Middle Level English Language Arts (ELA)
Grade 9
A Model Inquiry Unit
Our Shared Linguistic and Cultural Roots
(Semester II)
Unit Overview
Context: Communicative
Timeline: Approximately six weeks
Each language has its unique beauty, power, and history. English is not an exception. It is one of the dominant
languages in the world and a chief means of communication among people and nations. Understanding and
being understood in English at home, in school, and in the work place are important for success. By studying
how English works, its history, and its impact on others, we can better understand our linguistic identity and
our heritage.
Understanding: English has an important place in the world family of languages and has roots that go back
thousands of years.
Possible Questions for Deeper Understanding
•
•
•
•
•
•
When, where, and how was English first used and by whom?
How does a linguist analyze and explain the English language?
How do we learn a language such as English?
How is English used by different people in different roles and occupations?
How is language affected by gender, age, ethnic heritage, and educational background?
Questions students would like to explore:
Inquiry
This unit is intended as an inquiry unit. Inquiry is prompted through questions for deeper understanding,
questions that students raise, and questions that promote disciplinary (in particular, about language in the
spirit of how a linguist would study language) understandings. Students are encouraged to generate inquiry
questions throughout the unit, to use a range of search strategies and tools to find different types of
information needed to address these questions, and to use multiple angles to find alternate solutions to these
questions.
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English Language Arts Goals and Outcomes Overview [Grade 9]
Comprehend and Respond (CR). Students will extend their abilities to view, listen to, read,
comprehend, and respond to a range of contemporary and traditional grade-level-appropriate texts
from First Nations, Métis and other cultures in a variety of forms (oral, print, and other texts) for a
variety of purposes including for learning, interest, and enjoyment.
CR9.1a View, listen to, read, comprehend, and respond to a variety of texts that address identity (e.g., The
Search for Self), social responsibility (e.g., Our Shared narratives), and efficacy (e.g., Doing the Right Thing).
CR9.1b View, listen to, read, comprehend, and respond to a variety of texts that address identity (e.g.,
Exploring Loyalty, Love, and Relationships), social responsibility (e.g., Equal Opportunity), and efficacy (e.g.,
Surviving and Conquering).
CR9.2a and CR9.2b Select and use the appropriate strategies to construct meaning before (e.g., formulating
focus questions), during (e.g., adjusting rate to the specific purpose and difficulty of the text), and after (e.g.,
analyzing and evaluating) viewing, listening, and reading.
CR9.3a and CR9.3b Use pragmatic (e.g., language suitable for intended audience), textual (e.g., author’s
thesis or argument, how author organized text to achieve unity, coherence, and effect), syntactic (e.g., parallel
structures), semantic/lexical/morphological (e.g., connotation and denotation), graphophonic (e.g., common
spellings and variants for effect or dialect), and other cues (e.g., fonts, colour) to construct and to confirm
meaning.
CR9.4a View and demonstrate comprehension and evaluation of visual and multimedia texts including
illustrations, maps, charts, graphs, pamphlets, photography, art works, video clips, and dramatizations to
glean ideas suitable for identified audience and purpose.
CR9.4b View and demonstrate comprehension of visual and multimedia texts to synthesize and summarize
ideas from multiple visual and multimedia sources.
CR9.5a Listen purposefully to understand, analyze, and evaluate oral information and ideas from a range of
texts including conversations, discussions, interviews, and speeches.
CR9.5b Listen purposefully to understand, analyze, and evaluate oral information and ideas from a range of
texts including directions and speeches, recognizing train of thought, main points, and presentation
techniques
CR9.6a and CR9.6b Read and demonstrate comprehension and interpretation of grade-level-appropriate
texts including traditional and contemporary prose fiction, poetry, and plays from First Nations, Métis, and
other cultures to develop an insightful interpretation and response.
CR9.7a and CR9.7b Read independently and demonstrate comprehension of a variety of information texts
including expository essays, historical accounts, news articles, and scientific writing.
CR9.8a and CR9.8b Read grade 9 appropriate texts to increase fluency and expression (150+wcpm orally;
215-260 wpm silently).
Compose and Create (CC). Students will extend their abilities to speak, write, and use other forms
of representation to explore and present thoughts, feelings, and experiences in a variety of forms
for a variety of purposes and audiences.
CC9.1a Create various visual, multimedia, oral, and written texts that explore identity (e.g., The Search for
Self), social responsibility (e.g., Our Shared Narratives ), and efficacy (e.g., Doing the Right Thing).
CC9.1b Create various visual, multimedia, oral, and written texts that explore identity (e.g., Exploring Loyalty,
Love, and Relationships), social responsibility (e.g., Equal Opportunity), and efficacy (e.g., Surviving and
Conquering).
CC9.2a and CC9.2b Create and present an individual researched inquiry project related to a topic, theme, or
issue studied in English language arts.
CC9.3.a and CC9.3b Select and use the appropriate strategies to communicate meaning before (e.g.,
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considering and valuing own observations, experiences, ideas, and opinions as sources for ideas), during (e.g.,
shaping and reshaping drafts with audience and purpose in mind), and after (e.g., ensuring that all parts
support the main idea or thesis) speaking, writing, and other representing activities.
CC9.4a and CC9.4b Use pragmatic (e.g., inclusive language that supports people across cultures, genders,
ages, and abilities), textual (e.g., strong leads, coherent body, and effective endings), syntactic (e.g.,
subordination to show more precisely the relationships between ideas), semantic/lexical/ morphological (e.g.,
both the denotative and connotative meaning of words), graphophonic (e.g., knowledge of spelling patterns
and rules to identify analyze, and correct spelling errors), and other cues (e.g., combine print and visuals to
enhance presentations) to construct and to communicate meaning.
CC9.5a Create and present a variety of visual and multimedia presentations to best represent message for an
intended audience and purpose.
CC9.5b Create and present a variety of visual and multimedia presentations including addressing various
audiences for one proposal
CC9.6a and CC9.6b Use oral language to interact purposeful, confidently, and appropriately in a variety of
situations including participating in one-to-one, small group, and large group discussions (e.g., prompting
and supporting others, solving problems, resolving conflicts, building consensus, articulating and explaining
personal viewpoint, discussing preferences, speaking to extend current understanding, celebrating special
events and accomplishments).
CC9.7a and CC9.7b Use oral language to intentionally to express a range of information and ideas in formal
and informal situations including dramatic readings of poems, monologues, scenes from plays, and stories
and presenting reasoned arguments of opposing viewpoints.
CC9.8a Write to describe (a profile of a character), to narrate (a narrative essay), to explain and inform (a
researched report), and to persuade (a review).
CC9.8b Write to describe (a description of a scene), to narrate (a personal essay), to explain and inform (a
multi-paragraph letter), and to persuade (a letter to the editor)
CC9.9a and CC9.9b Experiment with a variety of text forms (e.g., debates, meetings, presentations to
unfamiliar audiences, poetry, précis, short script, advice column, video documentary, comic strip) and
techniques (e.g., tone, persona, point of view, imagery, dialogue, figurative language).
Assess and Reflect on Language Abilities (AR). Students will extend their abilities to assess and reflect
on their own language skills, discuss the skills of effective viewers, representers, listeners, speakers,
readers, and writers, and set goals for future improvement.
AR9.1a and AR9.1b Assess personal strengths and needs as a viewer, listener, reader, representer, speaker,
and writer and contributions to the community of learners and develop goals based on assessment, and work
toward them.
AR9.2a and AR9.2b Assess own and others’ work for clarity, correctness, and impact.
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Suggested Resources for the Unit
Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. New York: Press Syndicate of the
University of Cambridge.
Norman Fleury et al. (2008). Stories of Our People/ Lii zistwayar di la naasyoon di Michif: A Métis Graphic Novel
Anthology . Regina, Saskatchewan: Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies, 2008).
Oxford Canadian Dictionary. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
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Outcomes
Learning Activities
Assessment and
Evaluation
Introduction
CR 9.1b and Modern English is the dominant international language in
9.5b
communications, business, science, entertainment, and
diplomacy. A working knowledge of English is required in a
number of occupations and professions, and English is one of
the six official languages of the United Nations. Because English
is so widely used, it is an important means of bringing people
and countries of the world together.
CC 9.2b
Possible Questions for Deeper Understanding:
• Where is English used and by whom?
• When, where, and how was English first used and by whom?
• How does a linguist analyze and explain the English
language?
• What other languages have influenced English?
• How is English used by different people in different roles and
occupations?
• How is language affected by gender, age, ethnic heritage, and
educational background?
• Questions students would like to explore:
Note: The Compose and Create 9.2b outcome is an important
“overall” outcome for this unit. Many opportunities for inquiry
are found throughout this unit. These are invitations to students
to explore an aspect of the English language and to engage in
genuine inquiry.
English: A World Language
Many Canadians speak and use a language that is used by a
CR 9.5b and
large proportion of the people of the world. Three hundred to
9.7b
four hundred million people use English as their first language.
Four hundred seventy million to over a billion more understand
it at least at a basic level. After Mandarin Chinese and Spanish,
English is probably the third largest language spoken. It is the
additional language most often studied in the European Union
(followed by French, German, and Spanish) and is the primary
language in the United Kingdom, United States, Australia,
Ireland, South Africa, New Zealand, and Canada.
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
Assessment and Evaluation
rubrics are found in the
curriculum for the
Comprehend and Respond,
Compose and Create, and
Assess and Reflect goals.
The Comprehend and
Respond rubrics focus on
students’ understanding of
the ideas in a text, the text
structures and features, the
response and
interpretation of the text,
and the strategies
employed before, during,
and after.
The Compose and Create
rubrics focus on the
content, the organization
and coherence, and the use
of language conventions.
The Assess and Reflect
rubrics focus on the
strategies used and their
effectiveness. An Inquiry
rubric is found in Appendix
A attached to this unit.
Whether the teacher uses
holistic or analytic rubrics,
the rubrics should be
shared with the students
and explained and
discussed before the
rubrics are used. In
addition, class, group, and
individual student
language profiles can be
created.
Possible Inquiry–Exploring English as a Global Language.
Which countries use English as the language of the majority of
the population? In which countries is English important as an
additional language? Why is English so widely used in the world
at present?
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English is the
language and
basis of the
culture
United Kingdom
Canada
Australia
New Zealand
United States
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
English is the
official language
used in
educational,
commercial, and
trade institutions
India
Kenya
Malaysia
Nigeria
Pakistan
Philippines
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
Ghana
Tanzania
Zambia
English is used in
foreign language
contexts
Do students wonder about
the sources of data? How
could they confirm the data
presented in the chart?
China
Egypt
Indonesia
Israel
Japan
Korea
Nepal
Audi Arabia
Taiwan
Russia
Zimbabwe
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Esperanto. Attempts have been
made to create international languages artificially. Esperanto is a
language invented to make international communication
possible. What might be some challenges introducing Esperanto
into world-wide use?
Review with students
where and how they might
find background resources
to begin responding to the
questions posed in the
possible inquiry questions.
The Origins and Roots Of English
CR 9.5b,
9.7b, 9.2b,
and 9.3b
English has its roots in the small island of Britain, where it
developed.
English, like most of the languages of Europe, is a member of the
Indo-European language family. Because there are not written
records of it, the origins of Indo-European are uncertain.
Linguists are certain, however, that it was the source of most of
the European languages as well as Persian and several of the
languages of India that have their roots in Sanskrit. By studying
these languages, linguists have discovered that this group of
languages shares enough common features of syntax,
vocabulary, and pronunciation to indicate that they all have
developed from the same original language. Indo-European is
divided into eight sub-families or branches, one of which is
called Germanic. English is a member of this branch. German,
Dutch, Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian also belong to the
Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages.
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
6
Possible Inquiry–Exploring what Linguistics or
Linguisticians Do. What do contemporary linguistics do? How
does a linguist analyze how the English language (or any
language) works? What theoretical frameworks guide the work
of linguistics? What are the areas of linguistic study (e.g.,
historical linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics … )?
How do we know English is
a Germanic language?
Do students understand
how languages are
studied? What and how do
linguists study?
How does one learn to
think like a linguist? Who
are the famous linguists
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CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
What can they contribute to our knowledge of language? What
effects have technological developments had on English
language study? What role does sociolinguistics play in our
understanding of language?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Indo-European Languages. How
are the words mother, brother, father, name, and three written in
the following Indo-European family languages: English, Latin,
Greek, Russian, German, Danish, French, and Italian? How do the
words suggest that the languages are related?
The following table of words for numbers from one to ten shows
the relations among the Indo-European languages. It also points
out the anomalous character of Japanese, which is not part of
the family (Source: Scientific American magazine).
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b,
and 9.7b
English
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Old
German
Ains
Twai
Hrija
Fidwor
Fimf
Saihs
Sibum
Ahtau
Niun
Taihum
Latin
unus
duo
tres
quattuor
quinque
sex
septem
octo
novem
decem
Greek
Heis
Huo
Treis
Tettares
Pente
Heks
Hepta
Okto
Ennea
Deka
Sanskrit
ekas
dva
tryas
catvaras
panca
sat
sapta
asta
nava
dasa
(present and past)?
What other examples could
be added to the table?
Japanese
hiitotsu
futatsu
mittsu
yottsu
itsutsu
muttsu
nanatsu
yattsu
kokonotsu
to
Possible Inquiry–Exploring The Origin of Language: The
question of how language began has consumed many decades
of work and study on the part of linguists. What are the popular
theories that attempt to explain the beginning of language?
How can these theories be tested? What theory is most credible
to you and why?
What is a theory? How are
theories developed? Who
are the theorists that
develop them?
English As History: Three Stages Of Development
The history of the English language is usually divided into three
periods: Old English (449 to 1150), Middle English (1150 to
1450), and Modern English (1450 to the present). The dates are
not meant to indicate any sudden changes from one period to
the next. Changes in the language occurred gradually during
each of the periods. The nature of the changes was such,
however, that at the end of each period English was quite
different from what it had been at the end of the preceding
period.
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Why do language
historians break the history
of a language into periods?
What might be the criteria
for identifying stages of a
language’s development?
7
Stage One: The Celts And The Anglo-Saxons
England was originally settled by the Celts, but in 449, the island
was invaded by people from what are now Denmark and
northern Germany. Until that point in time, most of Britain had
been under the rule of the Romans, whose legions had landed
on the island in A.D. 43 and conquered the Celts. About A.D.
400, however, the Roman armies were withdrawn because they
were needed to defend their homeland. By themselves, the Celts
could not withstand the invaders from northern Europe who
poured into Britain in increasing numbers during the last half of
the fifth century. Gradually, the Celts were pushed back into
Scotland and Wales and across the sea to Ireland, where the
Celtic language has survived as Gaelic, Welsh, and Erse.
Who were the Celts, the
Anglo-Saxons, and the
Romans?
The invaders were members of three groups: the Jutes, the
Saxons, and the Angles. From the last of these, the country got
its name, England, (Aengllaland), “the land of the Angles. ” From
the same source came the names of the language spoken by the
three, English.
In the 600 years following the coming of the Anglo-Saxons,
England experienced two more major invasions. At the end of
the eighth century, the Danish Vikings began raiding English
towns. By 850, the Danes were landing large armies, defeating
the Anglo-Saxons, and establishing settlements of their own.
The Danish invasion continued in stages until the year 1000,
with periods of peace punctuated by wars, and with control of
the country shifting first to one side then to the other. But the
periods of peace saw the intermingling and intermarriage of
Danes and Anglo-Saxons. Before any final settlement between
the two races, however, trouble came from another direction.
Thus, in the course of a thousand years, England had been
invaded by a succession of races, each speaking a different
language. One after the other, Celtic, Latin, English, Danish (also
referred to in its early form as Scandinavian or Norse) became
the main language of the country.
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
8
An Interesting Note: Researchers at Reading University in
Britain contend that “I,” “we,” “two,” “three,” and “five” are
among the oldest words in the English language and that “Fifty
per cent of the words we use today would be unrecognizable to
our ancestors living 2,500 years ago” (Globe and Mail, February
27, 2009).
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Old English. The English of this
period was quite different from the language that we know
now. Some ideas of Old English can be gathered from the
following sample. As you examine the original passage, what
things do you note about Old English?
What were the
contributions of each
group, and what influences
did each have on English?
Why are artifacts such as
Old English texts so
important in the study of
language history?
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The Lord’s Prayer
Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English
Language. New York: Press Syndicate of the University of
Cambridge p. 27.
Translation:
Our Father,
Which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come,
Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread
And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
And lead us not into temptation,
But deliver us from evil:
Amen
Note: the “p” has been replaced in Modern English by the “th.”
Which Old English words can be recognized as being similar to
Modern English? In what way does the word order of the first
line of the Old English version differ from the word order in
Modern English? Why does the word “our” appear with three
different spellings? What are the Old English words for bread
and sins?
(can recognize a number of words; some words have changed
their meaning; some words from other languages; O.E. was
highly inflected)
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
Possible Inquiry─Exploring the Vocabulary of Old English.
The succession of people that inhabited England, each with its
own language, could be expected to have left its mark on the
vocabulary of English; however, the first group with which we
are concerned, the Celts, influenced English very little. They
contributed a number of place names, including London, and
such words as crag and dun (dark coloured). Latin, on the other
hand, contributed extensively to our word-store during the first
period of the history of English. The borrowings from Latin
during the period occurred at three different times. A few Latin
words came into English through the Celts from the time of the
Roman occupation of Britain. These include mountain, port, and
–caster (camp) in such place names as Lancaster and Doncaster.
Before the Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain, they had been in
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What is inflection in
language, and how does it
work?
What evidence does a
linguist require in order to
trace the origin of a word?
9
contact with the Romans and had introduced certain Latin
words into their vocabulary at that time. Among these words
were street, wall, and mile; cheese, wine, butter, pea, and cherry;
and dish, cup, kettle, and kitchen. The greatest influence of Latin
upon Old English occurred after Christianity was introduced into
Britain in 597. As is usually the case when one language borrows
from another, the Latin words represented things and ideas
which were new to the Anglo-Saxons. Introduced at this time
were words relating to religion, such as abbot, altar, hymn,
priest, psalm, and temple; words related to education, such as
school, history, master, and verse; and words referring to
animals and plants, such as camel, tiger, cedar, pine, and lily.
Other Latin words borrowed at this time refer to clothing: cap
and sock; and to food: beet, pear, radish, and lobster.
How do these words point out the differences between the
ways in which the two groups lived?
Interesting Note: Hello is considered the most used word in the
history of the world. It is thought to derive from the Old High
German “halon” or “fetch” and may have been used to summon
a ferryman from the other side of a river. A common greeting in
Old English was “Hal beo thu” (“whole be thou”) which
ultimately gave us “hello.” Because English is spoken by many
people on Earth and because the custom in many non-Englishlanguage countries to answer the phone with a variation such as
“(h)allo”, it has become the all-time record-holder among
human utterances.
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b
and 9.7b
The Flow from Scandinavian
The civilization of the Danes was much like that of the AngloSaxons. The Scandinavian words adopted by English cannot be
grouped in the same ways that the Latin words can.
Nevertheless, Scandinavian did contribute to our vocabulary.
Words borrowed during the Old English periods include the
nouns bank, calf, dirt, egg, fellow, leg, race, sky, and window;
adjectives awkward, loose, low, odd, sly, and weak; and verbs
including call, die, get, give, lift, and take. New words also
included law, wrong, ugly, hit, and many sk words (e.g., sky,
skull, skin, skill, skirt) as well as the pronouns they, them, their.
Nearly all are words which are commonly used.
Of all the languages which were spoken in Britain during this
period, Old English left us the greatest heritage of words. And
most of these words are basic in our language today. They
enable us to identify people: man, woman, father, mother, son,
and daughter. They permit us to refer to parts of our body: eye,
ear, mouth, nose, tongue, tooth, head, arm, hand, finger, knee,
foot, toe, bone, heart, and blood. They give us the names for
common animals: cow, sheep, hog, horse, dog, hen, and goat.
They allow us to discuss the wonders of our world and universe:
10
What are the second and
third most used words in
English? What is their
origin?
How are Scandinavian
languages similar and
different from current
English?
What additional Old
English words do we use
today?
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earth, day, night, week, month, year, spring, summer, fall, winter,
rain, snow, wind, north, south, east, west, sun, moon, and star.
Old English has given us words for the basic colours and the
means to describe the basic quality of things through words
such as great, small, heavy, light, thick, thin, crooked, straight,
old, new, quick, slow, fully, and empty. Many of our commonly
used verbs–begin, buy, build, come, go, lie, run, sit, sleep, stand,
walk, and work have come down from Anglo-Saxon times.
Probably one-half of the English words most commonly used
today have their origins in Old English. And it is estimated that
nine of these words (and, be, have, it, of, the, to, will, you) make
up one-quarter of all the words that we use in speaking and
writing.
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Old English Vocabulary. Using a
dictionary, determine whether each of the following words is
derived from Old English, Latin, or Scandinavian:
Sound, child, cell, field, sister, leaf, root, good, flat, silk.
How do synonyms help
English language speakers
give different nuances or
shades of meaning?
For some words borrowed from Scandinavian, there were
already Old English words with the same meaning. In some of
these instances, the words with the same original meaning were
retained but acquired different shades of meaning. This is one
way in which English built its rich store of synonyms. Show the
difference in meaning between the words in each of the
following words by using each of the words in a sentence.
Old English
Craft
Hide
Rear
Sick
Scandinavian
Skill
Skin
Raise
Ill
Stage Two: From The Norman Invasion To The First
English Printer (Lesson 5)
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b,
and 9.7b
In 1066, William of Normandy (a province in northern France)
landed in England with an army, defeated the Anglo-Saxons at
Hastings, and became king of England. At the time of the
Norman conquest, however, English was the most firmly
established language.
What events lead to the
Norman invasion and
“conquest”? Why is the
word “conquest” still used
to describe this period in
history?
The Norman conquest was the last time that Britain was invaded
by a foreign group. As conquerors of the Anglo-Saxons and
rulers of the land, the Normans were in the position to impose
their language on the people of the country. In such a situation
as existed in Britain after 1066, it could be expected that French
would emerge as the common tongue. In fact, French did
influence English, but English survived as the language of the
country.
For over 200 years after the Norman invasion, French was the
What is the “business”
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11
business language of the country. It was the language of the
king’s court, of the law courts, of education, and of commerce. It
was spoken by the nobility, the clergy, and the merchants–by
the powerful and wealthy. Any Englishman who wanted to
improve his position had to learn French.
language of present day
English?
English, even though it was not as influential as French, was still
spoken by the majority of the people. And, in time, many of the
Norman rulers, finding it useful to deal with the common people
directly in their language, began to learn English. The words
borrowed from French during this period relate to a variety of
activities. Into English from French came many of our words
depicted in following chart:
Government
Religion
Law
Military
Clothing and
jewellery
Food
Recreation
Art
Architecture
e.g., nation, reign, power, crown, empire,
authority, court, council, public, liberty,
parliament, assembly, treaty, tax,
government
e.g., cathedral, sermon, prayer, parson,
saint, reverence, mercy, preach, pray
e.g., justice, crime, judge, jury, bail, jail,
prison, attorney, marriage
e.g., army, navy, enemy, battle, combat,
ambush, soldier, guard, spy
sable, fur, fashion, gown, lace collar,
embroidery, train, brooch, jewels,
diamonds, pearls, rubies, emeralds
mackerel, sturgeon, salmon, oysters,
roast beef, veal, salad, coffee, sugar,
cream, orange, peach, pastry, jelly, cloves,
cinnamon, nutmeg
dance, music, chess, checkers,
conversation
painting, sculpture, colour, image, poet,
prose, story, tragedy
mansion, palace, cathedral, porch,
column, arch, aisle
In fact, French words borrowed at this time have enriched our
vocabulary in nearly every activity. Into English in this period
came words such as adventure, business, city, country, courage,
cruelty, debt, fame, honour, joy, labour, opinion, order, people,
poverty, power, reason, and unit.
Why do some words gain
more “prestige” and others
less? What “power” lies in
the “prestige” words of a
language?
What impact would
understanding both of
Canada’s “official”
languages have on one’s
ability to communicate
effectively in English?
Added to the language were nearly a thousand adjectives such
as active, calm, courageous, cruel, curious, fierce, gentle, honest,
mean, poor, strange, and treacherous.
Verbs borrowed at the same time include advise, arrange,
betray, cry, destroy, inform, praise, remember, travel, and waste.
During this period, English continued to borrow from Latin as
12
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well. Some of the Latin words that entered our language then
were conspiracy, genius, index, legal, nervous, picture, private,
and summary.
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b,
and 9.7b
The greatest changes in the language occurred during the
Middle English period. Although, at the beginning of this period,
English was a highly inflected language, by the end of the
period it had lost nearly all its word endings or inflections.
Instead of inflections, word order became the key to meaning,
as it is in Modern English.
What are the key
differences between a
highly inflected language
and a word order
language?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring the Rise of French and the
Continuing Influence of Latin: Nearly one-half of the most
commonly used words in English today have come from Latin
and French. The borrowing of words from other languages has
provided English with a rich store of synonyms. Using each of
the following words in a sentence, show how the words within a
set have different shades of meaning:
Why does a broad
vocabulary give a speaker
“power”?
Old English
Fire
Ask
Time
Rise
French
Flame
Question
Age
Mount
Latin
Conflagration
Interrogate
Epoch
Ascend
From which language was each of the following words
borrowed?
Lady, prince, powder, index, metal, sing, polite, house
What is the etymology of
each word?
Below is a sample of Middle English. Why is this sample easier to
read than samples of Old English?
Rizt is, pat Inglische Inglische vnderstond,
Pat was born in Inglond;
Freynsche use pis gentilman,
Ac euerich Inglishce can.
Mani noble ich haue yseize
Pat no Freynsche coupe seye.
(from Albert C. Baugh. A History of the English Language, 2nd ed.
New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957, p. 173)
Translation: It is right that the English people understand
English, (the people) that was born in England; this (particular)
gentleman uses French, but everybody knows English. Many a
noble have I seen that could speak no French.
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13
Paired Anglo-Saxon and French Words
Old English
French
Kingly
Royal
Help
Avail
Begin
Attempt
Hide
Conceal, cover
Look
See, gaze
Sheep
Ewe
Pig
Swine
Deer
Hart
In which language register
would each of these words
be placed?
What is suggested by the shade of meaning associated with the
French words?
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b,
and 9.7b
Many of our English words come from Latin, either directly or
through French (e.g., simile, species, exit, apparatus, nucleus, via,
ego). So do many of our prefixes, suffixes, and root words:
Prefixes: ad-, ab-, ex-, inter-, con, pro-, preSuffixes: -mony, -ite, -tion
Roots:
tenere (to hold)–tenacious, tenable, tenant
dicere (to speak)–dictate, dictaphone, edict, dictionary
facere (to make)–factory, factor, manufacture
What is the status of Latin
in the world today? How
much influence has it had
on the English language?
On other languages?
The Standardization of Spelling
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b,
and 9.7b
With the growth of printing and wide adoption of the London
dialect for writing at the end of the fifteenth century, English
spelling became more and more fixed (standardized). In fact, the
spelling of many of our words has remained unaltered, even
though the pronunciation of a number of them has changed
since that time. This situation is one of the main causes of the
difficulties of modern English spelling.
Dearest creature in Creation,
Study English pronunciation,
I will teach you in my verse; Sound like corpse, corps, horse, and
worse.
I will keep you, Susy, busy,
Make your head with heat grow dizzy;
Tear in eye your dress will tear,
So shall I, oh, hear my prayer.
Just compare hear, beard and heard,
Dies and diet, lord and word,
Sword and Sward, retrain and Britain,
(mind the latter, how it’s written),
Now I will not plague you
with such words as vague and ague,
How is the “correct”
spelling of a word
determined today?
What pronunciation
problems do the following
words cause for many
Canadians: Veterinarian,
Antarctic, nuclear,
February, hors d’oeuvre,
leisure? What other words
to you find “tricky” to
pronounce?
But be careful how you speak,
Say break, steak, bleak, and streak….
14
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Stage Three: The Re-Establishment Of English
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b,
and 9.7b
After 1300, the fortunes of English began to rise. A number of
events contributed to this change in the position of the
language. One was the loss, by the Norman kings, of their
holdings in France. As a result, a national pride in England and in
English began to develop. After two centuries of Norman rule,
some of the English people began rising to higher positions.
English was beginning to be used in trade and commerce.
What influence do those in
positions of “power” have
over the status of a
language or a preferred
dialect of that language?
By the middle of the fourteenth century, English was replacing
French as the language of instruction in schools. In 1362, English
was reinstated in the law courts and in parliament. After 1350,
Chaucer, Wycliffe, and Langland were creating great works in
English. By the fifteenth century, the situation had changed so
much that even the descendants of the Normans were speaking
English as their native language.
Although English had emerged as the language of Britain, it was
not yet a single language. Rather five major dialects or
variations of English were spoken in the country. Because
London was the centre of government and trade, the London
dialect came to be considered the standard in English, at least in
writing. When, in 1476, Caxton, the first English printer, began
issuing his books in the London dialect, and thus making written
works available as they had never been before, London English
became fixed as the standard. With little basic change, it has
remained as the standard in writing, even though pronunciation
has changed.
By 1500, English had changed from a language that had used
inflectional endings extensively to one that depended upon
word order to convey meaning and was very much like Modern
English. After 1500, English developed mainly in two ways: It
continued to expand its vocabulary into one of the richest in the
world, and the language spread from its island home to many
parts of the earth. In the process, English faced yet another
challenge.
How does word order work
in present day English?
What are the key patterns
that operate in current
English?
The Challenge of Latin
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b
and 9.7b
During the first part of the Modern English period, there was a
re-awakening of interest, in Europe, in the cultures of Greece
and of Rome. In England, at this time, educated people turned
to Greek and, even more, to Latin as languages which they
believed more suitable than English for expressing the many
interesting ideas of the period. Not only were many of the great
literary and scholarly works of the period written in Latin; the
educated often used it in their private correspondence. Latin
became the basis of secondary education.
As in earlier times however, when it had faced the challenges of
other languages, English overcame its Latin competition. By the
Saskatchewan Ministry of Education | www.curriculum.gov.sk.ca
Why did Latin and Greek
have such status? What is
the status of these two
languages in schools and
colleges today?
15
end of the sixteenth century, people such as Shakespeare and
Marlowe were writing in English. English books were being
printed in thousands.
During the sixteenth century, Britain became established as a
leading sea power. British merchants and explorers sailed
around the world, setting up trading posts and claiming land for
the Crown. Settlers were sent out to the New World, and though
these first attempts often ended in disaster, the process
continued for three centuries, until a large part of the world was
under British control. These colonists took their language with
them, and imposed it, together with law, order, and taxes, upon
the original inhabitants of the colonies.
Britain, in turn, also borrowed from the world. From the First
Nations peoples of North America came words like moccasin,
Why does the English
canoe, squash, muskeg, sockeye, raccoon, toboggan. From the
language accommodate
Spanish came words like banana, bravado, mosquito, potato,
tobacco, barbecue, chocolate, guitar, and ranch. From Italy came “borrowings” so easily?
words such as piano, opera, balcony, cameo, stanza, violin, and
volcano. From the Dutch came yacht, landscape, sketch, and
dock. From India came words like bungalow, veranda, thug.
Banana, gorilla, voodoo, jazz, and zebra came from Africa.
German contributed noodles, wiener, and hamburger;
Norwegian, ski and slalom. From China came tea and ketchup;
from Japan came kimono and judo. Algebra, alcohol, and candy
came from Arabic.
English, enriched by languages through the world, serves as a
language that one-third or more of the world’s peoples can use
in common.
The Influence of Latin and Greek
CR 9.1b,
9.2b, 9.3b,
9.4b, 9.5b,
and 9.7b
The period of Latin and Greek influence left its mark on English
vocabulary. In an ordinary English letter, words of Latin or Greek
origin are about fifteen per cent of the total; in literary or
scientific work, they run up to over thirty percent.
Many of our Greek “borrowings” are scientific in nature and
some are now internationally used–botany, physical,
physiology, psychoanalysis, bacteriology. Electronics has formed
new words such as dynatron, magnetron. In theatre we talk
about comedy, tragedy, drama, episode, scene.
Greek roots:
phos or phot (light)–photograph, phosphorus
phrasis (speech)–phrase, paraphrase
tele (far)–telegraph, telescope, telegram, telepathy
peri (around)–periscope, perimeter
phono (sound)–telephone, phonograph, Dictaphone
Possible Inquiry–Exploring the Influence of Latin and Greek
on the English Language. Many words of Latin and Greek
16
Use a Latin or Greek root
word to find other words
(e.g.,
safe…safely…safeness).
How do these root words
help you comprehend and
communicate?
Saskatchewan Ministry of Education | www.curriculum.gov.sk.ca
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
origin came into English through French, but the Renaissance of
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought a new interest in
classical learning. Greek and Latin continue to be used in the
creation of new words. What role do Latin and Greek continue to
play in fields such as medicine, science, and technology?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Borrowed Words (Crusaders and
Trade Rivals): Beginning with the English military expeditions
to the Middle East in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
through to the “colonization” of North America in the 1600’s,
English spread to many parts of the world but was also
influenced by the languages of the lands. Consider the following
examples:
Persian
Arabic
Dutch
Spain
India
Modern France
Australian
German
Russian
How are the effects of
military expeditions still
influencing the English
language?
Borrowed Words
lilac, tulip, turban, paradise, azure,
shawl, orange, lemon, pyjamas,
checkmate (shah mata–“the king is
dead”)
algebra, cipher, zero, alkali, elixir,
sugar, minaret, harem, mosque,
sheik, sultan, fakir, giraffe, cotton
skipper, buoy, deck, booze, splice,
dock, yacht, pack, spool, hops, tub
mosquito, lariat, hurricane, cigar,
canyon, siesta, desperado, armada,
vanilla
nabob, sahib, bungalow, chutney,
curry
menu, café, soufflé, beret, matinee,
elite, cliche, garage, fuselage,
handar, camouflage, communique
boomerang, kangaroo, wombat
diesel, fahrenheit, zeppelin, quarts,
hinterland, wanderlust, flak, blitz,
snorkel
soviet, sputnik, pogrom, troika
What other words from other languages does English use for
phenomena that have no existing English name? Why are these
words used in English?
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
Canadianisms are words
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Canadian English. Different
that originate in Canada
English-speaking countries have developed some differences in
and are used here in a
vocabulary. What would each of the following words be called in
unique way (e.g., deke).
Canada?
What are some of the
Canadianisms that are
unique to Western Canada?
Saskatchewan Ministry of Education | www.curriculum.gov.sk.ca
17
In Britain
boot (of car)
Lift
chemist’s shop
Petrol
Sweets
Ironmongery
bonnet (of car)
Lorry
Flat
shop assistant
underground
bobby
spanner
torch
tin
In Canada
Some words and expressions in English are uniquely Canadian.
What is the meaning of each of these words?
Backchecker
Bush pilot
Coureur de bois
Mukluk
Muskeg
Oomiak
Red River cart
Sodbuster
Voyageur
Correction line
Puck
What would each of the following words be called in Canada?
CC 9.2b,
18
In the United States
shades
sofa
rubber band
whinny (horse)
faucet
porch
district (house of
representatives)
wool hat
canadian bacon
sophomore
frank
thruway
half-staff
eighteen wheeler
What vocabulary is
uniquely Canadian?
In Canada
Saskatchewan Ministry of Education | www.curriculum.gov.sk.ca
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
Possible Inquiry–Exploring the Influence of First Nations
Languages in Canada on English. Traditional First Nations
words in English are often descriptive of a geographical feature,
a notable event, shelter, the weather, plants, trees, animals,
clothing. Words such as Winnipeg (Cree, meaning “dirty water”),
Toronto (Iroquois, possibly meaning “timber on the water”),
Ottawa (Algonquin, meaning “to trade”), Wascana (Cree,
meaning “Pile of Bones”), chinook, coyote, moccasin are
examples. What other First Nations words have been borrowed
by English? Why did these words become important words for
Canadians? What is the significance of cross-language
influences?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Michif. “Sa prend lee fame di
Michif chee shoohkshichik Kispin la nation de Mechif chee
shoohkawk” (“We must have strong Métis families in order to
have a strong Métis nation.”). Who speaks Michif? How did it
originate? Why is it important to maintain it as a living
language? Explore a Michif dictionary or narratives such as
Stories of Our People/ Lii zistwayar di la naasyoon di Michif: A Métis
Graphic Novel Anthology (Norman Fleury et al.)(Gabriel Dumont
Institute of Native Studies, 2008). What are the key features of
Michif? How does it bring Cree and French together?
Why were the Métis people
referred to as “road
allowance” people?
What areas of development
are contributing the most
Possible Inquiry–Exploring New Words in English. New
new words in the English
things and new ideas create the need for new words.
Developments in this and the last century have resulted in many language? Subject labels
tell us that a word has a
additions to the vocabulary of English. For each important
discovery, new words have had to be created, or new meanings special meaning associated
with a particular area of
have had to be given to old words. The invention of the
automobile, for example, has given new meaning to words such study. What are the
as windshield, spark plug, shock absorber, universal. What words “subject labels” for
have been created have acquired new meaning in the following economics, medicine,
politics?
areas of development:
Exploration of Outer Space?
Air Transportation?
Communication Technologies (e.g., computer, television, radio,
film, telephone)?
War?
Medicine?
Politics?
New Products?
What are the “preferred”
spellings of words (e.g.,
Possible Inquiry–Exploring the Spelling of English Words.
colour) and who
Because English speakers have been borrowers from other
determines these spellings?
languages throughout history, English spelling is “notoriously
non-phonetic.” “English speakers love to test their linguistic
mettle (or is that metal, or meddle, or medal?)” (Katherine
Barber, “Wordsleuth,” L’Actualité langagière /Language Update.
June 2008, p. 18). How many ways can the syllable that sounds
like “see” be spelled in English? How many ways can you write
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19
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
20
the sound “toe”? How many sounds does English have to “k” as
in “okay”?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring English Word Order (Syntax). All
languages are structured according to some kind of system or
pattern. The English language uses specific patterns and related
conventions to communicate meaning. Syntax (the way in
which words are arranged to form phrases and sentences) is the
underlying foundation of all languages. Syntax dictates proper
word order and helps others understand what is being
communicated. What are the basic sentence structures of
English? What additions have been made to these basic
structures? How do English speakers make them more
interesting, complex, and expressive? How does punctuation
work in English sentences? What are the origins of our
punctuation marks?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring the Dictionary (Etymology).
Dictionaries answer questions about the meanings, origins
(etymology), spellings, and pronunciations of words. They give
information about forms of words, idiomatic expressions, and
usage. What is a good authoritative dictionary for Canadians?
What dictionaries give the most complete descriptions of
contemporary Canadian English? What specialized dictionaries
might be needed to support general dictionaries? How does one
establish the “meanings” and “effects” of words? What are the
“politics” of a dictionary?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Doublespeak. The word
“doublespeak” is a blend of “newspeak” and “doublethink” (used
by George Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four). It is language that is
usually deliberately ambiguous or misleading–it covers up
rather than reveals the truth. It makes the bad seem good (e.g.,
the military calls “bombing” “air support”). How is doublespeak
used in advertising, politics, media, the military, and religion?
Which examples of doublespeak would you nominate for the
annual Doublespeak Awards? Why?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring the Language of Gender, the
Workplace, and Recreation. How does language reveal values?
What words carry a bias? How has language been used to
discriminate or apparently discriminate against individuals or
groups of people? How is language used in the workplace?
Compile a list of argot (or jargon) terms from some of the
professions or trades (e.g., lawyer, musician, doctor,
longshoreman, farmer, etc.). What do these words tell us about
these professions or trades? How are argot (or jargon) terms
used in recreation?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Word Trends and Demographic
Markers. Recent findings in the field of sociolinguistics have
found that a key demographic marker is language usage. For
How many variants are
there of the basic syntax of
contemporary English?
Canadian English continues
to change and flourish.
When did Canadians first
recognize this? How do
Canadian dictionaries
reflect this?
What contemporary
examples do we have of
“doublespeak”? Who is
using it and why?
How do we overcome
language biases in our
personal lives?
What is Canadian English
“all abowt” and how is it
“always, like, changing”?
Saskatchewan Ministry of Education | www.curriculum.gov.sk.ca
9.8b
AR 9.2b
example, a University of Toronto sociolinguistics professor has
discovered that those under forty are much more likely to use
the world “like” when narrating than those over forty (Globe and
Mail, April 17, 2009). “I’m like, you must be over forty” (versus “I
said, you must be under forty). Under forties are also more likely
to use “like” (.e.g., “It’s like three blocks down the street.”), “stuff”
(e.g., “I have the stuff in my bag.”), “right” (e.g., “It’s a girl, right.”),
and “so” (e.g., “It’s so cold outside.”). What words or expressions
are your peer group using? How are they different from your
parents? Grandparents? How might this change the English
language? Are any words or expressions of another generation
being lost?
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Dialects. What happens to English
when we move to different parts of the country or world? Why is
there regional variation in speech? Why do these differences
exist? Why do some dialects sound better to us than others?
Why are some dialects valued more than others? What can we
learn from a Dialect Atlas? What role does idiolect play in
dialects? What role do pronunciation; intonation; the rhythm of
stress, pitch, and juncture; syntax; and vocabulary play in
dialect?
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
CC 9.2b,
9.3b, 9.4b,
9.5b, 9.6b,
9.7b, and
9.8b
AR 9.2b
Possible Inquiry–Exploring What is “Good” English? Robert
C. Pooley (Grammar and Usage in Textbooks on English) argued
that “Good English is that form of speech which is appropriate
to the purpose of speaker, true to the language as it is, and
comfortable to speaker and listener.” What does the general
public think is “good” English? How would a linguist define
“good” English? How is distinctly adolescent speech viewed?
How would you explain
your idolect and dialect to
someone? What are the
markers for each?
What restrictive labels mark
language?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring How Languages Differ. How is
English the same as or different from other languages? For
example, what is the same and what is different with how
people in Canada use English or French and how people in
China use Mandarin?
Possible Inquiry–Exploring Recreational Linguistics. Having
fun with language and words gives you a way to explore any
number of language topics. How can language be used to
provoke laughter, action, persuasion? How can games involving
language help to develop a sense of language? Locate resources
on wordplay and “play” with some of the ideas. What do you
notice and learn about language through these activities?
Saskatchewan Ministry of Education | www.curriculum.gov.sk.ca
21
Appendix A
Inquiry
What do I want and
need to know?
Exceeds
Expectations
Meets Expectations
(Fully)
Beginning to Meet
Expectations (minimal
to moderate)
Not Yet Within
Expectations
22
How am I going to get
there?
Initiates and executes an
original and thoughtful
inquiry by identifying
problems, questions, or
issues; explores prior
knowledge; wonders and
poses questions with
ease and interest;
considers a number of
ways to proceed.
Formulates some
questions, problems, or
issues to research; with
guidance, explores prior
knowledge and possible
approaches to finding
out.
Formulates a limited
range of questions,
problems, or issues with
help; can respond to
questions to
demonstrate knowledge
or understanding but
seldom initiates; only
probes when led through
the process.
Relies on teacher or
others to state questions,
problems, or issues or to
probe prior knowledge;
has difficulty
demonstrating
knowledge and
understanding of topic
even with assistance.
How an I going to use
what I have discovered
and learned?
Formulates questions;
Demonstrates a
summarizes personal
thorough, solid
knowledge and
understanding of the
understanding; locates,
topic or problem. Shares
analyzes, and cites
findings and conclusions
various resources and
using appropriate and
sources.
quality product or
artifact(s); reflects on and
evaluates ideas and
presentations.
Builds on personal
Demonstrates in a
knowledge and
straightforward way a
understanding;
reasonable
formulates, with some
understanding of the
guidance, sufficient
topic, problem,
questions; locates some
questions, or issue;
main resources; finds and reviews and revises
identifies most of the key product and process;
information and ideas;
communicates in a easymakes notes; cites
to-follow visual, oral, and
sources.
written format.
Initiates inquiry by
Demonstrates new
formulating some
learning in a less than
questions; locates and
complete way; is partially
uses, with direction, a few prepared, and requires
key resources; identifies
support to complete the
some of the important
task; makes some
information and ideas
attempts to review and
demonstrated.
revise product and
process.
Even with much direction
and guidance, shows
little or no interest or
initiative in answering
questions, solving
problems, or addressing
issues; does not know or
appear to care where to
begin or focus; does not
know how to use or cite
sources.
Unable to prepare or
share product or relay
ideas; needs considerable
encouragement and
support to relay ideas;
little or no evidence of
reflection or revision.
Saskatchewan Ministry of Education | www.curriculum.gov.sk.ca