An introduction to genetic engineering of agronomic crops
by
Mark Bartel
A creative component submitted to the graduate faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Major: Agronomy
Program of Study Committee:
Allan J. Ciha, Major Professor
Kenneth J. Moore
Thomas E. Loynachan
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
2016
Copyright © Mark Bartel, 2016. All rights reserved.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Topic Selection ................................................................................................................................ 1
Why a Learning Module .................................................................................................................. 2
About the Learning Module ............................................................................................................. 3
Value of the Module ........................................................................................................................ 6
Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 7
References ........................................................................................................................................ 8
1
INTRODUCTION
There are many misconceptions around genetically engineered crops that are
commonly available on the market. These crops are often referred to as GMO’s
(genetically modified organisms). The increasing demand for new products is resulting
in increasing acres of crops that are genetically engineered. These crops are currently
helping to reduce pesticide use while increasing yields on current acreages. The same
resulting characteristics may be available through traditional breeding methods, though
the introduction of genetic engineering has sped up the process of developing a targeted
product.
Genetic engineering has become more popular because of the precision of the
transformation that can occur. DNA from other organisms can be incorporated into
plants resulting in a slight change in the organism. Corn and soybean are the most
recognizable crops that have been altered. They have been engineered with resistance to
specific herbicides and/or plant incorporated protectants to avoid injury from insects.
The market has expanded in recent years from these base crops to other crops that are
often directly consumed by humans. These crops have the ability to withstand a pest,
such as an insect or virus, or enhance the nutritional characteristics.
With a greater understanding of why the crops are produced, how they are
engineered, and what the benefits of the crops are, a greater level of acceptance may be
achievable. When this technology is used appropriately, the sustainability of agricultural
systems can be increased while potentially increasing production on a shrinking amount
of tillable acres.
TOPIC SELECTION
The topic of genetically modified organisms in agriculture was selected based
upon a ballot initiative that gained traction in 2014. The voter initiative: Genetically
Engineered Organisms sought a moratorium on the planting of any genetically
engineered plant within the county of Maui, Hawaii. The initiative was targeted towards
2
seed production in the county, but also would have had further reaching affects. The
initiative passed, and is currently being challenged in a Federal appeals court awaiting a
decision.
During campaign efforts to block the initiative, I had many chances to interact
with the community and gauge their understanding of the science behind genetic
modification. There were individuals that had sincere safety concerns of a product that
they did not understand well. The majority of interactions were rather wild claims based
upon emotion rather than an understanding of the science and purpose related to
genetically modified organisms. In subsequent outreach opportunities, I have been able
to educate small audiences about the science behind genetic modification. This education
has been contrary to what they have heard through their community leaders. This topic
seemed like a good opportunity to separate the science from the emotion.
WHY A LEARNING MODULE?
I chose to do a learning module because it was a way for me to learn more about
the science of genetic engineering, and to potentially show others that science. Many
people are familiar with the end product of genetic engineering, such as herbicide
resistance, but may not know how that plant was created. Showing this process from
beginning to end, from lab to field, seemed important, so a module was created to
highlight the steps of the process. The module is intended to be an introduction to some
common industry practices. Even within the seed industry, there is not an understanding
by many of the employees. They have a strong belief in the end product, but do not
understand the steps taken to create the product. Science continues to evolve, so the
methods are always changing.
The module also allowed for the wide range of products that utilize genetic
engineering to be showcased. Products containing genetically modified material are
more common than many people think. They are in many products other than traditional
commodities, including critical medicines.
3
ABOUT THE LEARNING MODULE
The first chapter of the module focuses on what is a genetically modified
organism (GMO), or genetically engineered (GE) organism. Genetically modified
organisms have had their genetic characteristics altered (Biology Online, 2009). Two
methods of inserting the transgene are explored. Utilizing a gene gun for micro-projectile
bombardment was an early method, and using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to infect plants
is a more recent method. The different sections of the transgene are explored based upon
marker assisted technology. Marker assisted selection allows for the plants containing
the gene of interest to be selected. This is usually a marker conferring herbicide
resistance to allow for non-transformed plants to be sprayed and removed from the
population (Fenwick, 2004).
Once the transformation has been completed, the transformed tissue needs to be
grown into plants. Media designed for growth are used with the desired undifferentiated
cells in a controlled environment to promote this growth. The medium contains growth
hormones which cause the cells to differentiate to specific tissues, such as roots or shoots
(George et al., 2008). Through the process of totipotency, enough growth will eventually
occur to allow for transplanting and ultimately seed production.
The second chapter of the module focuses on why genetically engineered crops
are grown. The three main areas are to defend against pests, reduce inputs, and increase
nutritional value. An interesting subsection discusses the common goal of crop
improvement shared between traditional breeding and genetic engineering. They can
share the same end product, however, genetic engineering can allow for quicker product
development times due to the precision of the transformation rather than reliance on the
potential of the correct pollination. With traditional breeding, it is possible for more than
the desired trait to enter the hybrid during cross pollination. An example of this would be
the desired trait of disease resistance entering the genetic code while a trait for shallow
roots also enters. In traditional breeding, traits outside the trait of interest can be crossed
into the plant.
4
A common trait of genetically modified crops is a plant-incorporated protectant.
These are targeted toxins within the plant that will disrupt feeding of a specific insect pest
(University of California San Diego, 2015). Herbicide resistance is another common
trait. Resistance to an herbicide is incorporated into the plant allowing a non-selective
herbicide to be applied to the field to control weed competition.
Outside of crops, genetic engineering is also used for food production. Hard
cheese production uses transformed bovine genes to replace rennet when coagulating
milk (Etine, 2015). Medicine was an early adopter of the technology. In the 1970’s,
insulin was derived by inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria rather than
obtaining it from the pancreas of pigs, cows or sheep. More recently, the technology has
been used to create vaccines and to treat cancer (Fraley, 2015).
The third section of the module discusses the safety aspect of genetically
engineered crops. There is a stringent testing process that is regulated by the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) depending on the product. In addition to the
United States testing procedures, foreign governments also perform testing to assess the
product safety. These requirements exceed testing for genetic modifications of any other
food crop, including mutagenesis. Prior to the testing, the appropriate agency needs to be
notified to give permission for the tests to be conducted (United States Department of
Agriculture, 2015). Prior to commercial approval, it must be proven that the transformed
product is at a minimum equivalent to the non-transformed species in the areas of health
effects, allergies, stability, and nutritional properties. As of 2013, there has been over
one thousand seven hundred studies conducted related to food safety of genetically
modified products (Wendel, 2013).
The fourth section of the module pertains to the goals of current genetically
engineered products. Herbicide resistance is a long standing product, and crops continue
to be developed for a wider range of herbicide resistance (Peterson et al., 2014). The
traits for plant incorporated protectants also continue to expand. There is opportunity for
a wider range of insect control being developed with newer proteins. The incorporation
of genetics can also be added to combat viruses. Outside of the United States, there is an
5
effort to help developing countries through the use of genetic engineering. Water
Efficient Maize for Africa is working to develop drought tolerant corn to allow small
holder farmers to grow crops that yield more (Werehire, 2014). Golden rice has been
developed to combat vitamin A deficiencies in developing countries by engineering rice
to produce beta carotene which is converted into Vitamin A in the body (International
Rice Research Institute, 2007). Reducing inputs also provides value to a producer.
Outside of legumes, nitrogen needs to be added to most crops. They are not always
efficient at capturing the available nitrogen, which can be lost to the environment.
Progress is underway to create crops that are able to capture soil nitrogen more efficiently
resulting in lower application rates (ISAA, 2016).
New products are being developed in to help the consumer in addition to those
developed for producers. Non-browning apples were announced in 2013. This is a
technology that could greatly reduce the percentage of food waste that occurs (Brock,
2014).
The fifth chapter of the module focuses on the proper management of genetically
engineered crops. While there is great potential using genetic engineering, it also needs
to be managed correctly to prevent unintended problems. The management suggestions
extend beyond genetically modified crops to traditional crops as best management
practices. Rotating crops provides greater diversification within the microenvironment of
a field. This decreases the risk of a favorable environment for pests on a yearly basis
(Nickel, 2014). In addition to rotating crops, it is also important to rotate chemistries.
Within genetically engineered crops, the same trait or site of herbicide action may be
present across crops. Rotating chemistries prevents biotype resistant populations from
increasing (Weed Science Society of America, 2016). Refuge areas should be utilized to
prevent the growth of resistant populations of insects. Refuge requirements depend upon
the crop planted. The refuge areas allow for susceptible populations of insects to breed
with resistant populations to produce susceptible progeny (University of California San
Diego).
The sixth and final chapter discusses where genetically modified crops fit within
agriculture. Despite the potential of genetically modified crops, they should not be seen
6
as the sole answer to all problems. Rather, they should be seen as one tool of many.
Wide ranging approaches are still needed to solve agronomic problems. Modified crops
should be used in a targeted environment to solve a specific problem.
VALUE OF THE MODULE
This module is valuable for several reasons. The most important reason is that it
provides an introduction to a science that is heavily scrutinized. Precision is used to
create modified crops. The process is heavily regulated, and undergoes extensive testing.
Understanding that similar products could be developed through traditional breeding is
important. While this is an option, the time it takes could be extended missing the need
for the product. The module highlights some of the products that are currently on the
market. The benefits of the products to producers or consumers are listed to show their
value. Hopefully, it is seen that as the science continues to expand, so do the possibilities
of products. Genetic engineering can provide targeted products that reduce inputs and
reduce the environmental impact. It is important to note that thought and guidelines
accompany the products to reduce the chances of unintended consequences. This should
not be overlooked when viewing the potential upside to producers.
7
SUMMARY
This module was created to provide educational material to those interested in
learning more about genetically modified crops and their uses. Genetically engineered
crops are becoming more divisive in society. While scientists generally believe they are
a safe and viable product, the general public is trending in the opposite direction. There
are five sections within the module beginning with what is a genetically modified
organism. Once it is understood what genetically modified crop are, then it can be
understood why these crops are used. There are many excellent resources pertaining to
the safety of the products from established scientific institutions. The goals of
modification are discussed largely from a production standpoint. One thing that can be
overlooked is that when the producer can produce crops at a lower price point per unit,
then the consumer has the potential to obtain products for lower prices. Production also
needs to continue to increase as the world population increases. The amount of tillable
land is trending in the opposite direction of the population. Diets are also changing
which is why it is so important to continue to find ways to increase production.
Increasing production means that agronomic systems as a whole need to continue to
evolve sustainably.
8
REFERENCES
Biology Online. 2009. Genetically modified organism. Available at http://www.biologyonline.org/dictionary/Genetically_modified_organism (verified 19 September 2015).
Brock, A. 2014. The arctic apple: a GMO fruit that won’t go brown. Modern Farmer, Hudson.
Available at http://modernfarmer.com/2014/01/arctic-apple/ (verified 5 January 2016).
Etine, J., and X. Lim. 2015. Cheese: the GMO food die-hard GMO opponents love (and oppose a
label for). Genetic Literacy Project, Washington, D.C. Available at
http://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2015/05/15/cheese-gmo-food-die-hard-gmoopponents-love-and-oppose-a-label-for/ (verified 28 September 2015).
Fenwick, A. 2004. How do you make a transgenic plant? Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, CO. Available at http://www.cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/how.html
(verified 19 September 2015).
Fraley, R. 2015. Surprise! GMOs aren’t just in the foods you eat. Fortune, New York. Available
at http://fortune.com/2015/09/23/gmo-monsanto-chipotle-germany/ (verified 23
September 2015).
George, E.F., M.A. Hall, and G.J. De Klerk. 2008. The components of plant tissue culture media
II: organic additions, osmotic and pH effects, and support systems. Plant Propagation by
Tissue Culture 3rd Edition: 115-173.
International Rice Research Institute. 2007. The importance of rice. International Rice Research
Institute, Los Banos, Philippines. Available at
http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ericeproduction/Importance_of_Rice.htm (verified
5 January 2016).
Nickel, R. 2014. Stacking crop rotation controls pests. Available at
http://www.agriculture.com/crops/corn/production/stacking-crop-rotation-controlspests_137-ar45188 (verified 6 January 2016).
Peterson, D., and C. Thompson. 2014. Current status of new herbicide-resistant crops. Kansas
State University, Manhattan, KS. Available at
http://www.agprofessional.com/news/current-status-new-herbicide-resistant-crops
(verified 12 October 2015).
9
United States Department of Agriculture. 2015. Biotechnology regulatory services. United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington D.C. Available at
https://www.aphis.usda.gov/wps/portal/aphis/ourfocus/biotechnology/sa_permits_not
ifications_and_petitions/sa_notifications/ct_notifications/!ut/p/a1/lZFfb4IwFMU_yx58J
L2WCvXRP5uAsi1zRuGlqcVKE2kJ1C3u0w_xySwq69vtOef25FeUog1KNf9Se26V0fxwnlOPR
W8B7o8Bh7PZ8xjC15fFuz-PMOBBY0juGOaDbvnJbBQQfwEAhGIIpNg6g9jgNDrlocbZwSP8muUolRoW9ocJbzMVc2E0XanLTuobcWrUw9qzsyxYtKIY92DrTJ2J3
JtDmZ_EctdVShbM22skkq07GrGddYoVrVT67vSeyDs9c25SSlUhpIt5hnvZ9ThfAgOodJzKBl
yxwdK3Ey4JOvLS_MH7FvDPbit4Q69pMHr33yi2bD8Z-uow4fiKp7E2Ytt7mjtDRo041y67tmuvlDeT1BqSspKb9RWaxWq4K63kfw8ymL9fQ0evoF0oKRQ!!/?1dmy&urile=wcm%3apath%3a%2FAPHIS_Content_Library%2FSA_Our_Focus
%2FBiotechnology (verified 7 October 2015).
University of California San Diego. 2015. How does Bt work? University California San Diego, La
Jolla. Available at http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html (verified 23 September
2015).
University of California San Diego. Bt crop refuge area. University of California San Diego, La
Jolla. Available at http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/crop_refuge.html (verified 6 January 2016).
Weed Science Society of America. 2016. Herbicide resistance. Weed Science Society of
America. Available at http://wssa.net/wssa/weed/resistance/ (verified 24 March 2016).
Wendel, J., and J. Entine. 2013. With 2000+ global studies affirming safety, GM foods among
most analyzed subjects in science. Genetic Literacy Project, Washington D.C. Available
at http://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2013/10/08/with-2000-global-studiesconfirming-safety-gm-foods-among-most-analyzed-subject-in-science/ (verified 7
October 2015).
Werehire, P. 2014. First harvest of new drought-tolerant seed shows strong promise of
improved maize crops for smallholder farmers of Africa. African Agricultural Technology
Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya. Available at http://wema.aatf-africa.org/first-harvest-newdrought-tolerant-seed-shows-strong-promise-improved-maize-crops-smallholder
(verified 24 December 2015).
10
Genetic Engineering
of Agronomic Crops
Mark A. Bartel
Allan J. Ciha
1
Author Profile
Author Name: Mark A. Bartel
Professional Title: Field Preparation and Planting Manager
Affiliation (Company / Department): Monsanto Company
Current professional work / research interests:
Currently working in a multiple seasons program split across two testing divisions. This involves managing
all agronomic aspects of growing corn and wheat at a primary farm. In addition to managing a farm, my
other focus is driving forward technology and practices relating to field preparation, cover cropping, and
planting across four farms to increase sustainability while increasing crop production.
Research interests have involved working with drought tolerant corn. This not only included testing different
genetics, but also different irrigation regimes and application methods.
2
Author Profile
Author Name: Allan J. Ciha
Professional Title:
Affiliation (Company / Department):
Current professional work / research interests:
3
Module Contents
Introduction
What is a GMO/GE Organism
Why are GMO’s Used?
Are GMOs Safe?
Goals of GE Crops
Proper Management of GE Crops
Where do GE Crops Fit Within Agriculture?
Summary
4
Introduction
Genetically modified organisms (GMO), or genetically engineered (GE) organisms,
have become a hot button issue recently. Advocates believe that demands of the market
have been met through the engineering of organisms. When a problem emerges in
.
agriculture, genetic engineering may be a quicker avenue to deliver a solution versus
conventional breeding methods. This is because the exact gene sequence to affect the
change can be designed rather than leaving the correct sequence up to chance.
In addition to meeting the demands of the market, genetically modified organisms have also
helped to increase yields. While there is no actual yield gene, many traits protect the plant
which allows it to reach closer to a maximum genetic yield than it would have otherwise.
Some of the traits that protect the plant may be incorporated, such as insecticidal traits.
These traits cause mortality to particular insects that feed upon the plant. This reduces the
amount of insecticide that is applied to the field since the plant has its own defense
mechanism.
Picture of a corn field. (Courtesy of http://www.praxisinternational.org/rural_digest_july_2014.aspx)
5
Introduction
There could also be less herbicides used with genetically modified plants. Some traits
protect the plants from non-selective herbicides. This allows the producer to spray an
herbicide that will control a broad spectrum of weeds potentially reducing the number of
.
herbicides
that would be needed.
More recent genetically modified crops are focusing on reducing inputs needed to obtain a
high yield. Drought tolerance is a fairly new product that is allowing producers to withstand
droughts for longer periods of time, or to water less during the season and still obtain the
same yield. Most traits to date have focused on protecting the plant while it is growing in the
field. There are also other products, such as golden rice, that have been altered to increase
the nutritional value of the crop.
In addition to providing value to the producer and potentially the consumer, advocates also
believe that the products are safe. Genetically modified organisms undergo rigorous testing
by companies, world governments, universities, as well as independent firms. This testing is
much more strenuous than other plant breeding methods that are used.
6
Introduction
Perceptions of Genetically Modified Organisms
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are currently a ‘hot button’ issue across the
county.
Advocates of GMO’s believe that GMO:
• Help to meet the demand of the market
• Help to increase yields
• Are reducing the pesticides that are needed to raise a crop
• Reducing the amount of inputs required to produce a crop
• Some GMO products have increased the nutrition of the commodity
The belief is the GMO products are safe because of the strenuous testing that occurs by
world governments, universities, and independent firms.
.
7
Introduction
Perceptions of Genetically Modified Organisms
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are currently a ‘hot button’ issue across the county..
Opponents of genetically modified organisms:
• Have a general belief that they are harming either the environment, people or animals.
• More testing needs to be performed prior to the release of any GMO product to
determine the potential impact on the environment or consumers.
• Due to increased tolerance of products to pesticides, application rates have increased
causing more harmful chemicals to be put into the environment.
• In addition to these ills, organic and traditional farmers are being harmed because they
cannot deliver a pure product to market due to pollen drift or contamination.
• Consumers have a right to know what they are eating, so they can make healthy
decisions. If a product contains any organism that has been modified, it should be
disclosed on a food label.
• There is current research that shows the harm that genetically modified organisms can
have. The research ranges from an increase in autism and cancer to a decreased
population of insects or decline of the environment.
8
Introduction
Perceptions of Genetically Modified Organisms
Objectives:
• Understand what a genetically modified
organism is, and how it is created.
• Understand how a GMO is developed versus
other methods used to alter an organism’s
genetics.
• Understand why GMO’s are used.
Ears of corn ready for harvest. (Courtesy of A.J. Ciha)
9
What is a GMO/GE Organism
A genetically modified organism (GMO) or
genetically engineered (GE) organism is an
organism whose genetic characteristics have been
altered (Biology Online, 2009). This alteration in the
DNA of the organism can occur by using a gene
from another organism or by genetic engineering.
Genetic engineering is altering the structure of
genetic material in a living organism.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid - the hereditary
material in humans and almost all other organisms
(Genetics Home Reference, 2015).
Illustration of a nucleic acid double
helix. (Courtesy of https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_doub
lehelix)
Gene: A unit of DNA that is usually located on a
chromosome and that controls the development of
one or more traits and is the basic unit by which
genetic information is passed from parent to
offspring.
10
What is a GMO/GE Organism
To add a non-native trait to a crop, a transgene needs to be added among additional genetic
material (Federation of American Scientists, 2011). This process is called transformation
(Fenwick, 2004).
A gene is commonly added to DNA using two different methods (Federation of American
Scientists, 2011).
• Agrobacterium tumefaciens
• Gene gun
Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the preferred method because there are more single site
insertions of the transgene compared to gene gun insertion (Fenwick, 2004).
Older gene gun used
for bombardment.
(Courtesy of
https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Gene_gun)
Helios gene gun.
(Courtesy of
https://physics.ucsd.
edu/~groisman/Gene
%20guns.html)
11
What is a GMO/GE Organism
A transgene introduces the desired trait to the organism. The transgene must have
additional genetic material to fill the space of the gene. Often the additional material
will consist of a marker gene, a promoter, and a termination sequence.
The marker is used to identify the cells or tissues that have been transformed. The
marker is important to determine the expression of the transgene since the adoption
rate is typically low.
The promoter controls when and where the transgene will be expressed.
The termination sequence is used to signal the cells that the gene sequence has
been completed (Fenwick, 2004).
Illustration showing the different components of a transgene. (Courtesy of
http://www.cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/how.html)
12
What is a GMO/GE Organism
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil
dwelling bacterium that can infect plant cells
with its DNA. The DNA of Agrobacterium
tumefaciens is in the chromosome as well
at tumor-inducing plasmids. This DNA is
termed T-DNA.
During the transformation process, a plant
is wounded, which allows tumor-inducing
plasmid to transfer the T-DNA. Virulence
genes attach T-DNA to the host plant
(Fenwick, 2004). Bacterial proteins attach
to the T-DNA allowing it to cross the
transport channel and be inserted into the
host cell (Nguyen, 2015).
Agrobacterium tumefaciens infection process in a plant
cell. (Courtesy of http://www.lookfordiagnosis.com/ me
sh_info.php?term=agrobacterium+tumefaciens&lang=1)
This method of introducing transgenes has
typically been used for dicot crops, but has
recently been adapted to monocot crops.
13
What is a GMO/GE Organism
Gene Gun Method
The gene gun method can also be known as microprojectile bombardment biolistics. With
this method, DNA is adhered to an inert particle, such as tungsten or gold. The particle is then
project within a vacuum toward the leaf tissue. The metal particles may pass through the
tissue, leaving the DNA that was adhered. Cells are examined for markers, and then the
desired cells are grown (McDonald, 2003).
Picture of a gene gun. (Courtesy of https://www.calvin.edu/academic
/biology/about/facilities/images/gene-gun.jpg)
14
What is a GMO/GE Organism
Regenerating transformed plants
Once the transformation has occurred, the desired cells are selected and placed on a medium
that will support their growth. The medium is placed in a controlled environment to provide
suitable growing conditions. Whole plants will result from this process. The whole plants will
produce seed which will allow the evaluation of the genetically engineered plant (Fenwick,
2004).
The medium can consist of
amino acids, organic acids,
sugars, nitrogenous
compounds, vitamins, growth
regulators (auxins,
gibberellin, etc.), and
inorganic elements.
The components of the
medium will provide the
correct stimulation, growth,
and development of the
single cells to develop into
whole plants (George et al.,
2008).
Resulting plants grown from a single desired cell in a growth chamber.
(Courtesy of http://www.alltechrandd.com/html/jpg/plant_pathology/growth_chamber1.jpg )
15
What is a GMO/GE Organism
From A Tissue Culture to a Plant
The cells that are present in the medium used for growth are not differentiated. In the initial
stages, growth hormones signal the cells to differentiate. Without the growth hormones, a
mass of cells, termed a callus, develops on the medium. When growth hormones are added
to the medium, it will trigger the cells to start producing specific tissue, such as roots or
shoots.
There are many cells growing in the petri dishes, and the chances are that only a minority of
them obtained the transgene. To separate the transgenic from non-transgenic cells, the
marker that was attached to the transgene can be used to determine if the cells are
transgenic. A common marker is an herbicide resistance to either glyphosate or glufosinate.
The herbicide can be applied to the medium which leaves only the resistant and transformed
cells living (Hain et al., 2015).
Illustration shows a transgene, in this case
a Bt gene, with a marker that would be used
for selection. (Courtesy of http://passel.unl.
edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinforma
tionmodule=957885612&topicorder=4&maxto
=8)
16
What is a GMO/GE Organism
From A Tissue Culture to a Plant
The cells that were selected by their markers are then grown in a sterile environment. Once
the growth hormones have been added, and enough growth has occurred, the tissues can be
transplanted into soil. The tissue will continue to grow and ultimately become a full grown
plant. The formation of a plant happens due to a process called totipotency (Mineo, 1990).
This process is not unique to genetic engineering as it is also a method used in traditional
propagation.
Plant callus cells in a petri dish. (Courtesy of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callus_(cell_
Biology))
Cultured tissue growing in a
medium. Hormones have already
been added to stimulate root and
shoot development. (Courtesy of
www.apsnet.org/edcenter/K12/TeachersGuide/PlantBiotechnolo
gy/Documents/PlantTissueCulture.p
df)
17
Why are GMO’s used?
Changing the genetic structure of an organism can create
a desired trait or characteristic. The desired traits can
help the organisms grow or development. For crops
specifically, these traits can:
• defend against pests
• reduce inputs
• increase nutritional value
GMO’s are used in a range of various industries. The
primary focus of this module will be related to agronomic
crops, but other examples will be presented, such as the
medical field.
Corn plants representing Bt corn.
(Courtesy of http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn)
Picture of soybean plant
representing glyphosate
resistant soybeans.
(Courtesy of A.J. Ciha)
Syringe representing medical uses derived
from GMO’s. (Courtesy of http://www.ojmedical.
com/img/prods/large/bnd305269_100_syringe_i
ntegra_3cc_25g_x_5_8in.jpg )
18
Why are GMO’s used?
In agriculture, GMO traits largely relate to the
management of pest problems. The most notable
are herbicide and insect management.
Corn roots with healthy corn roots on the left and roots damaged
by western corn rootworm beetle (Diabrotica vigifera vigifera)
larvae on the right. (Courtesy of http://web.entomology.cornell.
edu/shelton/veg-insects-ne/images2/wcrw-damage2b.jpg)
European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) larvae in a
corn stalk. (Courtesy of http://extension.entm.purdue.
edu/radicalbugs/images/pests/larva/europeanCornBore
rLarva.jpg)
Corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea) eating the top
rows of corn. (Courtesy of htps://www.sciencedaily.
com/releases/2015/05/150521104924.htm)
19
Why are GMO’s used?
Many of the same traits that genetic
engineering of crops provide may be
accomplished through traditional
breeding. Traditional breeding is
seeking the same goal of producing a
plant with desired characteristics.
The advantage of genetic engineering
is that this can be accomplished in a
shorter time frame.
Inserting a known gene onto a known
loci can accomplish what traditional
breeding hopes to achieve through
the random luck of pollination.
A simple diagram showing inbred breeding to make a hybrid.
(Courtesy of http://corncorps.com/2014/10/08/four-reasonsyour-gmo-fears-are-unfounded)
20
Why are GMO’s used?
The illustration shows why
some believe genetic
engineering to be a quicker
process compared to
traditional plant breeding.
In a traditional cross to obtain
a particular trait, there is the
potential for many traits to be
included from the donor
organism.
With genetic engineering, only
the desired trait is introduced.
(Courtesy of http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm352067.htm).
21
Why are GMO’s used?
Bacillus thuringiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil-borne bacterium. The bacterial toxin gene has been inserted into
plants as a form of insect protection. Insects feed and ingest the Bt toxins which cause holes to
formed in the gut of the insect. Bt spores exit through the holes and germinate, which ultimately
leads to the death of the insect. The process is not immediate, but the insect will usually cease
feeding with a few hours prior to killing the insect over the course of a couple days (University of
California San Diego, 2015). The toxin is also tightly targeted to a specific insect species. This
limits the non-target mortality of other insects (Ibrahim et al., 2010).
Cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni) on a curbit
leaf. The pest can be controlled through
plant incorporated protectants or Bt sprays
even through different Bt Cry proteins are
used. (Courtesy of http://aggie-horticulture.
tamu.edu/vegetable/problem-solvers/
cucurbit-problem-solver/cucurbit-insects/
cabbage-looper)
22
Why are GMO’s used?
Herbicide Resistance
Resistance to herbicides allows non-selective herbicides to be applied to a crop. The first
large scale commercial herbicide to utilize resistance was glyphosate. Soybeans were
developed that could withstand the application of glyphosate. The soybeans were able to
withstand the glyphosate application because genetic engineering increased the amount of
EPSP synthase the plant produced. The over production of the synthase enzyme cancels the
EPSP inhibition that would normally be caused by glyphosate (Estes and Watson, 2002).
This technology started with soybeans, but has since expanded. Glyphosate resistant crops
are available for soybean, corn, canola, and cotton. Another non-selective herbicide,
glufosinate, also has the same resistant crops. To combat weed resistance issues, crops are
coming to market that have been engineered to tolerate 2,4-D and dicamba (Johnson et al.,
2012).
Roundup Ready soybeans
with weed carcasses in
between the soybean rows.
(Courtesy of http://agronomy
day.cropsci.illinois.edu/2001/t
ours/roundup-ready/roundupready-beans.jpg)
23
Why are GMO’s used?
Cheese Production
Rennet is a key ingredient used to make hard cheese. This product was obtained from the 4th
stomach lining of unweaned calves. During the 1960’s, the demand for hard cheeses
outpaced the availability of rennet, so another source was sought. It was discovered that
enzymes from some plants and microbes could produce enzymes that act to coagulate milk,
like rennet, but there were also undesired side reactions. In the 1980’s, it was discovered that
a bovine gene could be transformed into microbes, which could be cultivated and used in the
production of cheese. This process is used in ninety percent of the cheese in the United
States (Etine, 2015).
Picture representing hard cheeses made with GMO’s. (Courtesy of
http://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2015/05/15/cheese-gmo-fooddie-hard-gmo-opponents-love-and-oppose-a-label-for/)
24
Why are GMO’s used?
Medical Use of GMO’s
Genetically modified organisms are often thought
of in terms of crops. However, they are also used
to deliver many key medical products.
•
•
•
•
•
Insulin for diabetes
Cancer treatments
Human Growth Hormone
Ebola Vaccine
Other Vaccines
• Hepatitis A
• Hepatitis B
• Diphtheria
• Tetanus
• Whooping cough
• Polio
Tobacco plant representing the plants used for
the creation of the Ebola vaccine. (Courtesy of
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/a/ae/Nicotiana_Tobacco_Plants_1909px.jpg)
25
Are GE Crops Safe?
Genetically modified crops are thoroughly tested prior
to reaching the market place.
Within the United States, the USDA, FDA, and EPA
requests data pertaining to the product prior to
allowing its release. There is a broad range of tests
that are run on the altered organisms to determine
whether there is an impact to the environment,
humans, animals or non-target pests.
In addition to these requirements within the United
States, additional testing by foreign governments must
be completed prior to the crop being imported in the
form of grain or fiber or cultivation of the crops.
This is a process that goes far beyond the safety
testing of other forms of breeding. Traditional
breeding or mutagenesis do not require data
supporting the crop’s safety.
(Courtesy of http://urbancompass.
net/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/
paperwork.jpg)
26
Are GE Crops Safe?
Who Regulates GMO’s?
There are three different regulatory agencies that regulate genetically modified crops.
• EPA -The Environmental Protection Agency regulates biopesticides.
This would include the widely used Bt toxin that is derived from soil
bacteria. Product developers must show environmental and food
safety data to the EPA .
• FDA -The Food and Drug Administration regulates the crops from a
food safety aspect. Testing must be done to ensure the nutritional and
potential allergenic properties of the crops are equivalent or better than
a non-genetically engineered crop.
• USDA -The United States Department of Agriculture regulates GE
crops under the Plant Protection Act of 2000. They are responsible for
regulating “plant pests” which also include the Agrobacterium that is
used to transform many GE crops. Environmental assessments or
environmental impact statements are required prior to the USDA
approval to test a crop (Federation of American Scientists, 2011).
27
Are GE Crops Safe?
Regulations
Prior to a genetically modified organism being imported, shipped between states or released
into the environment, a permit or notification must be obtained through APHIS (Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service), a branch of the USDA. Permits outline the nature or
properties of the organism and what steps will used to prevent the spread of the organism.
Notifications are streamlined versions of permits (United States Department of Agriculture,
2015).
Once field testing has occurred, and it is determined that the genetically modified organism is
at least equivalent to the non-transformed species, then a petition for deregulation can be
submitted. This petition is the culmination of many studies that were collected during the
testing of the crop. The testing started in a lab, and once initial tests for safety and stability
were passed, the organisms were further tested in field environments.
Specific genetic sequences as well as their full effect on the organism are required as part of
the studies (United States Department of Agriculture, 1996).
28
Are GE Crops Safe?
Field Testing
All genetically engineered crops must go
through field testing prior to commercial
adoption. This is to ensure the efficacy of the
product as well as the safety of the product.
Within the application to test is a design for
the confined field test outlining measures that
will be taken to avoid releasing the organism
outside of the confined trial area.
Distance to sexually compatible plants is one
measure taken to avoid release. The
distances for commonly transformed crops
can be found at
https://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/do
wnloads/sep_dist_table_0813.pdf. During
field testing, there are strict regulations that
must be adhered to. The USDA schedules
inspections of the fields to ensure that all
regulatory compliance aspects are adhered
to.
The illustration above represents the area surrounding a
confined trial area of corn (green). The area 660 feet away from
the edge of the field must be kept free of sexually compatible
plants (orange). There is also a 10 foot area directly
surrounding the confined trial area that must not contain a crop
to allow equipment movement (Courtesy of M.A. Bartel).
29
Are GE Crops Safe?
Are GMO Foods Safe to Eat?
Several food safety tests are performed on food that results from genetic engineering. These
tests are conducted by the United States Food and Drug Administration as well as the World
Health Organization (WHO). The tests consist of:
• Direct health effects (toxicity)
• Potential for allergic reaction
• Components thought to have nutritional or
toxic properties
• Stability of the inserted gene
• Nutritional effects
• Unintended effects from the gene insertions.
(Courtesy of https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_safety)
These tests are performed to ensure that safety of the food for both human and animal
consumption. The following article lists 1,783 studies that have been conducted affirming the
safety of genetically engineered foods: http://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2013/10/08/with2000-global-studies-confirming-safety-gm-foods-among-most-analyzed-subject-in-science/.
Click on the hyper link “1783 studies” to open the spreadsheet (Wendel, 2013).
30
Are GE Crops Safe?
GMO Foods or Feeds
Common foods that have been
genetically modified:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Alfalfa
Rapeseed
Cotton
Rice
Soybean
Sugar cane
Tomatoes
Corn (sweet and
field)
Canola
Potatoes
Flax
Papaya
Squash
•
•
•
•
•
•
Red-hearted chicory
Cotton seed oil
Meat
Peas
Sugarbeets
Dairy products
(Langtree, 2009)
Two pictures of corn. The picture on the left is GMO, and the
picture on the right is non GMO. Is there a visual difference?
(Courtesy of http://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2014/11/17/
can-anti-gmo-crowd-see-something-in-gmo-corn-that-sciencecant/)
31
Are GE Crops Safe?
Scientific institutions that have found GMO crops to be safe.
• American Association for the Advancement
of Science
• American Medical Association
• American Society for Microbiology
• Australian Academy of Sciences
• Brazilian Academy of Sciences
• British Medical Association
• Chinese Academy of Sciences
• Council for Agricultural Science and
Technology
• European Commission
• European Food Safety Authority
• Federation of Animal Science Societies
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations
• French Academy of Science
• Indian National Science Academy
• Institute of Food Technologists
• International Council For Science
• International Union of Food Science and
Technology
• Italian National Academy of Science
• Mexican Academy of Sciences
• National Academies of Science (United
States)
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development
• Pontifical Academy of Sciences
• Royal Society (United Kingdom)
• World Health Organization
32
Goals of GE crops
Creating pest tolerance
Creating a tolerance within the plant
to allow for pest control:
• Herbicide resistance
• Insect resistance
• Drought tolerance
European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis)
feeding inside of a corn plant. (Courtesy
of https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/ fiel
dcropsipm/insects/euro-cornborer.php)
Comparison of standard rice versus
white rice. (Courtesy of https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golden_Rice.
jpg)
• Nutrient deficiency tolerance
• Disease resistance
(Courtesy of http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/
repository/calag/img6602p68.jpg)
Drought tolerant corn on the
left. (Courtesy of http://www.
biotech-now.org/newsletter
/the-droughts-in-the-Midwest)
Soybean plants tolerant to dicamba
herbicide on the right to help
manage glyphosate-resistant
Palmer Amaranth (left). (Courtesy
of http://farmweeknow.com/storymonsanto-shows-off-dicambaresistant-soybeans-farmers-0115950)
33
Goals of GE crops
Herbicide Resistant Crops
The most common herbicide resistant crops
are currently soybean, corn, canola, and
cotton. The oldest herbicide for these crops
is glyphosate followed by glufosinate.
Newer herbicide resistant crops also entered
the market around 2016.
• ALS resistant sorghum.
• 2,4-D and aryloxyfenoxypropionate (fop)
resistant corn, soybean, and cotton.
• Dicamba resistant soybean and cotton.
• HPPD resistant soybeans. (Peterson
et.al., 2014).
The above photo shows conventional soybeans on the left vs
Dicamba resistant soybeans on the right. Notice the damage to
the conventional beans vs. the resistant after the herbicide
application. (Courtesy of http://southeastfarmpress.com/
grains/new-corn-soybean-herbicide-technology-pipeline)
34
Goals of GE crops
Creating pest tolerance – Insect Management
Genetic engineering has allowed the development of products with plant incorporated
protections. These protections are targeted toward specific insects. Some benefits of Bt
crops include season-long pest management, reduction in insecticides applied, and a better
environment for non-target organisms (ISAAA, 2014).
The pests controlled in major crops:
Corn
Cotton
Corn earworm
Cotton bollworm
European corn borer
Pink bollworm
Southern corn borer
Tobacco budworm
Fall armyworm
Corn rootworm
The above picture shows a pink bollworm
(Pectinophora gossypiella) entering a cotton boll.
(Courtesy of http://ipm.ncsu.edu/cotton/
insectcorner/photos/bollworm.htm)
There are several subspecies of Bt avaiable with more in development. The most common
ones available are Btk (kurstaki), Bti (israelensis), and Bta (aizawa) (Wikipedia, 2016).
35
Goals of GE crops
Creating pest tolerance – Drought Tolerance
Drought tolerance is a product that is fairly new to the market in corn products. The intent of
the product is to slow the plant’s respiration to help it survive during small periods of drought
(Stecker, 2012). An example of how these products are reaching a broader audience is the
Water Efficient Maize for Africa Project (WEMA). Maize is a staple product for Africa. Some
small farmers are reliant on the crop which is often affected by drought. Early results of the
products are showing a doubling of yield compared to the national average (Werehire, 2014).
The picture to the left shows Dr. Sylvester Oikeh standing
between rows of corn. The row on the left is a hybrid from
WEMA while the row on the right in a traditional variety.
(Courtesy of http://www.ippmedia.com/frontend/?l=83949)
36
Goals of GE crops
Creating pest tolerance – Nutrient Deficiency Tolerance
Nitrogen is a primary macronutrient needed for plant growth and development. Legumes are
capable of fixing their own nitrogen, but all other crops may need additional nitrogen added to
the soil. The problem with adding nitrogen is that crop use is not always efficient. It is
estimated that only 30-50% of the nitrogen applied is absorbed by the plants. While some of
the nitrogen is bound in organic matter, some of the nitrogen is leached into groundwater.
Although there is not currently a GE product commercially available for nitrogen-use efficiency,
there are studies being conducted with corn, wheat, rice, canola, sugarbeet, and sugarcane.
The goal of the studies is to find the transgenic varieties that are able to utilize more of the
nitrogen that is in the soil. This would result in lower nitrogen needs during fertilization and
decrease the potential nitrogen loss from the soil (ISAAA, 2016).
The rice pictured to the left is a product of NUE rice trials.
Early results of the trials show a 50% reduction in nitrogen
applied with yield gains of up to 30%. (Courtesy of
https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/46/d
efault.asp)
37
Goals of GE crops
Creating pest tolerance – Disease resistance
Papaya is a success story of genetically modified crops. The papaya ringspot virus was
devastating yields on the crop around the world. In Hawaii, within six years of the introduction
of the virus to current production areas, yields were down 50%. Dr. Dennis Gonsalves led a
team of scientists that inserted a gene from the papaya ringspot virus into papaya. The result
of inserting the gene was a built-in vaccine. The modified papaya was crossed with a
traditional papaya and the result was a resistant varieties (Mo, 2012).
The picture shows a rainbow papaya.
(Courtesy of http://www.biofortified.
org/2012/06/rainbow)
(Courtesy of http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/repository/
calag/img6602p68.jpg)
38
Goals of GE crops
Adding Value to the Crop
This lesson has focused mainly on benefits of genetically modified crops to the
grower. There are also benefits to the consumer that need to be examined.
There are two main areas of products that have been developed:
• Increasing produce shelf life
• Increasing nutritional quality
Various fresh produce at a grocery store, each providing
different nutrients to the consumer. (Courtesy of M.A. Bartel)
Peaches at a grocery store. The quantity in stock shows
the importance of shelf life. (Courtesy of M.A. Bartel)
39
Goals of GE crops
Adding value to the crop - Increasing Nutrient Quality
Golden rice is a genetically engineered crop that was created to help developing countries.
In some developing countries, rice accounts for up to 60% of calories consumed. The
problem with consuming rice as a primary source of food is that it is poor in vitamins
(International Rice Research Institute, 2007). One of the vitamins that is lacking is vitamin A.
The golden rice project sought to develop rice that contains beta carotene. The beta carotene
is converted by the human body to vitamin A. It is estimated that this change in rice could
save the lives of 2.7 million children under the age of five annually. Vitamin A deficiencies can
lead to:
•
•
•
•
Blindness
Exposure to infections
Reduced immune response
Impaired production of blood
cells and platelets
• Reduced skeletal growth
The picture shows nonmodified rice on the left
versus rice modified to
have beta carotene on the
right. (Courtesy of
http://goldenrice.org/Cont
ent3-Why/why1_vad.php)
(Golden Rice Project, 2015)
40
Goals of GE crops
Adding value to the crop - Increasing Shelf Life
Each year, about one third of consumable food is wasted (United Nations Environment
Programme, 2013). One way to reduce the amount of waste is to create food that has a
longer shelf life. Arctic apples are an early example of unlocking this potential. DNA from the
apple itself was used to turn off polyphenol oxidase, which is the protein that causes an apple
to brown (Brock, 2014).
A comparison of modified non-browning
apples(lower) versus conventional apples (top).
(Courtesy of https://www.geneticliteracyproject.
org/2015/02/13/usda-grants-approval-ofnonbrowning-arctic-apple)
41
Proper Management of GE Crops
Like other crop protection products, proper management of genetically engineered
crops must occur to lower the risk of resistance. The three main principles are:
.
• Crop Rotation
• Refuge Areas
• Rotation of Chemistries
This figure represents the different steps to controlling pests with a
healthy IPM program. (Courtesy of https://cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/
library/tutorials/applied_entomology/integrated_control.html)
While each of these management factors aids in warding off resistance, and
combination of the practices will provide a more robust approach. These
techniques would follow some key steps of an integrated pest management
program (IPM).
42
Proper Management of GE Crops
Crop Rotations
Crop rotations are an important tool for
managing various agronomic aspects. When
planting transgenic crops, rotation is important
to prevent resistance.
By constantly changing the crops in the fields,
the suitable environment for weeds or insects
also changes. Different crops may require
different pesticides to be applied. Changing
pesticides prevents insects and weeds from being
exposed to the same chemicals year after year.
For the best results, a diverse rotation is
encouraged. Rotating between two crops provides
a benefit, and adding more diversity to the rotation
increases the benefits (Nickel, 2014).
The illustration shows a common crop rotation
between corn and soybeans. (Courtesy of
http://www.aganytime.com/asgrow/mgt/planning
/Pages/Crop-Residue.aspx)
43
Proper Management of GE Crops
Crop Rotations - Corn Rootworm Resistance
Planting of continuous corn with the same transgenic trait has led to corn rootworm resistance
issues in the Midwest. The Bt trait Cry3Bb1 was relied upon to control rootworm in continuous
corn situations. As populations of corn rootworm increased, the trait was no longer able to
actively control the larvae.
The cultural control method of rotating crops is a
way for producers to manage the resistant
population. Rotating to a crop that is not a host
will prevent the larvae that hatch the following
year from having a food source (Tooker, 2013).
There are variants of western and northern corn
rootworm that have adapted to a single year
crop rotation with a longer diapause. In order to
properly manage the rootworm, longer rotations
or different control methods, such as insecticides
are recommended (Purdue University, 2009).
Adult western corn rootworm (Diabrotica vigifera
vigifera) beetles feeding on corn. The silks have been
clipped. (Courtesy of http://extension.entm.purdue.edu/
fieldcropsipm/insects/corn-rootworms.php )
44
Proper Management of GE Crops
Refuge Areas
Refuge areas are established to provide
a habitat for insects outside the
transgenic section of the field.
The theory behind refuge areas is that
should insect resistance develop, the
resistant insect can reproduce with a
non-resistant insect (susceptible)
that was feeding in the refuge area. The
progeny of this reproduction would not be
resistant (University of California San Diego).
The above illustration shows the principle of how planting refuge
areas prevent the buildup of resistant insect populations.
(Courtesy of http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/crop_refuge.html)
The amount of refuge needed depends on the product. Products with multiple modes of
action will typically need less refuge than products with a single mode of action. In order
to simplify management and increase compliance with refuge policies, some products
come pre-mixed with the appropriate amount of refuge, otherwise known as refuge in a
bag (RIB).
45
Proper Management of GE Crops
Options for Refuge
The illustration shows the different planting options that are available for a 20% refuge.
The green portion of the fields are transgenic plants and the yellow represents nontransgenic refuge area. (Courtesy of http://www.cornpest.ca/index.cfm/resistancemanagement/refuge-requirements/planting-configurations)
46
Proper Management of GE Crops
Rotation of Chemistries
Effective pesticides can lull producers into reducing their control strategy. This is evident
in the use of herbicide-resistant crops. The reliance of glyphosate for weed control has
led to an increase in the number of glyphosate-resistant weeds (Mortensen et al., 2012).
This can be a problem whether a producer is planting a GMO crop or a traditional crop.
Biotypes exist within a population that may have resistance to a particular class of
herbicides. When the population of susceptible weeds declines, the biotype population
begins to increase which highlights the problem of resistance (Weed Science Society of
America, 2016).
The same principle will hold true for genetically modified crops used to control insects or
disease. The same trait used for control should not be used continuously as at it may
allow biotype populations to increase. Rotating control methods will keep the resistant
populations in check since other control methods may be effective.
47
Proper Management of GE Crops
Herbicide Resistance
Weeds are constantly competing and
changing. Genetic changes can occur
which lead to weeds becoming resistant to
a particular herbicide. The weeds that
undergo this change are referred to as
herbicide-resistant biotypes (Kansas
State University, 2015).
There are currently 250 species of weeds
that have resistant biotypes to 23 of the 25
different families of herbicides (Heap,
2016).
The picture shows ALS-inhibitor susceptible plants versus
resistant plants. The susceptible was treated at a 1X rate with
good results while the resistant plants were treated with a 4X rate
with no results. (Courtesy of http://passel.unl.edu/pages/
informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=998689386&topicor
der=2&maxto=7)
48
Where do GE crops fit within Agriculture?
Genetically modified crops are not the
answer to all problems in agriculture.
• A wide ranging approach is still needed
in agriculture:
• Traditional breeding techniques
• Integrated pest management
• Agronomic practices.
• Modified crops should be used in a
targeted environment to help solve a
problem.
The graph shows that in 2010, producers were able to match production
with demand. As the population continues to grow, productivity will
need to increase in order to meet demand. (Courtesy of http://www.
wealthdaily.com/articles/the-death-of-monsanto-investing-in-agriculturalbiotech/7385)
• As the world continues to change, GE
crops have the potential to help meet
the demand for food.
49
Summary
Genetically modified crops, or genetically engineered crops are an additional tool that
can be used to increase production agriculture. These crops provide producers with
targeted technology to help control some potential problems that they may encounter.
These crops should not be used as standalone technology to solve problems, but
rather as part of a full system of management.
With a changing world the demand for food will increase while agronomic problems
shift. The world population is increasing, diets are changing, and agricultural land is
decreasing Genetic engineering of crops has the potential to help agriculture shift with
these changes by quickly delivering targeted traits that can be combined with new
germplasm.
Safety and regulation are top concerns. This is a concern that will need to be
addressed by government agencies as crop are evaluated for commercial release. To
date, extensive studies have been performed on GMO crops with excellent safety
results. The results of genetic engineering extend beyond food to other products, such
as medicine.
50
References
All Tech Research and Development. 2015. Growth Chamber. Available at
http://www.alltechrandd.com/html/jpg/plant_pathology/growth_chamber1.jpg (verified 21
September
2015). All Tech Research and Development, Sparta.
American Phytopathological Society. 2015. Plant tissue culture. Available at www.apsnet.org/edcenter/K12/TeachersGuide/PlantBiotechnology/Documents/PlantTissueCulture.pdf (verified 2 October 2015).
American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul.
Bio. 2012. Bio newsletter. Available at http://www.biotech-now.org/newsletter/the-droughts-in-the-Midwest (verified
11 May 2016). Bio.
Biology Online. 2009. Genetically modified organism. Available at http://www.biologyonline.org/dictionary/Genetically_modified_organism (verified 19 September 2015). Biology Online.
Brock, A. 2014. The arctic apple: a GMO fruit that won’t go brown. Available at
http://modernfarmer.com/2014/01/arctic-apple/ (verified 5 January 2016). Modern Farmer, Hudson.
Calvin College. 2015. Gene Gun. Available at
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Calvin College, Grand Rapids.
51
References
Canadian Corn Pest Coalition. 2013. Refuge planting configuration options. Available at
http://www.cornpest.ca/index.cfm/resistance-management/refuge-requirements/planting-configurations/
(verified 11 May 2016). Canadian Corn Pest Coalition.
Coatney, C. 2015. GMO Cheerios vs. GMO insulin. Available at http://www.biofortified.org/2014/01/gmo-cheeriosvs-gmo-insulin/ (verified 5 October 2015). Biology Fortified, Middleton.
Connecticut General Assembly. 2015. Learned societies and national academies endorsing safety of genetically
modified crops. Available at https://www.cga.ct.gov/2013/KIDdata/Tmy/2013HB-06527-R000305Scientific%20Bodies%20Afffirming%20Safety-TMY.PDF (verified 6 October 2015). Connecticut General
Assembly, Hartford.
Cornell University. 2007. Western corn rootworm – damage to sweet corn. Available at
http://web.entomology.cornell.edu/shelton/veg-insects-ne/images2/wcrw-damage2b.jpg (verified 23
September 2015). Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Dictionary.com. 2015. Differentiate. Available at http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/differentiate?s=t (Verified
24 December 2015). Dictionary.com, Oakland.
52
References
Estes, L., and G. Watson. 2002. Roundup-ready crops. Available at
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/kabernd/seminar/2002/resist/roundup.htm (verified, 26 September
2015). Davidson College, Davidson.
Etine, J., and X. Lim. 2015. Cheese: the GMO food die-hard GMO opponents love (and oppose a label for).
Available at http://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2015/05/15/cheese-gmo-food-die-hard-gmo-opponentslove-and-oppose-a-label-for/ (verified 28 September 2015). Genetic Literacy Project, Washington, D.C.
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QUIZ: Genetic engineering of agronomic crops
Page 1 of 4
1. What is a genetically modified organism?
1. *An organism whose genetic characteristics have been altered
2. An organism that has had all it’s genes replaced with foreign material
3. A traditionally bred organism that has morphed, such as a biotype
4. An organism that has changed due to natural cross breeding
2. What is a common technique used to transfer genes?
1. *Agrobacterium tumefaciens
2. Bacillus thurengiensis
3. Bacterial conjugation
4. Xenobiotic tolerance
3. What is the correct sequence of genetic material during transformation?
1. *Marker gene, promoter, transgene, termination sequence
2. Termination sequence, transgene, marker gene
3. Marker gene, transgene, marker gene, promoter
4. Promoter, transgene, termination sequence
4. Agrobactrium tumefaciens is used during transformation to:
1. *Infect the plant and allow introduction of the transgene
2. Alter the gene order of the plant
3. Extract DNA from the plant
4. Wound the plant for a viral infection
5. Gene guns (micropejectile bombardment biolistics) transfer DNA in what method?
1. *Blast metal particles coated in DNA to alter cells
2. Wound the plant for infection
3. Blast DNA strands to alter cells
4. Transfer DNA via bacteria
6. After transformation, selected organisms are grown in what manner?
1. *Desired cells are selected and grown on media in a controlled environment
2. The transformed plants are planted is soil within the lab for their progeny
3. The entire leaf is placed into media and grown in a controlled environment
4. The desired cells are cloned
7. What is a common marker used to differentiate between transgenic and non-transgenic cells?
1. *Herbicide resistance
2. Color
3. Location within the DNA
4. Markers are not used
QUIZ: Genetic engineering of agronomic crops
Page 2 of 4
8. Totipotency is defined as:
1. *The ability of a single plant cell to grow, divide, and differentiate
2. The ability of genetic markers to tolerate the selection process
3. Hormones added to media for the purpose of differentiation
4. A technique used to grow transformed cells in a controlled environment
9. Which of the following is NOT a reason that genetically modified crops are used?
1. *Allelopathy to disrupt weed seed germination
2. Defend against pest pressures
3. Reduce inputs
4. Increase nutritional value
10. Traditional breeding differs from genetic engineering in what way?
1. *The gene of interest can be placed in a specific loci
2. No genetic material foreign to the plant can be introduced during traditional breeding
3. Traditional breeding is a quicker process
4. Traditional breeding will only insert one trait
11. Bacillus thuringiensis is used to control specific insects. Where is it derived from?
1. *Soil bacterium
2. Synthetic pesticides
3. DNA from a resistant plant
4. Plant-born viruses
12. The first commercially released product had resistance to which herbicide?
1. *Glyphosate
2. Glufosinate
3. Dicamba
4. 2,4-D
13. Genetically modified genes from what source have been used to produce rennet for cheese?
1. *Bovine
2. Soybean
3. Suidae
4. Cotton
14. Insulin is derived by inserting human DNA into which bacteria?
1. *Escherichia coli
2. Staphylococcus aureus
3. Legionella pneumophila
4. Clostridium botulimun
15. Which crop was used to create the experimental Ebola vaccine?
1. *Tobacco
2. Soybean
3. Canola
4. Sunflower
QUIZ: Genetic engineering of agronomic crops
Page 3 of 4
16. Which one of the United States governmental agencies is NOT responsible for regulating GMO crops?
1. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
2. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
3. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
4. *Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
17. Which of the following is not considered when a petition to de-regulate a genetically modified crop
occurs?
1. *Superior yield versus non-transgenic equivalent
2. Equivalency to the non-transformed species for yield and nutrition
3. No unintended consequences to the environment have resulted
4. Genetic sequence and its effect on the organism
18. What is a common method used to protect against release when regulated crops are being tested?
1. *Distance from sexually compatible crops
2. Testing exclusively in a lab environment
3. No precautions need to be taken
4. Tenting of surrounding crops
19. Safety of food from genetically modified organisms is of great concern. Which of the following is not a test
the FDA performs to evaluate food safety?
1. Toxicity
2. Stability of inserted gene
3. Unintended effects
4. *Processing ability
20. Which of the following crops have not been genetically modified?
1. Alfalfa
2. Corn
3. Canola
4. *Sorghum
21. Herbicide tolerant crops have the potential to increase yields in what way?
1. *Herbicide applications will reduce the competition for resources with weeds
2. The herbicide application will increase yields through a chemical reaction
3. Allow a producer to apply any product to the field for pest control
4. Allelopathy from the crop will control weeds
22. Genetically engineered crops targeted toward insect management work in which of the following ways?
1. *Target specific insects when the insects feed on the plant
2. Produce broad spectrum insecticides to defend the plant from all potential insect pests
3. Exude pesticides to prevent insect feeding
4. Adjust physiological characteristics of the plant to that it is no longer a target
QUIZ: Genetic engineering of agronomic crops
Page 4 of 4
23. Genetically engineered crops are not being developed to reduce which of the following inputs?
1. *Phosphorus
2. Water
3. Nitrogen
4. Pesticides
24. Tolerance to ringspot virus was created through genetic engineering for which of the following crops?
1. *Papaya
2. Mango
3. Banana
4. Guava
25. Golden rice could benefit developing nation’s nutrition because it contains:
1. *Beta carotene
2. Vitamin A
3. Vitamin C
4. Potassium
26. Which of the following is not a recommended practice for properly managing GE crops?
1. *Only use products from the company that produced the seed
2. Rotate crops
3. Establish refuge areas
4. Rotate chemistries for pest control
27. How does rotating crops affect pest populations?
1. *Rotation causes a shift in pest populations since the environment may not be as favorable
2. Rotating between crops with the same mode of action allows for greater pest control year after year
3. Rotating crops is a guaranteed way to break pest life cycles.
4. Rotating crops maintains a specific niche for pests year after year
28. Refuge areas are important for preventing resistance. In which way do they work?
1. *Allow susceptible insects to survive and mate with resistant insects which produces susceptible
progeny
2. Insecticidal traits always work. Refuge areas are not needed
3. Resistant biotypes are allowed to propagate in these areas
4. Refuges allow the insects a safe habitat so that insect populations can remain at a natural level