Traceability and other food safety measures in the handling of
aflatoxin contamination of pistachios in international trade:
Lessons for the coffee sector?
Overview of the international pistachio market:
The main world producers of pistachio are Iran, USA, Turkey, Syria, China and
Greece. Production statistics for the year 2003 are provided in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Selected production statistics for pistachio for 2003 (FAOSTAT)
Country
Iran
Production
310,000
(MT)
% of
world
production
57
Turkey
USA
Syria
China
Greece
85,000
52,620
50,000
28,000
8,500
16
9.7
9.2
5.2
1.6
Iran dominates both the production and the export of pistachios. International
trade of this product expanded steadily in the 1980s and 1990s. The United
States, which was a net importer until recently, is now a net exporter; this leads
to increased competition in the world market. The EU is an important import
market for pistachios, with Germany being the principle importer. Germany reexports a substantial proportion of its pistachio imports.
Table 2: Selected statistics on pistachio exports (FAOSTAT)
Pistachio exports
Quantity (thousand of
Iran
tonnes)
% of world total export
Quantity (thousand of
USA
tonnes)
% of world total export
Quantity (thousand of
Germany
tonnes)
% of world total export
Quantity (thousand of
Turkey
tonnes)
% of world total export
Quantity (thousand of
Syria
tonnes)
% of world total export
World
Quantity (thousand of
tonnes)
1992
104.2
1997
57.9
2002
135.3
70.1%
16.0
44.7%
11.2
66.3%
21.2
10.8%
6.9
8.7%
16.9
10.4%
12.0
4.6
1.0
13.1%
4.3
5.9%
1.9
0.7%
2.1
3.3%
12
0.9%
3.1
1.4%
148.6
9.3%
129.4
1.5%
204.2
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Problem of Aflatoxin contamination of pistachios:
Fungal contamination and production of aflatoxin can occur in the field, at
harvest, during post-harvest operations and in storage. The incidence of
contaminated nuts and the concentration of aflatoxins in contaminated nuts vary
widely from location to location, from year to year and from cultivar to cultivar.
Many of the apparent differences between the varieties may be the result of
environmental factors, different pest complexes and the technical ability to sort
damaged and contaminated nuts during post-harvest processing.
While the shells of most pistachio nuts split naturally on the orchard prior to
harvest, the hull covering the shell remains intact and protects the kernel from
invasion by moulds and insects. In some cases, however, the hull is attached to
the shell, so that it splits with the shell and exposes the kernel to moulds and
insects; this is called ‘an early split’. ‘Early splits’ are more likely to be
contaminated by aflatoxins than intact hulls. Infestation of nuts with ruptured
hulls by the navel orange worm has also been associated with high levels of
aflatoxin.
International attention to the problem of aflatoxin contamination of
pistachios:
Within Codex
The potential problem of mycotoxin contamination in tree nuts, including
pistachios, is well known. The Codex Code of hygiene practice for tree nuts,
adopted in 1972, makes specific reference to the avoidance of mould growth and
mycotoxin contamination through the production chain. A new Code is under
preparation within Codex (draft Code of Practice for the Prevention and
Reduction of Aflatoxin Contamination in tree nuts) that is consistent with the
HACCP based approach to hygiene measures. There are no Codex maximum
levels for aflatoxin or other mycotoxins in pistachios or other tree nuts, but a
maximum level for hazel nuts, almonds and pistachios are under discussion in
the Codex Committee for Food Additives and Contaminants (see: ‘Draft risk
analysis principles applied by the Codex Committee on Food Additives and
Contaminants (CCFAC)’ [.pdf], found in the Support Documentation area of
Section 2, Codex Alimentarius: its work and mission).
Within EU
In accordance with the Commission Regulation EC No1525/98, modified by
Regulation EC No 466/2001, the maximum admissible aflatoxin levels in various
nuts, dried figs and products thereof intended for human consumption are as
follows:
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Table3: Maximum admissible aflatoxin levels in various nuts, dried figs and products
thereof
Maximum aflatoxin B1
content
Maximum total
aflatoxin content
(B1+B2+G1+G2)
a) Nuts, groundnuts, dried
figs and processed products
(pistachios included)
2 µg/kg
4 µg/kg
b) Nuts and dried figs
subject to sorting or other
physical treatment
(pistachios included)
5 µg/kg
10 µg/kg
Monitoring of imports revealed that several lots of pistachios from Iran and
Turkey exceeded maximum allowed levels of aflatoxins. As result, the EU
implemented restrictive measures on the import of pistachios.
In 1997, decision 97/613/EC temporally suspended imports of Iranian pistachios.
The ban was repealed by decision 97/830/EC but several conditions were then
imposed to imports of pistachios from Iran:
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
Imported consignments have to be accompanied by the results of official
sampling and analysis, and by a health certificate issued by the Iranian
Ministry of Health. They have to be identified with a code which
corresponds to the code on the sampling results and on the health
certificate;
Pistachios and products derived from pistachios from Iran can enter into
the EU only through a few points of entry; and
The imported consignments are then subject to documentary checks and
to systematic sampling and analysis for aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxin in
the importing Member State.
EC missions were sent to make recommendations to the Iranian authorities on
the reduction and prevention of aflatoxin in pistachio through good agricultural
practices, and good hygiene practices in handling, processing, storage and
distribution of the product. Subsequent missions have monitored implementation
of recommended practices and recommended improvements to facilities.
The report of an EC mission undertaken at the end of 1998 (EC report
XXIV/1492/MR – 12.1.1999) noted the remarkable achievements made in the
realms of institutional policy and legal framework for controlling the hygiene of
pistachios and also in the facilities and practices of producers. The report also
made the following recommendations to the Iranian authorities:
ƒ
To continue the control of the hygienic condition of pistachio production
from orchard to the exit port. A traceability system for pistachios is
considered to be a critical element for the control system.
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ƒ
To continue strengthening of programmes of sampling and aflatoxin
analysis.
The EU has continued to monitor the imports of pistachio from Iran. Despite
reported improvements in many aspects of production, reports from the EU rapid
alert system [www] show an increasing number of alerts due to unacceptable
levels of aflatoxin contamination in pistachio - mostly from Iran. In the period
1997 to 2000, the number of alerts per year rose from 2 to 37. In 2003 and
2004, the number of alerts was 508 and 538, respectively.
Within the US
According to US food regulations, the maximum total aflatoxin content
(B1+B2+G1+G2) of any food is 20 ppb. U.S. FDA import alert [www] IA# 23-11
on the ‘detention without physical examination of ‘nuts and nut containing
products’ for aflatoxins’, was revised in 1998 and again in 2004 to cover nuts
other than peanuts (including pistachios). Perusal of U.S. FDA import refusal
reports [www] shows frequent rejections of pistachio shipments due to aflatoxin
contamination.
Cost of controls:
The loss of confidence on the part of importing countries in the safety of certain
products can have a cost to exporters and exporting countries. These costs can
range from loss of markets, loss of actual product, increased port charges when
clearance of shipments is delayed1, costs associated with implementing
improvements throughout the food chain, costs associated with certification and
monitoring programmes, costs associated with required policy reforms and
training costs for various stakeholders. Several recent publications have analysed
the cost of SPS measures on exporting countries and strategies for dealing with
food safety measures (see: Selected bibliography under Section 3).
Food exporting countries should invest in their reputations as reliable suppliers of
safe food by paying due attention to hygiene controls throughout all stages of
food production, handling and processing. Building the confidence of importers is
a worthwhile investment.
1
Under certain conditions, moisture movement within filled containers exposed to diurnal
temperature variations can lead to unsafe moisture levels in parts of the food and hence
microbiological deterioration.
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