normal plough
depth. The use of heavier farm machinery is resulting
in more frequent use of sub-soiling to counteract
soil compaction.
In cases where cultivation is damaging a significant
archaeological site, the most effective management
response is to suspend cultivation and establish an
appropriately grazed or even mown grass sward. In many
cases, however, the establishment of grassland is not a
feasible option in terms of farm management. In these
cases, consideration should be given to reducing the
impact of cultivation by adopting minimum cultivation
techniques such as direct drilling, by reducing the depth
or frequency of conventional cultivation, and by avoiding
the use of machinery such as power harrows.
18
37
38
The effectiveness of these different approaches will
depend on factors such as field topography, soil depth and
crop type, and specialist advice should be sought before
adopting a new cultivation regime. Sub-soiling, pan-busting
and the planting of root crops, such as potatoes or sugar
beet, that need deeper cultivations, should be avoided on
sensitive archaeological sites.
Frequently, farmers do not believe their cultivation
operations are damaging underlying remains because they
believe them to be more deeply buried than is actually
the case or because they believe ‘same depth’ ploughing
will cause no deterioration. Simple measures to reduce
compaction or prevent erosion can be beneficial in cases
where archaeological sites continue to be cultivated, and
particular attention should be paid to avoiding the use of
machinery in poor ground conditions.
Where archaeological sites survive as isolated in-field
monuments under grass cover, a generous uncultivated
margin should be retained around visible earthworks, to
avoid damage from gradual encroachment by ploughing.
In some cases, such as the burial mound cemeteries of
southern England, important archaeological remains can
survive between the upstanding monuments. The areas
between these mounds should, therefore, be taken out of
cultivation wherever possible. Similarly, monuments at the
edges of fields should be removed from cultivation, where
practicable, by incorporating them in margins retained for
wildlife purposes. In all cases, where sites are managed as
ungrazed grass, this should be cut periodically to prevent
the growth of damaging scrub and weeds.
To prevent accidental damage, contractors employed to
undertake cultivation should always be informed about
the location of sensitive sites.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN WETLANDS
Wetland areas include peat mires, river valleys,
upland peats and other areas where there are, or
have been, waterlogged conditions. Waterlogged
deposits can preserve fragile sites and artefacts,
including wooden objects and structures, such as
trackways, and organic material, such as pollen and
plant remains. Study of such remains can show both
the natural variation in species distribution and tree
cover over long periods of time and the impact of
human communities, as forests were cleared and
crops planted in the surrounding landscape.
Management issues: Wetlands are very vulnerable to
changes in water levels and water quality, both of which
can lead to decay and loss of fragile organic remains. This
can happen very gradually, so drained wetlands, which
may have low nature conservation value, can still be
important for the historic environment. Sites and artefacts
in wetlands often remain undetected until disturbed, and
care is needed in the management of all wetlands to
ensure that damage does not occur.
To protect the historic environment of wetlands,
waterlogged conditions should be maintained throughout
the year, there should be no ground disturbance and
changes in drainage regimes should be reviewed carefully
to assess any potential damage. The Code of Good
Agricultural Practice for Soil should be followed to
prevent the loss of vulnerable peat soils by wind erosion.
Measures for nature conservation on wetlands will
normally protect the buried archaeological remains.
More detailed advice for farmers and land managers
on managing archaeological sites in cultivated land is
provided by the leaflet Farming the historic landscape:
Caring for archaeological sites on arable land available
from English Heritage – www.english-heritage.org.uk/
farmadvice – and on the Historic Environment –
Local Management website at www.helm.org.uk.
19
39 Wooden remains from the
40 Many water features are man-
Abbot’s Way, Glastonbury an early
example of road construction.
Photograph Somerset Levels
Project and Somerset County
Museums Service
made, such as this decoy pond for
hunting wildfowl at Porlock Bay,
Somerset. NMR 15650-32
© Crown copyright.NMR
39
HISTORIC WATER FEATURES
Many of the water features in our countryside are
artificial or are natural features manipulated by humans.
These include medieval moats and fish ponds, ponds
created to power mills or workshops during the
Industrial Revolution, garden and parkland features,
and agricultural improvements such as water meadows.
Many of these features are valuable for nature
conservation, and, because they are waterlogged, they
often preserve archaeological and environmental
evidence extremely well.
Management issues: Unless managed properly, these
features can dry out, reducing their visual amenity and
their archaeological potential. Wherever possible they
should be managed to prevent drying out. Because
historic water features may contain important historic
material, however, they should never be dredged without
taking specialist archaeological advice.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN WOODLAND
Woodlands in England contain a wealth of
archaeological remains.These often belong to
landscapes that pre-date ancient or historic woodland
and recent planting. Many features survive particularly
well because they have not been damaged by
cultivation. Remains may also include features such
as woodbanks, enclosures and charcoal-burning sites
that relate to the original management of the
woodland itself, or later features such as industrial or
military remains. Older or ‘veteran’ trees are often
important historic features.
40
20
Management issues: Although sites often survive well
in historic woodland, many other sites have been
damaged by the ground preparation and drainage
methods adopted by modern forestry plantations.
Even in historic woodlands or those established with
minimal ground preparation, tree roots can disturb
archaeological remains and thinning and felling operations
can cause damage. As a result, woodland is generally
regarded as a less benign land cover for archaeological
remains than permanent pasture, but it may be more
beneficial than long-term regular cultivation.
41 Trees growing on a Bronze Age
42 A park pale, Hampshire.
barrow at Sheldon, Derbyshire.
Tree roots can cause disturbance
to archaeological deposits, and the
possibility of wind-throw during
gales adds to the risk of serious
damage. Photograph Kate Fearn,
English Heritage
Photograph P Crow,
Forestry Commission
43 A charcoal platform,
Gloucestershire.
Photograph P Crow,
Forestry Commission
41
If trees are to be grown in archaeologically sensitive areas,
archaeological advice should be sought. Generally, where
tree planting on archaeological sites is acceptable, care
should be taken to avoid archaeological earthworks, and
planting should be restricted to ‘notch planting’ individual
whips, with guards or in tubes if appropriate.
42
If plantations have been established on archaeological
sites, any growth of scrub, weed trees or the burrowing of
animals should be controlled. Trees should be managed
to avoid wind-blow, as this can cause serious damage to
archaeological layers by pulling up a large root-plate.
When trees are thinned or felled, care should be taken to
avoid scarring earthworks by machinery or by dragging
timber out. In some circumstances, the use of horses or
specialised machinery is required to prevent damage.
Scrub should be cut to the ground and all stumps left to
rot. Any burning of brash or scrub should normally take
place away from archaeological sites.
As archaeological remains in woodland are often
difficult to see when large-scale forestry works are
taking place, operations should be informed wherever
possible by prior archaeological survey.
Additional guidance on managing archaeological sites in
woodland is available in the Forestry Commission
leaflet Forests and Archaeology: Guidelines.
43
21
HISTORIC BUILDINGS AND RUINOUS STRUCTURES
Farm buildings are the leitmotif of the countryside. It seems appropriate to describe
them with a musical term for they are thematic, and the resonance of their forms,
colours and textures within the scenery is that of sound, overall and orchestrated.
Here and there is the solo instrument, spectacular in its own right, but much more
important is the orchestral effect. Gillian Darley, The National Trust Book of the Farm, 1981
THE CHARACTER OF HISTORIC BUILDINGS
Historic buildings, whether intact or ruinous, make a
fundamental contribution to the character of the
present-day landscape.The structures situated on
farmland can range in date and type from ruined
medieval chapels and parkland follies to 1940s
pillboxes, although the majority are farm buildings
of traditional design. In some landscapes, such as
the Yorkshire Dales, traditional farm buildings are
numerous and dominate the landscape. In other areas,
their contribution is more subtle but still important
in establishing local identity and sense of place.They
provide unparalleled evidence, through their siting in
village, hamlet or open countryside, for the long history
of settlement in the English landscape and, through
their scale, use of materials and layout, they illustrate
the diversity of local and regional variations in geology,
building tradition and farming practice.
The position of modern farmsteads in the landscape is
also a strong contributor to its historic character. Many
modern steadings are located on the sites of medieval
or even earlier farmsteads, particularly where
settlement is dispersed in the landscape, such as in
mid Devon. Here, farmsteads tend to be isolated or
clustered together in hamlets and are often still
surrounded by surviving patterns of ancient field
boundaries. Where settlement is more nucleated, such
as large parts of the Midlands, many farmsteads are
often sited in villages, even though their contemporary
open fields have been enclosed and their scattered
strip holdings consolidated. In areas of major
agricultural improvement since the mid-18th century,
particularly in a line stretching from the east Midlands
to the great estates of Northumberland, farmsteads
tend to be more isolated within the new agricultural
landscape of straight roads and large regular fields.
22
The diversity of form and scale in farm steadings and
buildings relates directly to developments in local
farming practice. Although many functions – shelter
for the farming family, their implements, the harvested
crop, animals and their feed and manure – were
common to most farmsteads,their layout and scale was
subject to a considerable degree of local variation.
In the wood pasture landscapes of the Kentish Weald
or the moorlands of west Cornwall, for example,
individual farm buildings tend to be small-scale and
highly dispersed; on the fells of Cumbria, they are set
out in strong linear groupings; and in those areas
where progressive landlords established extensive
arable-based farms, they are typically highly integrated
in planned layouts.
The form and plan of the traditional threshing barn –
with bays providing storage for the crop flanking a
floor where it could be threshed and winnowed –
remained comparatively unaltered between the 12th
and early-19th century. On the large arable holdings of
southern and eastern England, they tend to be large
structures typically belonging to complexes of 19thcentury shelter sheds and stock housing that surround
cattle yards. Stable blocks and cartshed ranges are
typically earlier and larger here than in cattle rearing or
dairying areas. In these pastoral landscapes, barns tend
to be much smaller, and distinctive types of buildings,
such as the multi-functional bank barns common in
Cumbria, developed in response to the demands of
increasingly specialised farming practices.
Management issues: Many thousands of traditional
buildings are still in active use on farms, even if they no
longer serve their original purpose. For example, many
threshing barns made redundant by mechanisation over a
hundred years ago have subsequently been adapted for
general storage or for housing grain driers, livestock or
farm vehicles.
44 Farm set within a landscape
45 Field barns in Langstrothdale,
46 A group of traditional farm
enclosed by walls at the village of
Wardlow, Peak District, Derbyshire.
Photograph Peak District National Park
originally used to overwinter cattle.
While the regular pattern of stone
walls belongs to an enclosure
landscape, earthworks and building
platforms surrounding the barns hint
at earlier land use. Photograph Robert
White,Yorkshire Dales National Park
buildings in Herefordshire, ranging
in date from the 17th to the 19th
century and displaying strongly
regional traditions in the use of
timber frame, weatherboarding
and brick. England displays a huge
diversity in geology, displaying a
greater variety in small areas than
anywhere else in Europe.This has
contributed to great contrasts
and variety in traditional building
construction. Photograph Mike
Williams, English Heritage
44
Wherever practicable, in the face of major changes to
agriculture, the most appropriate use for traditional
farm buildings in terms of their historic and landscape
significance is to keep them in active agricultural use.
Where no active agricultural use can be found for these
buildings, they still have a great potential to contribute
to the future of the farm by providing space for farm or
non-farm businesses.
45
46
Whichever approach is adopted, it is important to
ensure that buildings are well maintained if their historic
importance and economic potential is to be safeguarded
for the future. Farmers should therefore be encouraged
to carry out regular maintenance of traditional buildings
even if they have comparatively limited use on the farm.
A little regular effort to keep buildings watertight can
reduce the need for expensive repairs at a later date.
If a building has a roof, its future will be best assured
if this covering is maintained; if there are gutters and
down-pipes, these should be kept clear and working.
If a building’s roof timbers are exposed and start to
rot, collapse of the roof and rapid degeneration of the
remaining fabric of the building will soon follow. Any smallscale works necessary to keep buildings in good repair
should always be carried out in a sensitive way, using
appropriate materials and techniques. Slate and thatched
roofs should be patched or over-thatched wherever
possible. If they are beyond repair and cannot be
immediately replaced on a like-for-like basis, farmers
should be encouraged to consider temporary ‘holding
repairs’ to roofs, using materials such as corrugated iron,
or even plastic sheeting.
If a building is undergoing structural failure, it may require
more extensive repairs based on a specialist conservation
plan. Where repairs require extensive interventions in the
fabric of a historically significant building, a programme of
archaeological recording may also be necessary. Expert
advice on repairs and recording should always be
obtained before work is carried out and can often be
provided by the Local Authority Building Conservation
Officers. Repair grants may be available from Defra,
English Heritage or local authorities.
23
The suitability of traditional buildings for conversion to
alternative use depends on a number of factors, including
the impact of any conversion proposals on the historic
character of the building and its setting. Listed farm
buildings are designated as being nationally important
and have been selected according to strict criteria.
However, buildings are also considered to be important
historically and in terms of local character and
distinctiveness. Planning controls over conversion therefore
extend to unlisted as well as listed buildings.
47 A combined granary and
48 Urban expansion led to this
cartshed in Suffolk, dating from
the early -18th century, an early
example of a common farm
building type. Photograph Mike
Williams, English Heritage
Grade II listed 17th-century barn
being surrounded by a housing
estate. Its sensitive conversion
to community use involved
minimal alteration to the historic
building. Photograph Hampshire
County Council
47
For farm buildings of the utmost historical significance –
generally those scheduled as ancient monuments or listed
at grade l or ll* – conversion to alternative uses is unlikely
to be acceptable, even where continued agricultural use is
no longer practicable. Financial assistance is available to
keep these buildings well-maintained and in good repair.
In the majority of cases, however, where continued
agricultural or related low-key use is no longer practicable,
sensitive re-use of farm buildings is generally the most
effective means of ensuring their continued survival and
retaining their contribution to landscape character.
Change of use of any traditional farm building requires
planning permission. The acceptability of conversion
proposals is determined according to local planning
policy which generally takes into account the historical
significance, character, layout and location of buildings,
and their contribution to the landscape. Generally, those
conversions which require minimal intervention in the
historic fabric or character of a building are likely to be far
more acceptable than those which require large numbers
of new external openings, break up internal spaces, or
introduce ‘hard landscaping’ and external clutter. Before
the adaptive re-use of any significant historic buildings,
it will normally be necessary to undertake a programme
of archaeological recording. Farmers considering the
conversion of traditional farm buildings should always be
encouraged to check whether the building is listed and to
discuss their proposals at an early stage with the local
planning authority; many authorities publish guidance
notes on farm building conversions.
If farmers are proposing to demolish a traditional building,
they should first be encouraged to consider whether the
building is historically significant and has any form of legal
protection, whether financial assistance may be available
to assist with its maintenance and repair, and whether it
could make a valuable contribution to the farm business
in the future.
24
48
Historic structures, whether intact or ruinous, can have
important nature conservation value for rare plant or
animal species. This should always be taken into account
when works are proposed.
More detailed management advice on farm buildings is
provided by the leaflet Farming the historic environment:
Caring for farm buildings available from English Heritage
– www.english-heritage.org.uk/farmadvice – and on
the Historic Environment – Local Management website
at www.helm.org.uk. Further general information on
traditional farm buildings is available on the English
Heritage website.
49 Decay of surviving visible
50 World War II defences such as
masonry of Kirkstead Abbey in
Lincolnshire has been exacerbated
by stock rubbing against the ruin.
The problem has now been solved
by fencing funded under an agrienvironment scheme. Photograph
Kate Fearn, English Heritage
this pill box at Pawlett Hill,
Somerset, are now part of our
heritage and need to be conserved.
Photograph Roger C Thomas,
English Heritage
49
RUINOUS STRUCTURES
Many historic structures, including traditional farm
buildings, have already passed the point-of-no-return
as a viable building and are now in a ruinous state.
Despite this, many of these structures are still of great
historical importance, either in their own right or as
part of larger archaeological landscapes, and many
are extremely vulnerable to damage caused by stock,
scrub growth or weathering.
In some areas, such as the Yorkshire Dales or the
Cornish tin-ore mining fields, ruined structures are
a dominant feature in the landscape and their
conservation is an important factor in maintaining
its character. Elsewhere, isolated ruins make a more
subtle contribution but are highly valued by local
communities and visitors to the countryside.
Management issues: Where ruins are valued in historic
or landscape terms, consideration should be given to
stabilising them to prevent further deterioration and to
ensure they will not endanger visitors. Remains of buildings
in materials such as timber and cob are generally difficult
to conserve as unroofed structures, so most conservation
work on ruins relates to drystone, masonry, brick and
concrete structures.
50
The techniques used for conserving ruins differ considerably
from those applied to roofed or substantially intact
buildings. Specialist advice, in the first instance from local
authority historic environment advisers, should always be
sought before works are undertaken. The main aim of
conservation is to protect the exposed tops of walls and
broken wall ends to prevent water penetrating the historic
fabric, either by using a covering of durable lime mortar or
a turf capping. Vegetation growing from ruins, such as ivy
or saplings, should not be removed until a programme of
consolidation work is agreed, as this will often destabilise
a ruinous structure and cause further damage. However,
as an interim measure it may be advisable to cut
damaging woody stems at their base to discourage further
growth but not to pull any plant growth away from walls.
25
PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT
We must use our rural development policy to make sure that farmers farm in a
way which is environmentally friendly and which contributes to the preservation
of our landscape, which, may I say, is essentially a man-made landscape, created by
generations of farmers over hundreds of years.This landscape is as much part of
our cultural heritage as our historical cities and towns. Dr. Franz Fischler, former member
of the European Commission responsible for Agriculture and Rural Development, October 2001
The current system for protecting and managing
historic features is complex, with separate
arrangements for buildings, archaeological sites and
landscapes.These arrangements, which include
statutory designations, non-statutory designations and
procedures for dealing with important undesignated
sites, are currently being reviewed by the Government,
to make them simpler and more accessible.
Designated sites, such as scheduled monuments and
listed buildings, comprise only a small proportion,
less than 5%, of the total number of historic features
that have been recognised and catalogued. Many
undesignated buildings and sites are of considerable
importance, or will prove to be so once fully
investigated and many more sites and features remain
to be discovered. As a result, designated sites are just
the ‘tip of the iceberg’.
The Government, therefore, encourages the conservation
of both designated and undesignated sites through both
the development control system and a variety of land
management plans and grant-aid schemes.
WORLD HERITAGE SITES
Currently, there are 15 World Heritage sites in England
and a further 11 under consideration. World Heritage
Sites are designated under the terms of the 1972
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural
and Natural Heritage, overseen by UNESCO. World
Heritage Sites can vary in scale and character from
single buildings, such as Westminster Abbey, to
extensive tracts of historically significant countryside.
Stonehenge, Avebury, Hadrian’s Wall and the industrial
remains of the Derwent Valley are among the latter,
and management of the farmed landscape plays an
important part in their conservation.
26
Although designation as a World Heritage Site does
not introduce any specific new planning or land use
controls, local planning authorities can include policies
in local development frameworks to secure their
preservation.
In addition, the terms of the Convention require the
implementation of management plans for World
Heritage Sites.These plans are drawn up with wide
stakeholder involvement, and farm or land management
initiatives within World Heritage Sites should conform
to the principles established by the plan.
The locations of all World Heritage Sites can be
checked on the Multi-Agency Geographic Information
for the Countryside website at www.magic.gov.uk.
HISTORIC PARKS AND GARDENS, AND
HISTORIC BATTLEFIELDS
Designed landscapes considered to be of national
importance are included in the English Heritage Register
of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England.
National recognition of a site’s historic interest depends
on the age of its main layout and features, its rarity as an
example of historic landscape and design, and the quality
of the landscaping. Parks and gardens that remain
undesignated are also often important and interesting,
and some local authorities compile their own register of
these locally important landscapes.
There are currently over 1,600 sites included on
the Register, divided into three grades according to
their historic interest. All landscaping dating from before
1750 is likely to be included. Later parkland
development is grouped into five periods (1750 to
1820, 1820 to 1880, 1880 to 1939, and post-World
War II) and intact and representative sites from each of
51 Most of our historic battlefields
– such as Flodden Field in
Northumberland – are managed by
farmers. Photograph English Heritage
51
these periods are eligible for inclusion, as well as sites
by known designers or sites associated with an
important person or event.
The main purpose of the Register is to highlight the
features and qualities that make those landscapes
special in order to safeguard them when routine
management or proposed development could affect
them. Although inclusion in the Register does not
confer specific statutory controls to protect parks and
gardens, local authorities consider their importance
when determining planning applications.
English Heritage also maintains a Register of Historic
Battlefields that identifies 43 of the country’s most
significant landscapes where armed conflict took place.
Each of these battles is judged to have been of special
military or political significance in the nation’s history.
Many, such as Hastings (1066), Bosworth (1485),
Naseby (1645) and Sedgemoor (1685), are well
known. In each case, the Register defines the main
area of fighting and includes topographical and other
features of interest, in order to preserve the general
character of the battlefield and protect it from
inappropriate development.
Grant-aid may be available for the restoration or
management of historic landscapes, either through
English Heritage or through Defra’s agri-environment
schemes.The starting point for any restoration scheme
should be a conservation management plan based
on a specialist analysis of the site’s significance.The
locations of registered parks, gardens and battlefields
can now be checked on the Multi-Agency Geographic
Information for the Countryside website at
www.magic.gov.uk.
SCHEDULED MONUMENTS
Under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological
Areas Act 1979, certain archaeological sites defined as
monuments can be designated (or scheduled) if they
are of national importance. Scheduled monuments
reflect the great diversity of archaeological sites, ranging
from buried prehistoric settlements to World War II
defensive structures.The majority of scheduled sites
are comparatively limited in extent, often containing a
single archaeological feature such as a burial mound,
although others do encompass larger features, such
as field systems. Generally, however, scheduling is
unsuited to the protection of whole landscapes
because of the very stringent controls it imposes, and,
as a consequence, many extensive nationally important
sites are not scheduled.
The scheduling of ancient monuments in England
is an ongoing process, because not all known sites
have been checked and new sites continue to be
discovered. Currently there are nearly 20,000
scheduled monuments in England, and English Heritage
continues to makes recommendations for further
designations wherever appropriate.
Once a site is scheduled, anyone wishing to do work
likely to affect the monument must obtain Scheduled
Monument Consent (SMC) in writing from the
Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport, before
commencing. When applications for consent are made,
the Secretary of State takes advice from English
Heritage and may then give consent for the work
(usually attaching conditions to it) or refuse consent
with the opportunity for a public hearing.
Scheduling cultivated sites does not necessarily mean
that cultivation has to stop, and there are many
protected sites on which ploughing continues. Where
a site has been regularly cultivated in the past, a special
‘class consent’ may apply which permits continued
cultivation in the normal manner without the need for
a specific SMC application. Apart from these normal
cultivations, a specific consent is required for the
following: to change land use from pasture to arable;
27
to plough up pasture to renew grass; to carry out
deeper than normal cultivations; to subsoil or improve
drainage; or to plant or grub up trees and shrubs.
More details are provided in the leaflet Scheduled
Monuments: A guide for owners and occupiers available
from English Heritage at www.english-heritage.org.uk/
scheduledmonumentadvice. Because the laws relating
to scheduled monuments and cultivation are very
complex, land managers should always be encouraged
to seek advice from English Heritage if they are
uncertain about the legal position relating to
scheduled monuments on their land.
The locations of scheduled monuments can now be
checked on the Multi-Agency Geographic Information
for the Countryside website at www.magic.gov.uk.
ISOLATED HISTORIC FINDS, METAL
DETECTING AND TREASURE
Many archaeological sites remain to be discovered in
England. Land managers, can play an important role
in helping archaeologists by reporting interesting finds
located on their land.These isolated archaeological
finds can be of considerable importance to
archaeologists, either because of intrinsic interest
or because they help to locate unknown sites.
Discoveries can be made when the ground is
disturbed, for example, in cutting or cleaning drainage
ditches or on the surface of cultivated fields,
particularly once the seedbed has weathered. When
discoveries are made during farming operations, it
should be remembered that additional digging could
damage archaeological remains and that guidance
should be sought from a qualified archaeologist
before the ground is disturbed further.
Many discoveries are now made with the use of metal
detectors. If they are used responsibly, and finds are
recorded, metal-detecting has the potential to provide
valuable information about the historic environment.
However, to avoid damage to archaeological sites,
metal-detecting should only take place on ground
(and within a depth) that has already been disturbed.
Metal-detecting is most useful as part of a carefully
planned archaeological research project.
28
It is a criminal offence to use a metal detector on a
scheduled monument without written permission from
English Heritage. Permission is also required from
Defra to use metal detectors on known archaeological
sites on land holdings entered into the Countryside
Stewardship or Higher Level Environmental
Stewardship schemes (see page 33).
There are specific legal requirements for dealing with
finds classified as treasure under the terms of the
Treasure Act 1996, whether they are located by a
metal detector or not.The definition of treasure is
complex (see www.finds.org.uk) but relates mainly
to metal objects, coins and material found with them.
Anyone finding treasure has a legal obligation to
inform a coroner within 14 days of the discovery or
realisation that a find might be treasure. A full code
of practice for dealing with finds of treasure can be
consulted at: www.finds.org.uk/background/
treasure.asp.
To improve arrangements for recording discoveries of
archaeological objects, including treasure, a voluntary
reporting scheme – the Portable Antiquities Scheme –
has been established to record archaeological objects
found by members of the public, through a series of
locally-based Finds Liaison Officers.
Any land manager who is concerned about the use
of metal detectors on his land should be advised to
consult the local Finds Liaison Officer or staff at the local
Historic Environment Record (see pages 33 and 31).
HISTORIC BUILDINGS AND THE LAW
Under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation
Areas) Act 1990, the Secretary of State for Culture
Media and Sport has a statutory duty to compile lists
of buildings of special architectural or historic interest.
These lists are essentially registers of England’s most
important buildings, although not all the items on the
lists need to be beautiful or attractive. Some are
included purely for their historical value.
There are about 440,000 list entries that cover about
500,000 individual buildings, as some list entries cover
several buildings. Listed buildings are classified in grades
to show their relative importance.The most important
are Grades I and II* buildings, which comprise around
8% of list entries.The remainder are listed at Grade ll.
Most buildings on the statutory list were selected
during a national survey programme, which was
completed in the 1990s. However, other nationally
important buildings have yet to be identified.
Sometimes it is necessary to list individual buildings
which were overlooked during the original survey
or where new information has come to light
subsequently. These are known as ‘spot-listings’.
Age and rarity are important considerations in
selecting buildings for listing.The older a building is,
and the fewer the surviving examples of its kind, the
more likely it is to have historical importance. All
buildings built before 1700, which survive in anything
like their original condition, are listed; and most
buildings built from 1700 to 1840. Because of the
greatly increased number of buildings built after
1840 and the large numbers that have survived,
greater selection is necessary; only buildings of quality
and character are listed. Even greater selectivity is
exercised for later buildings.
The fact that a building is listed does not necessarily
mean that it must be preserved intact for all time.The
purpose of listing is to ensure that care will be taken
over decisions affecting its future, that any alterations
respect the particular character and interest of the
building, and that the case for its preservation is taken
fully into account in considering the merits of any
redevelopment proposals. It is important to be aware
that listing controls extend to any buildings erected prior
to 1948 that are situated within the curtilage of a listed
building. In the case of farmsteads, this could include
ancillary farm buildings around a listed farmhouse.
If it is proposed to demolish a listed building, or to
alter or extend it in a way that affects its character as
a building of special architectural or historic interest, an
application must be made for ‘listed building consent’
from the local planning authority, in addition to any
planning permission needed. Under section 9 of the
Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas)
Act 1990, it is a criminal offence to demolish, alter
or extend a listed building without consent, and the
penalties for this can be heavy. Even relatively minor
works, such as painting, may affect the character of a
listed building, and advice should always be sought as
early as possible from the local planning authority on
whether listed building consent is required.
CONSERVATION AREAS
A Conservation Area is ‘an area of special architectural
or historic interest, the character or appearance
of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance.’
Conservation Areas are normally centred on historic
settlements, so many villages and market towns include
Conservation Areas but comparatively few areas of
open countryside are designated.
Designation of an area as a Conservation Area will
influence the way in which the local planning authority
deals with planning applications that may affect the
area. Within Conservation Areas, applications for
planning permission or Conservation Area consent
may be required for certain types of work not
normally needing consent elsewhere.These controls
extend to unlisted as well as listed structures, and may
be required, for example, for the erection of fences, or
alterations to windows or doors. Other features that
contribute to the character of the Conservation Area,
such as trees, may also be protected.
Local planning authorities can advise on the location
of Conservation Areas and the implications of
development within them.
HEDGEROW REGULATIONS AND TREE
PRESERVATION ORDERS
Many historic hedgerows are protected by the
Hedgerows Regulations 1997. Under the regulations,
it is against the law to remove or destroy certain
countryside hedgerows without permission. Before a
hedge is removed, the local planning authority must
be notified and will advise on the importance of the
hedgerow in terms of its wildlife or heritage. If the
hedgerow is identified as important, permission for
removal will be refused, unless the local authority
agrees that there are over-riding reasons to grant it.
In areas where Historic Landscape Characterisation
has been undertaken, it will define the diversity of
local and regional boundary patterns and attribute
likely dates to types of field layout.This characterisation
provides a context for individual hedges, so that
decisions about which hedges should be protected
under the regulations can be taken on the basis of
their historic as well as nature conservation value.
29
Characterisation exercises carried out to date have
generally assigned pre-medieval dates to more hedges
than would previously have been suspected.
A Tree Preservation Order (TPO) is an order made by
a local planning authority which in general makes it an
offence to cut down, top, lop, uproot, wilfully damage
or wilfully destroy a tree without the planning
authority’s permission.
Further information on the Hedgerow Regulations
can be obtained from The Hedgerows Regulations
1997 – A Guide to the Law and Good Practice on
www.defra.gov.uk by selecting wildlife and countryside.
An advice note on Tree Preservation Orders is
available on www.odpm.gov.uk by selecting urban
policy > cleaner, safer, greener communities > trees
and hedges.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
FOR UNCULTIVATED LAND AND SEMINATURAL AREAS
The Environmental Impact Assessment procedure for
uncultivated land and semi-natural areas helps land
managers and others to consider the environmental
effects of changing the way they use their land.
The presence of scheduled monuments, registered
landscapes or battlefields, and other archaeological
or historic features is included in the criteria for
deciding whether particular changes are likely to
have a sufficient environmental or landscape effect
on uncultivated or semi-natural land to warrant an
Environmental Statement.The EIA regulations are
complex, and farmers are advised to consult Defra
guidance available at www.defra.gov.uk/environ/eia
or to contact the freephone EIA helpline on
0800 028 2140.
30
CROSS-COMPLIANCE CONDITIONS
As a condition of receiving the new Single Payments,
land managers are required to meet a series of
standards, known as cross compliance, part of which
is to maintain their land in Good Agricultural and
Environmental Condition. Land owners must not
remove stone field boundaries and must also
follow the terms of the Ancient Monuments and
Archaeological Areas Act 1979.These include not
damaging Scheduled Monuments and seeking
Scheduled Monument Consent for any operations
which might cause disturbance to the remains.
ACCESS
The scheduling, listing, and registration of historic sites
and buildings, inclusion within a local authority Historic
Environment Record, or inscription as a World
Heritage Site do not automatically grant the public any
right of access. Where sites fall within land designated
as open countryside or common land under the
Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, however,
then public access will be permitted, but on foot only.
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act also gives
owners the opportunity to voluntarily dedicate
additional land for public access.
In either case, it is important to ensure that access
does not lead to damage or the deterioration of
sites. In most circumstances, any problems can be
overcome by careful management of access, but the
Act does include provisions to limit access where
damage is occurring.
The Countryside Agency has produced statutory
guidance on the restrictions system for relevant
authorities, which includes a number of ‘criteria sets’
for dealing with particular types of activities.This
guidance can be found at www.openaccess.gov.uk/
wps/portal.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION, ADVICE AND ASSISTANCE
One of the primary reasons so much of the British landscape is so unutterably
lovely and timeless is that most farmers, for whatever reason, take the trouble
to keep it that way. It certainly has very little to do with money.
Bill Bryson, Notes from a Small Island, 1995
MAGIC
The locations of World Heritage Sites, scheduled
monuments, registered parks and gardens and
registered battlefields can be viewed on the MultiAgency Geographic Information for the Countryside
(MAGIC) website, alongside other types of statutory
environmental designation.The locations of listed
buildings will also be made available on this website
in the future. Please note that this site does not
include undesignated or locally designated historic
sites, which comprise the majority of historic features.
Those sites are recorded in local authority Historic
Environment Records.
The MAGIC website can be viewed at
www.magic.gov.uk.
HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT RECORDS
Historic Environment Records are local authority-based
public services for anyone interested in the
archaeology, built heritage and history of an area.
They are used by local authorities to provide advice
on conservation of the historic environment as part
of land management schemes or in response to
development proposals, and they have an important
role to play in public education.
These records were previously known as Sites and
Monuments Records, but their name has changed to
reflect the wider scope of the data they now contain.
The original data was based on the Ordnance Survey
archaeological record of sites depicted on maps.
This systematic field observation was subsequently
enhanced by local discoveries and reviews of published
information of all kinds, including academic reports,
journals and statutory notifications such as scheduling
and listing descriptions. Initially, the records were
maintained using card indexes and annotated maps,
but the introduction of computerised databases and
Geographic Information Systems has revolutionised
the way these records are stored and used.
There are over 100 Historic Environment Records
in England.These are based mainly in county councils
but also in joint local authority services, district councils,
unitary authorities, and national parks authorities as
well as some major land owners such as the
National Trust.
Most Historic Environment Records maintain three
types of record dealing with monuments: individual
historic sites, records of investigative and fieldwork
events, and detailed archives. An increasing number also
include an analysis of Historic Landscape Character
which is used to inform the development control and
management advice they offer.
A list with contact details including email addresses
for every Historic Environment Record in England
is available at the English Heritage website
www.english-heritage.org.uk/SMR by selecting
SMR Address List.
HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT
COUNTRYSIDE ADVISERS
Successful integration of the historic environment
within rural development initiatives requires the
provision of professional advice to scheme applicants,
Defra and farm advisory services. Local authority
historic environment services play a central role in
providing this advice.To enable better integration of the
heritage in rural development schemes, English Heritage
has assisted a number of local authorities with the
establishment of Historic Environment Countryside
Adviser posts.These advisers are developing best
31
practice for managing archaeological sites, traditional
buildings and historic landscapes in the countryside.
A full list of the local authorities providing this enhanced
advisory service is available on the English Heritage
website at www.english-heritage.org.uk/countryside.
52 Local Authority Historic
53 Example of local authority
Environment Records comprise
computerised databases together
with mapped and documentary
sources. Image Hampshire
County Council
guidance produced for traditional
buildings. Image Lake District
National Park
52
HISTORIC BUILDINGS
CONSERVATION OFFICERS
Advice on the conservation, repair and sympathetic
re-use of historic buildings can be obtained from local
authority historic buildings Conservation Officers or
their equivalent, who are generally located in the
planning department of local planning authorities.
Conservation Officers hold information on listed and
other important historic buildings and on Conservation
Areas. As well as advising on repairs to historic
buildings, they can offer guidance on accommodating
modern requirements, such as the Building Regulations,
within historic buildings without compromising their
special interest, and on development in Conservation
Areas.They may also be able to provide advice on
grant-aid and suitable local contractors for repair work.
Farmers considering the conversion of traditional
buildings on their land should therefore always be
encouraged to discuss proposals with the local
planning authority’s Conservation Officer at an early
stage, to ensure that their plans are likely to obtain
planning permission, Listed Building Consent or
Conservation Area Consent. Many planning
departments also provide useful advice notes on
building conservation and re-use.
ENGLISH HERITAGE
English Heritage Field Monument Wardens periodically
seek permission to visit scheduled sites in order to
check on their condition.They are also available to
provide on-site management advice to farmers and
farm advisers on the management of these sites.
English Heritage staff are also able to provides advice
on the management of Grade I and Il* buildings and
registered landscapes. Appropriate advisers can be
contacted at English Heritage’s regional offices or
through local authority advisory staff.
32
53
A list of English Heritage regional offices is available
on the English Heritage website at www.englishheritage.org.uk by selecting Contact Us.
FARMING AND WILDLIFE ADVISORY GROUP
Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG) Advisers
work closely with Local Authority Archaeologists
and are able to offer practical on-farm advice on
the integration of all aspects of farm conservation
management. A list of regional offices is available on
the FWAG website at www.fwag.org.uk.
PORTABLE ANTIQUITIES SCHEME
FINDS LIAISON OFFICERS
Since 1997, the Department for Culture, Media and
Sport and the Heritage Lottery Fund have been
supporting the Portable Antiquities Scheme, a voluntary
scheme for the recording of archaeological objects
found by members of the public, through a series of
locally-based Finds Liaison Officers.These Officers are
able to provide advice on archaeological finds, the
Treasure Act and issues relating to metal-detecting.
Any farmers finding archaeological objects on their land
should be encouraged to contact their local Finds
Liaison Officer or Historic Environment Record. A full
list of Liaison Officers is provided on the Portable
Antiquities Scheme website at www.finds.org.uk.
DEFRA
Defra offers grants through the England Rural
Development Programme (ERDP) for maintenance and
protection of the rural environment. ERDP schemes
are administered through the Rural Development
Service which offers technical expertise to agreement
holders and advice to applicants.
You can find details of your local Defra office in your
local telephone directory or on the Defra website
at www.defra.gov.uk by selecting Contact Defra.
DEFRA AGRI-ENVIRONMENT SCHEMES
Defra administers a number of agri-environment
schemes which provide incentives for land managers to
enhance the environmental management of their land.
The scheme objectives are to protect and conserve
historic features and landscapes, sustain the beauty of
our farmed land, maintain, improve and extend wildlife
habitats; create new opportunities for recreation; and
protect and enhance soil and water quality.
The schemes provide land managers with agreements
that encompass a variety of management activities.
Such agreements are voluntary and last for five or
ten years after which the agreement can be renewed.
The new agri-environmental scheme Environmental
Stewardship to be launched in 2005 will have three
elements: Entry Level Stewardship, Organic Entry
Level Stewardship and Higher Level Stewardship.
Environmental features on the holding will be assessed
as part of the entry requirements of the scheme, with
a more detailed assessment being required for Higher
Level than for Entry Level Stewardship.
Entry Level Stewardship, which will be available to
all land managers, aims to encourage a large number
of farmers across a wide area to deliver simple yet
effective environmental management. Organic Entry
Level Stewardship is similar, but exists for land that is
fully organic but not necessarily receiving Organic Farm
Scheme Conversion aid. Higher Level Stewardship
offers a larger variety of land management options
which are more demanding than those of the Entry
Level Stewardship but which also offers an increased
level of environmental benefits. Higher Level
Stewardship is targeted nationally and regionally to
address specific environmental issues. Applicants for
the scheme must also be in the Entry Level
Stewardship in order to qualify.
There are a large number of management options
available to land managers, including:
• maintenance and restoration of boundaries
• maintenance and enhancement of archaeological
sites under permanent grassland
• reversion of arable land to permanent grassland
or minimum cultivation where there is an
archaeological site
33
• removal of scrub from archaeological sites
• restoration of historic buildings on farms.
Annual payments for these options are calculated as
compensation for the income lost as a result of
adopting the measures. Capital works, such as the
restoration of buildings and boundaries, are usually
paid either at a standard rate or as a percentage
of the total cost.
Avoidance of damage to historic features across the
entire holding is a requirement of the scheme, even if
they are not specifically entered into the scheme.
More details of the scheme as a whole are available
from Defra at www.defra.gov.uk by selecting rural
affairs/ERDP/schemes introduction. More detailed
advice on the application of Entry Level Environmental
Stewardship to the historic environment is provided
in the leaflet Farming the historic landscape: Entry Level
Environmental Stewardship available from Defra or
English Heritage and on the Historic Environment –
Local Management website at www.helm.org.uk.
THE RURAL ENTERPRISE SCHEME
The Rural Enterprise Scheme provides targeted
assistance to support the development of more
sustainable farming, diversified and enterprising rural
economies and communities.The scheme is open to
farmers, other rural businesses and rural communities,
but applicants must be non-public sector organisations.
Alongside projects to promote farm diversification,
the Scheme can also contribute to the renovation
and development of villages, the protection and
conservation of the rural heritage and the
encouragement of tourist and craft activities.
The Scheme offers funding for sensitive renovation
and adaptation of traditional rural buildings to new
commercial use, such as farm tourism or off-farm
activities. It can also fund conversion of former farm
buildings and village-located farm buildings to new
community and environmental uses.
34
GRANTS FOR HISTORIC BUILDINGS,
MONUMENTS AND DESIGNED LANDSCAPES
English Heritage can provide grants for the repair and
management of scheduled monuments and historic
parks and gardens. It can also fund the repair of listed
buildings, including farm and estate buildings. Grant-aid
is usually targeted on urgent repairs to Grade l and ll*
buildings at risk and is generally not available for Grade
II buildings outside conservation areas. Grants for
landscapes are also generally limited to Grade I and ll*
parks and gardens.
The occupiers of farmland or woodland containing
scheduled monuments may also qualify for grants to
carry out work to protect them from damage and to
implement beneficial management actions such as
maintaining a healthy grass cover, controlling erosion
by stock, or controlling weeds, scrub and rabbits.
Grant eligible work can also include research and
analysis to determine the significance, extent and
vulnerability of a site, the preparation of drawn surveys
and management plans, and the provision of fencing
to prevent damage or vandalism. Grants may also be
made to improve site access and interpretation.
English Heritage grant-aid for the repair or
management of buildings, monuments or designed
landscapes will not normally be available where land
is eligible for or entered into an agri-environment
scheme. Grant-aid may be available, however, to
undertake survey work or the drawing up of
conservation plans necessary to assist agrienvironment scheme applications.
OTHER SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE
Other sources of grant-aid may be available for
buildings, sites and landscapes that are not eligible for
agri-environment grant-aid or English Heritage funding,
for example from local authorities. Advice on the
provision of grant-aid for historic buildings can be
obtained from the Funding For Historic Buildings
website at www.fundsforhistoricbuildings.org.uk.
JOINING IT ALL TOGETHER: WHOLE FARM PLANS
The rush to countryside management agreements demands a proper framework
of planning. Aesthetic value must be imputed to the rural landscape to ensure its
protection. Its beauty must at last be honoured, as is that of attractive townscape.
Simon Jenkins, The Times, 2 July 2003
While the conservation of historic sites is an
important objective in its own right, if heritage
projects are carefully planned they can also deliver
significant environmental, social and economic benefits.
Similarly, projects where the main objective is nature
conservation, resource protection or farm business
diversification can also provide significant benefits
for the historic environment. Projects which deliver
multiple benefits are a particularly effective way of
maximising value for money in grant-aid programmes.
54 Management work at this
55 Lesser horseshoe bat in the
scheduled medieval moat in
Hampshire has prevented it drying
out and ensured that its historic
interest and value for wildlife are
protected. Photograph Hampshire
County Council
stable block roof at Dunster
Castle, Somerset. Photograph
Phil Richardson
56 Coppicing woodland helps
conserve the site of this Norman
castle at Barley Pound, Hampshire,
and enhance its biodiversity.
Photograph English Heritage
54
Farm advisers play a central role in ensuring that these
multiple benefits are delivered wherever possible, and
they should be alert to opportunities across the entire
range of their activities. Examples include:
• Restoring historic parkland, or improving its
management, will protect species that depend on
important wood pasture habitats as well as restoring
the historic interest of the landscape.
55
• Action to prevent a medieval moat or pond drying
out can also safeguard a wildlife-friendly feature.
• Conservation of historic buildings on farmland can
provide habitats for bats and other wildlife.
• Measures to reduce soil depletion and prevent silt
run-off into surrounding water courses will help
protect to archaeological sites threatened by erosion
resulting from intensive cultivation.
• Restoring coppice woodland can help to protect
underlying archaeological features.
56
• Converting arable land to chalk or limestone
grassland for ecological and landscape purposes
could protect archaeological sites currently under
the plough if appropriately located.
• Growing thatching straw or small-scale quarrying
of stone slates will diversify farm income while
helping to conserve the character of historic
buildings and places.
35
57 Where ploughing erodes soil,
58 An agri-environment scheme
archaeology – such as this
prehistoric field system on
Cranborne Chase – will also be
damaged. Measures to protect
soil will benefit archaeology.
NMR 18460-19
© English Heritage.NMR
at Segsbury hill fort in Oxfordshire
has returned its cultivated interior
to flower-rich chalk grassland.
Photograph English Heritage
57
58
59
59 Drystone walling in the Peak
District National Park. Photograph
Sam Alston, Defra
• Rebuilding traditional stone walls or restoring
historic farm buildings will ensure that important
craft skills are maintained and the character of the
countryside is maintained.
Where occasional differences of interest do occur
between the conservation of historic, wildlife,
landscape and natural resources, effective compromises
can usually be brokered through discussion between
the various interest groups.The earlier these
discussions take place in the planning of any project
or programme the more likely they are to reach
mutually acceptable solutions. In seeking to identify
a compromise solution, consideration should always
be given to the respective importance of the
environmental resources involved, the seriousness,
scale and reversibility of any adverse effects on those
resources and the possibility of delivering similar
outcomes in different and less sensitive locations.
An important factor in securing effective integrated
outcomes and avoiding damaging differences of interest
is the preparation of audits and plans at the whole
farm scale.These should always combine information
on landscape, heritage, wildlife and natural resources
and use it to inform farm business planning.
Information on the historic environment should take
account of archaeological sites, historic buildings and
areas, and other historic landscape features. It should
also include undesignated as well as designated
features, recognising that undesignated features can
still be of regional or even national importance.
Audits and plans operate at a variety of degrees of
detail and sophistication.They range from the simple
Farm Environment Record which underpins Entry
Level Stewardship, through the more complex Farm
Environment Plan, which supports Higher Level
Stewardship applications, to dedicated Conservation
Plans for historic buildings or designed landscapes,
Heritage Management Plans for complex conditional
capital tax relief cases and World Heritage Site
Management Plans. Each serves a particular purpose
and requires differing levels of specialist input.
Local authority Historic Environment Records (HERs)
should always be consulted during the preparation of
Farm Environment Plans and more complex types of
whole farm, management or conservation plan.You
may also be advised to contact local authority Building
Conservation Officers or other specialist advisers.
Grants and advice may be available from Defra to
help with the preparation of such plans and audits.
36
FURTHER READING
Bannister, N 1996 Woodland Archaeology: Its Recognition and
Management Surrey County Council
Grenville, J (ed) 1999 Managing the Historic Rural Landscape
London: Routledge
Catherine Bickmore Associates 2002 Hedgerow Survey Handbook:
A Standard Procedure for Local Surveys in the UK Countryside
Council for Wales/Steering Group for the UK Biodiversity Action
Plan for ancient and/or species rich hedgerows
Hoskins, W G 1991 (revised edition by Christopher Taylor) The
Making of the English Landscape (First pub 1955) London: Penguin
Bowden, B (ed) 1999 Unravelling The Landscape: An Inquisitive
Approach to Archaeology London:Tempus
Clark, J, Darlington, J and Fairclough, G 2004 Using Historic
Landscape Characterisation London: English Heritage and
Lancashire County Council
The Countryside Agency and Scottish Natural Heritage 2002:
Landscape Character Assessment: Guidance for England and
Scotland (Product Code CAX 84F)
The Countryside Agency 2004 Conditional Exemption and
Heritage Management Plans: An Introduction for Owners and their
Advisers (Product Code CA203)
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, and Welsh Office
Agriculture Department 1998 Code of Good Agricultural Practice
for the Protection of Soil (Product Code PB 0617)
The National Trust 2001 Wildlife and Buildings:Technical Guidance
for Architects, Builders, Building Managers and Others
(www.nationaltrust.org.uk/wildbuildings)
Office of the Deputy Prime Minister 2002 (rev edn) A Farmers'
Guide to the Planning System (www.odpm.gov.uk > planning >
planning guidance and advice)
Portable Antiquities Scheme 1996 The Treasure Act
(www.finds.org.uk > documents > information pack >
treasurefinders)
Darley, G 1981 The National Trust Book of the Farm London:
The National Trust (ISBN: 029 7780069)
Portable Antiquities Scheme 2003 The Portable Antiquities Scheme:
Advice for Finders of Archaeological Objects (www.finds.org.uk >
documents > information pack > advice for finders)
English Heritage 2004 Scheduled Monuments: A Guide for Owners
and Occupiers (Product Code 20919)
Rackham, O 1990 (rev edn) Trees and Woodland in the British
Landscape London: Dent
English Heritage, Defra, FWAG and ALGAO 2004 Farming the
Historic Landscape: Caring for Archaeological Sites on Arable Land
(Product Code 50910)
Rackham, O 1994 The Illustrated History of the Countryside
London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
English Heritage, Defra, FWAG and ALGAO 2004 Farming the
Historic Landscape: Caring for Archaeological Sites in Grassland
(Product Code 50909)
Roberts, B K and Wrathmell, S 2002 Region and Place: A Study of
English Rural Settlement London: English Heritage
Taylor, C 1998 Parks and Gardens of Britain Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press
English Heritage, Defra, FWAG and ALGAO 2004 Farming the
Historic Landscape: Caring for Farm Buildings (Product Code
50911)
Thirsk, J (ed) 2000 Rural England: An Illustrated History of the
Landscape Oxford: Oxford University Press
English Heritage, Defra, FWAG and ALGAO 2005 Farming the
Historic Landscape: Caring for Historic Parks (Product Code
51034)
Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings and the Institute
for Historic Building Conservation 2002 A Stitch in Time (Product
Code 01)
English Heritage, FWAG and ALGAO 2005 Farming the Historic
Landscape: Entry Level Stewardship (Product Code 51033)
Wade Martins, S 1991 Historic Farm Buildings London: Batsford
English Nature 2000 Veteran Trees: A Guide to Good Management
(IN13 ISBN 1857164741)
Wade Martins, S 2004 Farmers, Landlords and Landscapes: Rural
Britain, 1720-1870 London: Windgather
Fowler, P and Blackwell, I 1998 The Land of Lettice Sweetapple. An
English Countryside Explored London:Tempus
The Woodland Trust and the Ancient Tree Forum 2004 Farming
and Ancient Trees
Wade Martins, S 1995 Farms and Fields London: Batsford
37
If the historic character of our landscape is to be
understood and enjoyed by current and future generations,
it is vitally important that farmers and other land managers
are encouraged and enabled to care for its historic
places and sites.
This booklet is designed to offer an introduction to the
historic environment for those engaged in providing
environmental or business advice to farmers. It will also
be of interest to many farmers, landowners and agents
who wish to learn more about the history of the land
they manage. It describes the process of change in the
landscape, illustrates the range of historic features located
on farmland and the legal framework that applies to
them, and it directs the reader to more extensive sources
of information. Above all, it demonstrates that the
conservation of historic features and good agricultural
practice need not conflict.
The booklet is one of a series of publications called
Farming the Historic Landscape, jointly published by
Defra, English Heritage and the Association of Local
Government Archaeological Officers, with assistance
from the Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group.
Copies of all the publications in the series are available
from the Historic Environment – Local Management
website at www.helm.org.uk.
For copies of this booklet, please contact English Heritage Customer Services
Department on 0870 333 1181 or email: [email protected]
(Product Code 50905). Copies are also available on www.englishheritage.org.uk and www.helm.org.uk. Published January 2005.