Discovery Journal
DIVE IN:
Life in the Field
Acknowledgements
This Dive In: Life in the Field Discovery Journal features activities developed by the WorldStrides staff
utilizing the best available environmental science curricula offered by educational, environmental,
and scientific organizations throughout the nation and abroad. We wish to acknowledge the many
individuals who assisted us with this effort.
Special thanks to the Course Leader staff from our Florida office for their guidance, encouragement,
and use of program materials. We also owe special thanks to the teams at University of South Florida
– Caladesi Island, Everglades National Park, Florida Bay Outfitters, and the Miami Seaquarium, for
providing us with a wealth of materials.
Activities in this Journal were also created from materials developed by Nature’s Academy, a
WorldStrides partner and curriculum developer for our Florida Science programs.
In case of emergency
If you have lost contact with your group or need assistance for a medical condition, injury, or any
other emergency, please call a staff member immediately at the toll-free number listed below.
Call 1-800-999-4542
This number should be used for emergencies only. When you call, please be prepared to give your
name, the number you are calling from, your location, your group name or teacher’s name, and the
reason for the call. The person you speak with will give you further instructions.
© WorldStrides 11/13 PO#122103583D
Table of Contents
Introduction
Environmental Science ....................................................................................1
The Earth’s Spheres ..........................................................................................2
Ecosystems and Habitats................................................................................2
Total World Biodiversity ..................................................................................3
Understanding the Concept of Global Ecology......................................4
“Foodmiles” Calculations ................................................................................5
Conservation of Biodiversity ........................................................................6
What is an Ecological Footprint? .................................................................7
Sustainability.......................................................................................................7
Population Growth............................................................................................9
Cycles.................................................................................................................. 10
Global Warming ............................................................................................. 14
Scientific Research ......................................................................................... 15
Create an Inquiry Letter................................................................................ 16
Using Your LabQuest .....................................................................................18
Caladesi Island Guide ....................................................................................20
Station 1: Beach Profile ................................................................................ 22
Station 2: Hydrography ............................................................................... 26
Station 3: Beach Processes ......................................................................... 31
Water Quality and Pollution.......................................................................42
Sweetwater Organic Farm .......................................................................... 42
Organic Earth .................................................................................................. 42
Soil Scientists ................................................................................................... 43
Taking the Swamp out of Swamp Water ............................................... 45
pH Patrol ........................................................................................................... 47
Oil Spills ............................................................................................................. 49
Water Quality .................................................................................................. 52
Carter Creek ..................................................................................................... 52
Further down the River: Estuarine Ecology........................................... 56
Manatees and Rainbow River....................................................................59
Lido Beach...........................................................................................................63
Everglades National Park ............................................................................64
National Parks ................................................................................................. 64
Park Ranger Roundtable ............................................................................. 68
Comparative Data Collection .................................................................... 69
Mangroves and Kayaking............................................................................70
Coral Reefs and Snorkeling.........................................................................72
Snorkeling ........................................................................................................ 72
Coral Reefs ........................................................................................................ 73
Threats to Coral Reefs ................................................................................... 74
Dolphin Swim ....................................................................................................76
Snorkel Adventure..........................................................................................77
Pollution and Conservation .......................................................................80
Become and Active Conservationist ....................................................... 80
Conservation Organizations ...................................................................... 80
The Rich and Famous ................................................................................... 81
The Pursuit of Renewable Energy Sources ........................................... 84
Master Naturalist Checklist ........................................................................87
Introduction
From the Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge, science is all about
the desire and curiosity to find out how something happens. Nobel
Prize winners were once students like you, who daydreamed about
new solutions to everyday problems. They knew the solutions existed
and they were determined to find them.
Consider Alfred Nobel, for example. In 1863, he was experimenting
with nitroglycerin and destroyed part of his family’s mansion. This
experiment proved to have created the most powerful weapon around
– dynamite. After his death, Nobel’s family outlined a foundation to
provide awards to “those who, in the previous year, have contributed
best towards the benefits for humankind.” Awards in the areas of
chemistry, physics, physiology or medicine, literature, peace, and
economics recognize outstanding achievement and encourage others
to continue their quest for knowledge. Today, the Nobel Prizes are the
most cherished and regarded awards earned.
While you may not be a Nobel Prize winner just yet, your participation
in this program shows that you have a passion for science and, more
specifically, for environmental science. Throughout this adventure
you will be challenged to use your own creative ideas while addressing
environmental issues and concerns.
The goals of this program are to:
1. Introduce new topics
2. Share challenging questions
3. Explore, synthesize, and evaluate environmental issues
4. Think critically and creatively about promoting positive
change on our planet both individually and globally
5. Evoke curiosity
Environmental Science
Dive In Discovery Journal
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Environmental Science
Environmental science encompasses worldwide factors such as air, light, moisture, temperature, soil, wind,
and living organisms. Millions of researchers from many different fields explore these complex factors. By
studying natural and industrial factors, scientists are attempting to identify and sort changes that have been
happening for millions of years versus changes that are accelerating due to human impacts. The following
table lists a sample of various environmental science fields and their areas of interest.
Environmental Science
Agrology
Areas of Interest
Analysis and management of usable land for growth of food crops
Bioengineering
Design or reconstruction of sustainable ecosystems
Botany
Characterization, growth, and distribution of plants
Conservation Biology
Preservation, management, or restoration of endangered areas or species
Ecology
Study of relationships between living organisms and their environment
Environmental Geology
Conservation of resources and future planning
Exploration Geophysics
Crustal composition to find resources
Forestry
Characterization, growth, distribution, and planting of trees
Geochemistry
Chemical composition of rocks and their changes
Geophysics
Earth’s magnetism, gravity’s electrical properties, and radioactivity
Glaciology
Formation, movement, and makeup of current glaciers
Hydrology
Composition and flow of water over the earth
Oceanography
Water makeup, currents, boundaries, topography, and marine life
Petrology
Origins, composition, alteration, and decay of rock
Volcanology
Formation, activity, temperature, and explosions of volcanoes
Wildlife Biology
Characterization and distribution of animal communities
Zoology
Characterization, growth, and distribution of animals
Williams, L., Environmental Science Demystified, New York, NY: The McGraw Hill Companies. Inc., 2005.
What area of science interests you from this list and why?
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Environmental Science
Dive In Discovery Journal
The Earth’s Spheres
The earth exists on the following four spheres: atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere. Probably the most important sphere which
separates earth from other known planets is the atmosphere. The
atmosphere is the key to the development of life. It is made up of a
mixture of gases whose combination allows life to exist. In the lower
atmosphere, nitrogen accounts for about 75% of the gases, followed by
oxygen at about 20%. The other gases are found in trace amounts. The
hydrosphere is the ever-changing total water cycle that is part of the
closed environment. It includes
earth’s most notable feature from
space – oceans. The earth’s surface
is mainly water and oceans make
up about 97% of the earth’s water.
Not only does the hydrosphere consist of the visible water but also
the water found in different states throughout the water cycle. A subcategory of the hydrosphere would be the cryosphere that includes all
of earth’s frozen water. The crust and top part of the mantle are known
as the lithosphere. This layer is the coolest of earth’s land layers and
insulates the active mantle layers below. All living things are found in
the biosphere, which includes all three spheres. The main elements that
are the roots to all living things in the biosphere are carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. The sphere interactions are not only numerous but also
diverse.
Ecosystems and Habitats
Ecosystems are complex communities of plant and animal life linked together by energy and nutrient flows
that interact with each other and their environment. Coral reefs, deserts, mangroves, and wetlands are all
examples of ecosystems. Every member of a specific ecosystem has a specific purpose or ecological niche.
The relationships between the ecological niches make up an ecosystem. When new species are introduced
and competition for a niche takes place, the ecological balance is upset. A new balance must be created for
the natural system to be successful. The same occurs when a species is eliminated. It is up to other species
to adapt or die.
Habitat is the area in which a plant or animal lives and finds nutrients, water, sunlight, shelter, space,
and other essentials. Habitat loss is the primary cause of biodiversity loss. Habitat loss is the destruction,
degradation, and fragmentation of habitats. This can occur naturally, from events like a hurricane or flood,
or can be man-made. When a species’ habitat is destroyed and cannot reproduce successfully, its numbers
drop and it is considered endangered. Endangered species are species threatened with extinction.
A variety of different methods are needed to prevent species from becoming extinct. World Wildlife Fund,
a conservation organization, has looked at factors such as richness of species, ecological importance, and
uniqueness to determine conservation priorities. These factors identified over 200 regions that are priorities
for conservation. The Global 200 promotes the idea that if ecosystems can be protected, then the organisms
that make up the ecosystems will also be protected. Once the regions that need protection are defined,
however, how do we then proceed and protect these areas? Conservation biology is the science used to
investigate impacts of humans on biodiversity and to develop practical solutions to the loss of biodiversity.
Conservation biologists focus not only on biological factors but also social, cultural, and economic factors to
determine the best strategies for protection.
Environmental Science
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Total World Biodiversity
How many species of organisms are there in the world? Half a million? One million? Consider not only all of
the birds, insects, mammals, and even types of plants seen in America, but also those existing in the deepest,
most remote parts of the South American Rainforest or the jungles of
India. How high would you guess now?
At present, between 1.4 and 1.8 million species of organisms have been
described and named, i.e., are “known to science.” Interestingly, about
24% of these are beetles! This is probably only a small proportion of
all the species that exist, though.
While some groups of organisms
(such as birds, mammals, or some
families of flowering plants) are
fairly well known, for other groups
(such as the insects, nematodes,
or fungi) it is extremely difficult
to estimate the total number of
species. There are almost certainly
several million of these that
are presently unknown. Many
estimates put the number of total
known species at only one-fifth of
what may actually exist. That means that many scientists believe that
over 80% of the world’s biodiversity has yet to be documented!
Group
Bacteria
Described species
Estimated total
species
% of total described
3,000
25,000,000
0.1%
Algae
Bryophytes
Vascular plants
40,000
17,000
220,000
350,000
25,000
270,000
11%
68%
61%
Fungi and Lichens
69,000
1,500,000
5%
15,000
80,000
22,500
9,040
4,000
500,000
6,000,000
35,000
9,100
4,020
3%
13%
64%
99%
>99%
Plants
Animals
Nematodes
Arthropods
Fish
Birds
Mammals
Estimates of biodiversity showing known and estimated totals of living species (Cranbrook and Edwards, Belalong, a Tropical Rainforest and other sources)
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Environmental Science
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Understanding the concept of global ecology
Before you go….
Grab an orange from your pantry. Come on, you know
you have one, and if you don’t, you really should eat
more fruit. Chomp down on a slice of that juicy, tasty
orange…yum. What a delicious treat. Have you ever
stopped to think about how that orange got to your
local market? It’s quite possible that the orange you
just enjoyed came from Florida. What did it take to
get that orange to your doorstep?
These are the types of questions that scholars of
environmental studies ask. They seek to understand
our global ecology, to understand the ways in which
environmental metamorphoses in one corner of the
world affect biota in other corners of the globe.
The air we breathe, the land we walk on, and the
water that we drink – these are all finite resources,
resources we share as a global community. Creating
a sustainable global ecology requires transnational
cooperation, and it starts with awareness that
the decisions we make as consumers can have far
reaching implications for the health of our planet.
This journal is about becoming aware, about asking
simple questions and finding out more about the
world in which we live, a world that is much bigger than just our backyard. You will not only learn a great
deal about environmental science, but you will learn about a variety of ways you can become involved in
saving our plant as a civic environmentalist. So let’s see how we can start making our world a more beautiful,
cleaner place!
Dive In Discovery Journal
Environmental Science
5
“Foodmiles” Calculations:
When we calculate the cost of a meal, we often do not take into consideration the ecological costs associated
with the production of a particular commodity. One such measure we should explore when assessing the
ecological costs of our consumptive behavior is the distance a product must travel in order to reach a group
of consumers. Where food is consumed close to its point of production, the ecological costs associated with
the consumption of that product will be minimal, e.g. an apple picked in a suburban garden and eaten at
once. However, where food is brought from a distant part of the world, the amount of energy used may be
very large, possibly greater than that needed to produce it.
It would be virtually impossible to calculate exactly the amount of energy used to transport a given item of
food from the farm, fishery, or factory where it was produced to its point of consumption. The concept of
foodmiles, however, may be used as an alternative unit of measurement to provide an illustration, but without
extreme claims to accuracy. (The term foodkilometre is strictly more appropriate, but is rather clumsy)
Foodmile value of an item of food = mass of food item (g) x distance transported (km).
An orange of mass 150 g from Spain, consumed in London could be worth 150 x 1,2000 or 180,000 units.
Here is a foodmiles calculation for a light breakfast consumed in Perth, Western Australia (WA).
Food Item
Pineapple juice
Cereal
Kiwifruit (portion)
Slice of Toast
Marmalade
Coffee
TOTAL
Mass (g)
200
200
50
50
5
10
Source
Queensland
New South Wales
New Zealand
Western Australia
Home-made
Papua New Guinea
Distance (km)
4,000
3,000
5,000
150
0
4,000
Foodmile Units
800,000
180,000
250,000
7,500
Negligible
40,000
1,277,500
OK, now let’s take a look at your breakfast. Execute the calculations necessary to determine how many foodmiles are
expended to make your breakfast.
Food Item
Mass (g)
Source
Distance (km) Foodmile Units
TOTAL
This comes from the DP Environmental Systems Booklet 5: Ecology in Urban Environments, pg. 12.
What can you determine from your findings?
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Environmental Science
Dive In Discovery Journal
Conservation of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is “the variability amongst living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine,
and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are a part: this includes diversity
within species, between species, and of ecosystems.”
- The Convention on Biodiversity (1992)
As quoted above, the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity took place to help establish international efforts to
study, document, and conserve biological diversity. Several goals were established, including some to be
implemented by 2010 and others that even became a part of the United Nations’ Millennium Development
Goals. Several reasons exist as to why these goals are important.
First, humans do not know all there is about biodiversity. For example, while some species are more
“well-known” (like the beetle), it is assumed that in certain parts of Asia or South America that hundreds
of thousands of unknown species of the “lesser-known” variety (like algae, fungi, or mosses) could exist.
It would be a tragedy if these were eliminated through habitat destruction before being discovered and
recorded.
Even less is known of the biochemical or other properties of the species that make up the earth’s biological
resources. The possibility exists that some of these species could provide value in the means of food,
medicine, or even a natural pesticide. Early antibiotics, such as penicillin, were obtained from fungi. Plants
used by early Australian Aboriginals are now being scientifically tested. These examples just scratch the
surface of the benefits, though not scientifically proven, that whole-medicines have been claiming for
some time. Perhaps the biological resources of the world’s rainforests could yield even more medicines as
historical as penicillin.
Another argument for the conservation of biodiversity is that natural ecosystems are made up of many
species of organisms, linked to one another in a myriad of intricate ways. Some scientists argue that complex
systems are inherently more stable than those that are simple. If one energy pathway or feedback loop is
damaged or removed, others exist that can take over.
Loss of species can also deplete the gene base of many crops and farm animals. Wheat, rice, and maize
provide one-half of the world’s food, yet are a challenge for farmers in the area of pest and disease control.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Environmental Science
7
Preserving the biodiversity of these invaluable crops is often vital in combating entire crop catastrophes.
Monoculture, the lack of biodiversity, was a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters in history,
including the Irish Potato Famine, the European wine industry collapse in the late 1800s, and the U.S.
Southern Corn Leaf Blight epidemic of 1970. Oftentimes it’s the introduction of a gene from a wild or foreign
strain of that crop that resists the disease and can perhaps save the crop.
Finally, do we have a moral or ethical duty to preserve as much as possible of the world’s biodiversity? This
argument states that plants and animals are complex beings, interesting and beautiful. Some emphasize
that they are part of God’s creation, and thus have a right to exist – with humans having a duty to protect
them. Debatable? Very much so, though consider that some species become extinct entirely on their own.
Plus, some would argue that exploiting an area of forest to build a hospital has more benefit than the wellbeing of some insignificant bug.
What is an Ecological Footprint?
An ecological footprint (EF) is a measure of the “load” imposed on nature by a given population. It compares
human consumption of natural resources with planet Earth’s ecological capacity to regenerate them. It is an
estimate of the amount of biologically productive land and sea area needed to:
a. regenerate (if possible) the resources a human population consumes
b. absorb and render harmless the corresponding waste
Using this assessment, it is possible to estimate how many planet Earths it would take to support humanity if
everybody lived a given lifestyle. While the measure is widely used, some also criticize the approach. Of the
many arguments, some include that an EF denies the benefits of trade or can only account for consumption
of renewable resources, or perfect substitutes thereof, as if the renewable resource had been used. It is also
argued that EFs should only be examined on the global scale. Many of the arguments against EF analysis are
dismissed, however, if the use of an EF is complemented with other indicators, such as one for biodiversity.
Sustainability
Can developmental needs be attained without compromising the needs of the future? With
sustainable development, the answer is yes. Sustainable development addresses the
relationships between economic prosperity, social equity, and ecological integrity.
Can we live sustainable lives? How?
At home?
Social equity
In the classroom?
On a field trip?
These are questions we will explore throughout
this adventure.
Economic prosperity
Ecological integrity
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Environmental Science
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Think about this information and complete the following activity:
For the inhabitants of Country X, the beautiful and tempting blue expanse of the Blue Sea, with its lazy curving beaches, is
no longer pure. Into this sea flows the urban and chemical waste from the Baltic States and beyond.
Marine life has suffered as a direct result of Country X’s fishing policies. The natural balance has
been destroyed by overfishing, and during the 1980s spawning fish levels in the entire Blue Sea
fell by more than 50 percent. In the past 20 years, the concentration of nitrate from improperly
treated waste water quadrupled during the winter months. This has increased organic material
on the sea bottom, which has reduced oxygen levels and led to a decline in numbers of fish. Stocks
of whitefish and smelt have dropped and cod reproduction has been seriously affected.
Naturalists say that some of the country’s mismanagement of coastal areas has actually protected
the whole coast from development. For nearly two generations, most coastal land remained
unused. For the first time in 50 years, people are rediscovering beautiful beaches. Country X’s
control also saved large tracts of woodland and wildlife, sustaining habitats that have completely
disappeared elsewhere in the world. Fortunately, Country X has several natural parks and special
areas set aside for the study of plants, animals, and geological sites.
You’re the President of Country X. What strategies would you adopt in order to protect your country’s natural
resources. Keep in mind that the Nitrate Fertilizing Company is one of your biggest political backers and the Beach Resort
Cartel also has tremendous political pull. How do you affect change without alienating potential political allies?
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Dive In Discovery Journal
Environmental Science
9
Population Growth
Sustainability is even more challenging to obtain with increasing population growth. An equation that can
be used to determine the impacts of population growth on the global environment is:
Number of people
x
Average person’s
consumption of
resources
x
Environmental
disruptiveness of
the technologies
that provide the
goods that people
consume
=
Impact of any
human group on
the environment
As you can see above, when population is high, even a small amount of technology disruptiveness can
greatly increase the impacts on the environment. However, increased knowledge may allow for a way to
create cheap and efficient energy, reducing the use of fossil fuels and limiting pollution.
Big environmental questions and topics that we will consider over the next week are as follows:
v
Climate change
v
Commercial fisheries
v
Consumer habits
v
Energy
v
Water quality
v
Ecotourism
v
How much biodiversity are we losing, and what are the effects?
v
Which communities are most affected by pollution and a lack of resources?
v
Is resource management linked to poverty, conflict, and politics?
v
Why is education important?
v
What are your moral and ethical obligations of conservation?
Any form of tourism will have impacts on the visited region. More tourists in an area may result in more
pollution and disturbance to protected regions. However, if done correctly, tourism can provide huge
economic benefits to local communities. In consideration of the economic benefits and their personal
pride, local communities are more likely to change any destructive habits, attempt to conserve regions, and
practice sustainable development for the benefit of all. Below are some things we can do to limit our impact
on this region and partake in green tourism during our expedition.
v
When buying souvenirs, consider not accepting the plastic bag in which the item is placed.
v
Reuse your personal water bottle to reduce the amount of bottles consumed from buying water.
v
Recycle.
v
Order fish from restaurants that use ocean-friendly techniques to obtain their menu items.
v
Do not buy souvenirs that support illegal fishing or collecting of species (such as shells).
v
Do not pick flowers.
v
Do not feed the wildlife.
v
Throw trash in appropriate receptacles.
You may see things throughout the trip that are not eco-friendly. What are they and what are alternative
solutions?
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Environmental Science
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Cycles:
Hydrologic Cycle
The earth’s water is always in movement and the water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes
this continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the earth. Since the water cycle is truly
a “cycle,” there is no beginning
or end. Water can change states
among liquid, vapor, and ice at
various places in the water cycle,
with these processes happening
in the blink of an eye or over
millions of years. Although
the balance of water on earth
remains fairly constant over time,
individual water molecules can
come and go in a hurry. The water
cycle is powered by solar energy
heating the oceans. The oceans
then reduce their temperature
through evaporative cooling;
86% of global evaporation occurs
from the oceans. Without the
cooling effect of evaporation, the
greenhouse effect would lead to a
much higher surface temperature
and a warmer planet.
The different processes of the water cycle are illustrated above and explained below:
v
Precipitation is condensed water vapor that falls to the earth’s surface. Most precipitation occurs as
rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog, and sleet.
v
Snowmelt refers to the runoff produced by melting snow.
v
Runoff includes the variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface
runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may infiltrate into the ground, evaporate into the air,
become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
v
Subsurface Flow is the flow of water underground. Subsurface water may return to the surface (such
as in a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface
at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures.
Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands
of years.
v
Advection is the movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapor states — through the atmosphere.
Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.
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11
Evaporation – Evaporation is the process whereby water rises from
the earth’s surface, changing from a liquid to a gas. In order for this to
take place, liquid water (H20) molecules must be energized. To illustrate
this, let’s focus on your common puddle. You can think of a puddle of
water as simply a collection of slow moving H20 molecules aggregated
together. When you add energy to a puddle, the molecules start moving
faster and faster ultimately breaking weak bonds that unite them, thus
allowing the molecules to ascend into the atmosphere as water vapor.
So where does this energy come from? Ultimately from the sun and
from UV rays reflected by clouds.
Transpiration
Carbon dioxide in
Oxygen and water
vapor out
Water and minerals
from roots
Sugars synthesized
by leaves
Transpiration – Transpiration is just like evaporation, except it happens through the leaves of plants. Again,
through this process, liquid water molecules change into water vapor.
Condensation – As water vapor molecules rise higher and higher into the atmosphere, the temperature
begins to drop, and the H20 molecules give off energy (heating the atmosphere). The molecule move slower
and slower, ultimately condensing and returning to a liquid phase. This is what happens when clouds form!
Sublimation – Whereas liquid molecules become gas molecules via evaporation, solid molecules become
gas molecules via sublimation. With sublimation, there is no intermediary step involved (i.e. ice never turns
to liquid before becoming a gas). If you’ve ever bought dry ice (solid carbon dioxide), you’ve witnessed
sublimation before. The gas rising from the solid ice block is CO2.
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Nitrogen Cycle
Water is not the only resource vital to life on earth; living organisms also require nitrogen. Nitrogen is one of
the essential elements in amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Thus, it is critical that animals secure
enough nitrogen in order to sustain appropriate amino acid levels. Believe it or not, the earth’s atmosphere
is made up of roughly 78% nitrogen. Animals, however, are unable to absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere
and must rely on the nitrogen cycle in order to secure appropriate quantities of the element.
It might be helpful to refer to the diagram above to get a handle on how the nitrogen cycle works. Oddly
enough, bacteria are essential to the proper functioning of this cycle. Nitrogen fixating bacteria—or bacteria
that can combine atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen—can convert nitrogen into a usable ammonia
compound that can be taken up by plants. Other bacteria, known as nitrifying bacteria, converts ammonia
into usable nitrate compounds that can also be taken up by plants.
Herbivorous animals acquire nitrogen by consuming vegetation, and carnivorous (meat-eating) and
omnivorous (both meat- and plant-eating) animals, in turn, acquire nitrogen by eating herbivorous creatures.
The cycle comes full circle when animals and plants die, returning nitrogen to the soil. The cycle is complete
when denitrifying bacteria in the soil return nitrogen to the atmosphere.
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Environmental Science
13
Global Warming
Global warming is the increase
in the average temperature of the
earth’s near-surface air and oceans
in recent decades and its projected continuation. Is increased
human activity the root of recent
catastrophes and global warming scenarios? Or is this attitude
a result of incomplete and bad
science? These questions have
made this issue highly publicized
and ruthlessly politicized. The
concept that mankind has had
an effect on average global temperatures was unimaginable until
the 1960s. Currently, most experts
agree that the planet’s temperature has risen over the past century due to a primary greenhouse
gas, carbon dioxide. It is debated, however, that climate change is a normal environmental variation. There
is also disagreement as to the extent of problems that global warming could be causing.
In order to understand global warming, let’s highlight the basics. The greenhouse effect, discovered in
1824, is the process in which the emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere warms a planet’s surface.
The name comes from an incorrect
analogy with the warming of the
Space
air inside a greenhouse compared
Outgoing
Longwave
to the air outside the greenhouse.
Radiation
The earth absorbs incoming solar
radiation and then tries to cool
Atmosphere
itself by emitting long wavelength
Backscattered
Reflected by
by Air
Emitted by
Clouds
infrared radiation. This radiation is
Clouds
absorbed by greenhouse gases,
Absorbed by
such as (in the order of relative
Emitted
by
Clouds, Water
Absorbed by
Water Vapor
Reflected by
Vapor
and
Gasses
abundance) water vapor, carbon
Water Vapor
and Gasses
Surface
and Gasses
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
and ozone. Greenhouse gases
come from natural sources and
Earth
Absorbed by
human activity. The absorption
earth
of these gases is what leads to an
increased average temperature.
Solar Radiation
Net Longwave Radiation
Where is the proof of this warming trend?
vThe edge of the Qori Kalis glacier that flows off the Quelccaya ice cap high in the Peruvian Andes
Mountains was retreating at a rate of 13 feet annually between 1963 and 1978. By 1995, that rate had
grown to 99 feet each year.
vThe freezing level in the earth’s atmosphere – the height where the air temperature reaches 0°­C –
has been gaining altitude since 1970 at a rate of nearly 15 feet each year.
14
Environmental Science
Dive In Discovery Journal
vIce cores taken from the Dunde ice cap in eastern Tibet have shown that the last 50 years were the
warmest in recorded history. A similar ice core record from the Huascaran ice cap in Peru has shown
a strong warming over the last 200 years.
Aerial view of receding glaciers in the Bhutan-Himalaya
What now?
Increasing global temperature will cause sea level to rise, and is expected to both increase the intensity
of extreme weather events and change the amount and pattern of precipitation. Other effects of global
warming include changes in agricultural yields, trade routes, glacier
retreat, species extinctions, and increases in the ranges of disease
vectors. Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of
warming expected in the future and how warming-related changes
will vary from region to region around the globe.
Global leaders have met on this subject and outlined legal rules forming
what is known as the Kyoto Protocol. This treaty was designed to
limit global greenhouse gas emissions and opened for signature on
December 11, 1997. As of December 2007, a total of 174 countries had
ratified the agreement representing about 60% of total emissions. The
United States does not support the Kyoto Protocol, disagreeing with
a number of its provisions. Instead, the country is developing its own
strategies for regulating greenhouse gas emissions without affecting
the U.S. economy.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Environmental Science
15
Scientific Research
The most important part of all research projects is money. Scientists come up with ideas to be tested every day,
however, very few of them get the money needed to complete the research. Money is needed for travel, the
purchase of tools and equipment, and to pay for the time involved with each project. When reading research
papers, notice that there is always a section stating who funded the project. It is usually a good tip to determine
how the data collected will be influenced by the financial source. For example, if a sugar company is paying
for an ecological assessment of its crops, the data it collects may only
represent certain factors which are not harmful to the region. However, if
a bird conservation organization grants the money for a project studying
the same fields, then their data may represent negative impacts from the
crops on the region.
How is research funded? The answer can be very broad since the
money can come from anyone who wants to support the research.
Many projects are privately funded. If the research is for the potential
development of a new product, then perhaps the money donor will
benefit from the product developed as well. Grants can also come from
the government.
Many grant donors require potential grant recipients to submit
preliminary proposals in the form of inquiry letters before they are
invited to submit a full proposal. Inquiry letters are designed to convince
the grant donor to consider the request. They allow the grant donor to
review a concise portion of the proposal and project. Inquiry letters
should establish a connection between the grant donor’s priorities and
the proposal’s goals. The inquiry letter should focus on detail, clarity,
and conciseness.
Most inquiry letters are usually two or three pages and include the following:
Coversheet:
• Organization name and address
• Contact name and title
• Telephone, fax, email address
Introduction:
• The mission of the organization
• The purpose of the request
• How the request fits the grant donor’s funding priorities
• Total proposed research budget
• Grant amount being requested
• Other funding sources
• Proposed time frame of project
Narrative:
• The purpose of the request
• The hypothesis being addressed and how you will address it
• How the research will promote long term change
Financial Information:
• List of budget for equipment
• List of budget for operating
16
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Dive In Discovery Journal
Create an Inquiry Letter
As a team, you are to complete an inquiry letter. One of the major pieces of equipment you will need
for your research is the data-collection device. The goal of your inquiry letter is to convince the grant
donor to give you the tools needed to complete your project. By following the above guidelines, use
the next two pages to complete your letter. Note the first page is the coversheet followed by the second
page containing the remaining needed elements. The following will help you complete this activity
successfully:
1) The chaperones represent grant makers who work for a company providing bottled water.
2) Create a hypothesis that can be tested using the data collection device and may apply to Florida
and its ecosystems.
3) Create a research plan: where and how the study will take place.
4) Explain why this study is important, who will benefit from it, and how you will succeed.
5) In addition to listing the need for the data collection device, include how much the operation
costs will be.
6) Explain how the data collection device will be used to solve your hypothesis.
7) While the grant donors are reading the letters, each group will make a short public presentation
on their proposal.
8) Remember that you are being awarded your grant (your data collection device) so that you will
be able to compete in future activities successfully.
Good luck!
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
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Dive In Discovery Journal
Environmental Science
17
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
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18
Using Your LabQuest
Dive In Discovery Journal
Welcome to LabQuest!
This guide will get you started with basic data collection.
LabQuest can be used in many ways:
• As a stand-alone data collection and analysis device, using only the color touch screen and the keys on
the front panel
• As a data-collection interface, connected to a computer
• To run tools such as the Periodic Table or Stopwatch applications
Inspect your LabQuest!
Find the power button
in the upper left corner, and press it. If the screen does not light after a moment,
connect the power adapter to the LabQuest and to a power source.
LabQuest is controlled by the screen and the navigation cluster below the screen. The button you’ll use most
often is the Collect button
located just below the screen. On the left side of LabQuest are the audio
ports and the power port, used to recharge the battery. On the right side are two digital sensor ports, used
for Motion Detectors, Drop Counters, and other digital sensors. The top edge of LabQuest has four ports, for
sensors such as pH, Force, or Temperature. Also on that top edge are a stylus storage slot, a full size USB port
for printers, memory sticks, and other peripherals, an SD card slot for memory expansion, and a mini USB port
for connecting LabQuest to a computer. On the underside are the battery compartment and a security and
stylus tether attachment point.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Using Your LabQuest
19
Quick Data Collection
Here’s how to quickly collect some data with your new LabQuest:
1
2
3
Wake your LabQuest by pressing the silver power button on the upper left corner.* If no
File menu is visible, tap the Home
icon and tap LabQuest App. Using the stylus, choose
New from the File menu, and discard any existing data.
Connect a sensor such as Temperature, Light or Force to one of the ports on
the top of LabQuest. LabQuest will set itself for data collection with that sensor.
Note the live readout on the Meter screen.
Press the Collect button just below the LabQuest screen. Data collection begins, and
a graph shows your data being plotted in real time.
*If LabQuest does not wake, your battery may need charging. Attach the LabQuest power supply, and in several minutes your LabQuest
will be ready to go.
LabQuest App Basics
Take some data using the three steps above and then try some LabQuest analysis features.
Use the stylus to analyze your data
Tap on the graph, near some feature of interest. The Examine
cursor jumps to the nearest data point of the x-value you
tapped. Cursor lines highlight the x- and y-axis values, and the
right-side readouts display the associated numerical values of
the selected point.
The Analyze menu
The Analyze menu enables additional ways to inspect your
data. For example, tap Analyze, then tap Tangent. Now tap
near an interesting point on your graph; a tangent line is drawn
in addition to the Examine cursors. On the right side of the
graph, the numerical value of the slope is shown. To turn off
the Tangent function, choose it again from the Analyze menu.
20
Caladesi Island Guide
Dive In Discovery Journal
Introduction
Caladesi Island is an undeveloped barrier island just North of Clearwater Beach. It is part of the Honeymoon
Island State Park system and is accessible by ferry from Honeymoon Island.
Our field trip to Caladesi Island focuses on geological and physical oceanography of coastal barrier island
systems. Through a series of field exercises, we will explore the following topics:
• What is a beach?
• How does it respond to changes caused by storms, human activities, and other processes?
• What are the offshore components of a barrier island?
• What is the relationship between currents, winds, and tides?
• What are longshore currents?
• What is the relationship between energy and particle size?
We will divide into three groups and each group will rotate through a series of three activity stations:
• Station 1: Beach profiling and characterization
• Station 2: Offshore profiling plus wind currents
• Station 3: Longshore currents and settling velocities
Time permitting, we may also rotate through two additional stations:
• Station 4: Sedimentary structures
• Station 5: Coastal plant identification
At each station, your group will make a series of measurements that you will record along with your observations
in this Discovery Journal. After the research, we will combine all of our observations in order to reach some
conclusions regarding the topics explored on Caladesi Island.
Barrier Islands
Barrier Islands are low-lying,
exposed bodies of sand separated
from the mainland by a marsh
or lagoon. Barrier islands protect
the mainland from flooding and
erosion during storms by acting
as a “plastic” defense system.
In other words, barrier islands
migrate and change shape as they
absorb the energy of impacting
storms and of currents. However,
because most of Florida’s barrier
islands are beautiful beaches,
they are frequented by the locals
and tourists. Human activity and
industrial development on barrier
islands take away their ability
to protect the mainland and
themselves from erosion.
Caladesi Island Guide
Dive In Discovery Journal
21
Caladesi Island
Clearwater
Beach Isl.
1883
ss
Pa
Big
Hog Isl.
1000m
N
South Hog
Isl.
ss
Pa
1950
Caladesi Isl.
Honeymoon Isl.
e
an
ss
Pa
Big
North Hog Isl.
ric
ur
H
Clearwater
Beach Isl.
1926
ss
Pa
Big
e
an
Clearwater
Beach Isl.
ric
ur
H
ss
Pa
Clearwater
Beach Isl.
Honeymoon Isl.
1970
Caladesi Isl.
ne
ica
in
ned
Du
ss
Pa
rr
Hu
Caladesi and Honeymoon Islands are part
of the Florida Parks system and until 1921,
they formed a single island called Hog
Island (see Figure 1). In 1921, however, a
hurricane cut Hog Island in two, creating
Hurricane Pass between the newly formed
Caladesi and Honeymoon Islands. Caladesi
Island is a natural drumstick barrier island
(drumstick refers to its shape) that is
actively migrating. Caladesi was bordered
on the south by Dunedin Pass, a natural,
unstable tidal pass that closed in the early
1990s as it was filled in with sand carried
by longshore currents. Now Caladesi Island
and Clearwater Beach are connected. The
north end of Caladesi Island near Hurricane
Pass is actively eroding and is very narrow.
s
Pa
s
Beaches
Clearwater
Beach Isl.
ss
Pa
Caladesi Isl.
icane
in
ned
Du
Honeymoon Isl.
1976
Hurr
Pass
A beach is an accumulation (a pile) of
unconsolidated (loose) sediment that is
located at the intersection of the land and
the sea. Beaches are continuously changing
and are affected by many processes such as
winds, tides, and waves. To form a beach,
a supply of sediment and a place for the
sediment to accumulate are needed. See
Figure 2 for an illustration of the terms used
to describe beach areas.
Figure 1. Sequential maps of Caladesi Island area since 1883, showing morphologic
changes and the formation of Hurricane Pass.
(After Lynch-Blosse, M.A. and R.A. Davis, 1977, Stability of Dunedin and Hurricane Passes, Pinellas County)
Beach and Inshore Features
Shelf
Inshore
Foreshore
Backshore
Dunes
Beach face
You
Swash zone
High tide
Ridge
Low tide
Step
Trough
Longshore bar
Figure 2. Terminology used to describe beaches.
Runnel
Berm
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Caladesi Island Guide
Dive In Discovery Journal
Station 1: Beach Profile
Beaches and Inshore Features
A beach profile (a diagram of shape and position) can be used to measure changes in the beach from year
to year or compare beaches from one location to another.
How do we study beaches?
I. Measure shape.
A. The Emery method (A simple method that is easy to use.)
Equipment: two measuring poles, two people, rope, notebook, graph paper, and pencil.
1. Start at the back of the beach, where the vegetation ends. Tie a two-meter long length of rope
between the bottom of each of the poles (Poles A and B).
2. One of the pole people holds Pole A upright at the back of the beach. The other pole person takes
Pole B and moves towards the ocean, holding the pole upright until the rope becomes taut.
3. The person holding Pole A looks out from the pole towards the horizon and lines up the horizon
with the top of the Pole B to form an imaginary line between the two. This person records the
height at which the imaginary line intersects Pole A.
4. The height of Pole B minus the height the imaginary line intersected Pole A is the change of
elevation.
5. Record this change in elevation on the Beach Profile Data Sheet.
6. Pole A is moved to Pole B’s position and steps 2 through 6 repeated until person holding Pole B is
in chest-deep water.
7. The changes in elevation along the beach are used to plot a beach profile during the wrap up
session after the excursion.
B. The transit and stadia rod method (We will use this method because it is more accurate.)
Equipment: surveying transit and tripod, stadia rod, tape measure, notebook, graph paper, pencil,
sample bags, and marking pens.
1. Set up the tripod on a high point on the beach and attach the surveying transit to the tripod.
2. Make sure the surveying transit is level. To level the transit, adjust the knobs at the base of the
transit. The transit is level when the bubble is in the center of the level circle.
3. Measure the height of the eyepiece. Record this height on the Beach Data Profile Sheet.
4. Layout the tape measure from where the dunes end at the back of the beach towards the ocean.
5. Rod person goes to the back of the beach with the rod. The rod is held vertically with the numbers
facing the tripod.
6. The surveyor points the transit towards the rod person. The surveyor looks through the eyepiece
and focuses on the rod.
7. The surveyor reads off the eyepiece center line height of the rod. The surveying note-taker records
this height on the data sheet.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Caladesi Island Guide
23
8. The rod note-taker writes down the beach features at this location and collects a sand sample.
9. The rod person advances four meters forward.
10.Repeat steps 5 through 9 until rod person is chest-deep in the water (at the marker buoy).
11.The profile will be plotted back in lab.
II. Identify the zones and features of a beach.
A.Vegetation:
Different types of vegetation grow along the beach. We talked about some of the vegetation on
the lagoon side of the island as we walked from the ferry to the beach. Where vegetation grows
depends on how well it can survive in the harsh environment of the barrier island. Stability of the
surface, amount of fresh water, amount of salt spray, competition among vegetation types, etc., will
affect if and what types of vegetation can grow. Vegetation along the back of the beach is important
in stabilizing dunes. Small patches of vegetation are shown in your field guide. See if any of these
types are present and record on your Beach Profile Data Sheet.
B. Feature of the Beach:
See if you can identify these other features and record the location of these features on your Beach
Profile Data Sheet.
berm line: line where the beach slopes downward both seaward and landward
wet/dry line, high tide line, rack line: line on the beach of highest tide
swash zone: area on beach where the waves run up and then return
scarps: small cliffs cut or eroded into the beach or dunes by waves
step: a sharp drop just seaward of swash zone; often contains coarse shell fragments
sand bars: offshore underwater ridges of sand just seaward of beach
troughs: low just landward of the bar
ridges: same as bar but above mean low water
runnels: same as trough but above mean low water
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Caladesi Island Guide
Dive In Discovery Journal
III. We collect samples.
At each location where elevation is measured, sand samples should also be collected. The sand
should be scooped up and placed in a bag. Label the bag with its location. These will be examined
later in the lab.
Beach Profile Data Sheet
Location:
Date:
Start point:
Transit height:
Distance:
Elevation:
Time:
End point:
Comments:
Sediment Sample #:
Features:
Dive In Discovery Journal
Caladesi Island Guide
25
Caladesi Island Guide
26
Dive In Discovery Journal
Station 2: Hydrography
Offshore Features
On the beach, we were able to “see” the geology and the features of the land. It’s a little harder to look at the
same kinds of features while on the water – but not impossible. Hydrography, a subset of oceanography,
focuses on the measurement of physical characteristics of waters and marginal land. It pertains to the
measurement and description of any waters. With that usage oceanography and limnology are subsets of
hydrography. Hydrographic measurements include the tidal, current, and wave information of physical
oceanography.
In the following exercises, we will be looking at the shape of the land by surveying it from a boat. This is an
underwater continuation of the beach profile that you will measure onshore. Beaches and nearshore areas
are affected by many forces: currents, winds, tides, storms, waves, and other factors. These forces affect what
kinds of shorelines form (sandy beaches or mangrove areas, for example) and how they change through
time. In this exercise, we will also be looking at offshore currents and winds by measuring them with several
instruments on the boat.
Offshore Beach Profile
To continue your beach profile offshore, you will use a bottom profiler aboard the boat to look at the shape of
the sea floor bottom underneath the boat. The bottom profiler sends out waves that bounce off the bottom
and return upwards to the profiler. By measuring how long it takes for the sound wave to bounce back up
to the profiler, the bottom profiler estimates how far away the bottom is from the water surface. The bottom
profiler automatically prints a cross-section of the offshore profile for you.
The beach profile ends at the nearshore buoy; the offshore profile begins there and extends out to the offshore
buoy. Look at Figure 3 to get a sense of how this works.
Boat with Bottom Profiler
Nearshore Buoy
Offshore Buoy
Berm
Runnel
and Ridge
Buoy Anchor
Longshore Bar
Figure 3. Offshore bottom profiling.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Caladesi Island Guide
Measuring our Boat Position
Positions on the earth’s surface are described by their
own special terms: latitude (north–south) and longitude
(east–west). Figure 4 shows this relationship. By measuring
latitude and longitude accurately, you can locate your beach
and offshore profile on a map, or return to exactly the same
place again to see how it has changed through time.
27
North
Arctic Circle
Lines of Longitude,
or Meridians
Lines of Latitude,
or Parallels
Tropic of Cancer
Equator
In order to locate your offshore profile on a map, you will
record the locations of your starting and ending points: the
nearshore and offshore buoys. These locations are measured
automatically by instruments on the boat. Record these
locations on Worksheet 1-A on the following page.
Tropic of Capricorn
Antarctic Circle
South
North
90°
Measuring Currents
70 °
60 °
Currents (how fast the water is moving and in what
direction) are a very important force in shaping beaches
and nearshore areas. Currents move sediments around and
can create beaches and sandbars through sedimentation
or destroy them through erosion. Winds and tides are the
most important elements to influence currents that flow
past barrier islands.
80 °
50 °
20 °
Lat it u
de
40 °
30 °
10 °
Longitude
West 90°
10 °
0° East
Prime Meridian
In this exercise, we will look at currents near the offshore
80 °
30 ° 20 °
70 ° 60 ° 50 °
40 °
buoy by using an electromagnetic current meter on the Figure 4. Longitude and latitude.
boat. Current measurements will be taken at several
different depths in the water so that we can look at variations in the current strength. Why might the current
not move at the same speed at all depths in the water? Record your thoughts on Worksheet 1-B.
The current meter is an instrument that measures the speed of the water moving past it. On Worksheet 1-C,
record the current speed and time at each of the four depths measured. Each person in the group will record
the current speed. Later, we will average the measurements for each depth to get a representative current
speed and graph them to make a current profile. Why do you think it is more representative to average the
current measurements than it is to use just one measurement? Write down your thoughts about this on
Worksheet 1-F.
The current meter that we are using does not tell us the direction which the water flows. We can, however,
measure the current direction at the surface by throwing a tied-off rope from the back or stern of the boat.
The rope will orient itself with the current and we will measure the current direction. Each person in the
group will use a compass to measure and record the current direction (record on Worksheet 1-D), then later
we will average these measurements.
Measuring Winds
Winds play an important role in determining how surface waters move. As the wind blows across the surface
of the water, it imparts some of its energy upon the water through frictional interactions. Basically, the wind
drags the surface water along with it.
We will measure wind speed and direction at the offshore buoy using an anemometer, which is an instrument
that looks like a weathervane and works a lot like one, too. The vanes of the anemometer orient themselves
with the wind and an instrument inside measures the wind speed and direction. Record the wind speed at
15-second intervals for a minute on Worksheet 1-E. Later, we will average the measurements and plot them
alongside the surface current measurements to see if there is a relationship.
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Caladesi Island Guide
Dive In Discovery Journal
Worksheet 1
A. Latitude and longitude for bottom profiler
Path of
the boat
Beach
Nearshore buoy
latitude and longitude
Offshore buoy
latitude and longitude
B. Why might current speed vary with water depth?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
C. Current speed measurements
Distance below
surface
Units _________
Time
Current speed
Average current
speed
Units ________
Units ________
Caladesi Island Guide
Dive In Discovery Journal
29
C. Current speed measurements (continued)
TOTAL of current speed measurements
Average current speed = __________________________________
Number of people taking measurements
_____ meters below surface
_____ meters below surface
Current speed
_____ meters below surface
Current speed
_____ meters below surface
Current speed
Current speed
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
Number ___
___________
TOTAL
___________
Average = ___ /___ = ___m/s
TOTAL
___________
Average = ___ /___ = ___m/s
TOTAL
___________
Average = ___ /___ = ___m/s
TOTAL
___________
Average = ___ /___ = ___m/s
D. Surface current direction measurements
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
Average
Direction
E. Wind speed measurements
Number
Time
Wind Speed
Wind Direction
Total
Average wind speed = sum of speeds / # of measurements = _____ / _____ = _____ m/s
Average wind direction = sum of measurements / # of measurements = _____ / _____ = _____ degrees
Caladesi Island Guide
30
Dive In Discovery Journal
F. Why do you think that it is important to average the current speed measurements?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
G. Comparison of wind velocity and surface current velocity
North
0°
315°
45°
West
270°
East
90°
225°
135°
South
180°
Wind scale:
_________
Average wind speed _____
Average wind direction _____
Current scale:
___________
Average surface current speed _____
Average surface current direction _____
Current speed in meters per second (m/s)
H. Plot the water depth versus current speed
Water depth in meters (m)
Dive In Discovery Journal
Caladesi Island Guide
31
Station 3: Beach Processes
There are many natural processes that affect beaches. Some of these include currents, winds, waves, and tides.
Longshore Currents
Longshore currents are examined at this station. They are currents that flow parallel to the shoreline along
most beaches, usually in the nearshore region. Longshore currents are produced when the waves approach
the shore at an angle rather than parallel to the shoreline (Figure 6). The direction of the current depends
mainly on the direction from which the waves are approaching, whereas the strength of the current depends
on wave and wind strength and the angle of the waves as the approach the shoreline. Typical longshore
current speeds are between 0.3 m/s and 1 m/s.
Longshore currents are important forces that move sediment along shorelines, especially along gently
sloping beaches. On steep beaches, however, sediment transport relies more on wave swash and backwash
(on and offshore transport of sediments due to wave breaking). On the Florida coast, sediments are generally
moved to the south by longshore currents. The direction of transport may reverse, however, during certain
wind conditions. Reversal usually only lasts for a very short time. Several types of longshore currents are
shown on the next page in Figure 6.
Most of the sand on the Atlantic
coast of Florida was transported
from further north along the
east coast of North America by
longshore currents moving to the
south. These sands were formed
when rocks further to the north
were broken into very small pieces
over a long period of time and
eventually carried by rivers to the
coast. While some of the sand on
the Gulf of Mexico coast of Florida
(the beaches along Pinellas
County) also originated from rock
breakdown in the north, much
of that sand is derived from shell
(limestone) material.
Standing on the beach, look at the ocean. What can you guess about the direction of the longshore
current running along Caladesi Island?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
32
Caladesi Island Guide
Dive In Discovery Journal
Longshore Currents
Waves approaching
parallel to shoreline
Wave Crest
No longshore current
Shoreline
Waves approaching
at an angle to shoreline
st
e Cre
v
a
W
Longshore current direction
Shoreline
Waves approaching
at an angle to shoreline
Wav
e Cre
st
Longshore current direction
Shoreline
Figure 6. Longshore currents.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Caladesi Island Guide
33
In this exercise, we will determine the speed and direction of the longshore current using a dye tracer. First,
look at the waves as they approach the beach. Can you tell what direction they are coming from? Look at the
pictures in Figure 6. Based on the direction of wave approach, in what direction do you expect the longshore
current to be moving? Toward the north or toward the south?
To determine current direction, take a small amount of the dye (about a tablespoon), walk 5 meters into the
water and dump the dye into the water. (Try not to spill the dye on your clothing.) Which way does the dye
move? Is it moving in the direction that you guessed earlier?
Measuring Current Speed
Equipment:
•dye
•stopwatch
• tape measure
•pencil
• data sheets
To measure current speed, use a tape measure to mark off two distances: a distance 10 meters long down
the beach in the direction that the dye moved, and a 10-meter distance in the opposite direction. Mark each
end and the middle with wooden stakes. Choose people in your group to be timers and recorders. Also
choose people to monitor the starting and ending points and someone to dump the dye into the water. Put
one person at each end of the tape measure on the beach and have the “dye” person walk out 5 meters into
the water from the “start” stake.
When the “starter” says go, the dye should be dumped into the water and the timer should start keeping
time (in seconds). When the dye plume in the water passes the “end” position, the person at that end of the
tape measure should yell “stop.” The timer should now tell the recorder how many seconds have passed
since the dye was dumped into the water.
How many seconds was it? ______ seconds.
Divide 10 meters (the distance that the dye has moved) by the number of seconds measured by the timer.
This is the current speed. (Use the space below to work out the math.)
What was yours? _________ meters per second.
What happens if you repeat the experiment in deeper water? Try both depths– repeat the 5 meter test – and
record your results below:
Distance
from shore (m)
5m
10 m
Distance
traveled (m)
Time (s)
Speed (m/s)
Direction (N or S)
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Rip Currents
Rip currents are narrow currents moving rapidly away from the shore. They form as a result of water getting
piled up on the beach by waves. Rip currents allow this water to flow back away from the beach. The shape
of the shoreline and the position of sandbars can help determine where rips form. When waves are parallel
to the shore (no angle), rips will be perpendicular to shore (see Figure 7 below). When waves are approaching
at an angle, the rips will also be angled.
Rip currents are important transporters of sediment (and sometimes people) away from the beach. The best
thing to do if you are caught in a rip current is not to panic and to calmly swim parallel to the shore until you
are out of the rip. Then swim back to shore. Do not try to swim against a rip current.
Rip Currents
Rip head
Mass transport
Breaker zone
Longshore currents
Beach
Figure 7. Rip currents.
Waves and Tides
Ocean waves are most commonly the result of wind but could also be caused by earthquakes and underwater
landslides. The shape of a typical wave is generally described as sine-shaped. The basic parts of a wave
(Figure 8) are the top of the wave, the crest, and the bottom of the wave, the trough. Wave length is the
distance between two successive crests (or two successive troughs). The wave length depends on the wave
period, which is the time it takes for an entire wave to pass a fixed point, and is generally measured in
seconds. Wave height is the vertical distance between the crest and trough. The amplitude of a wave is half
the wave height.
We will now measure the wave heights at the water’s edge. This can be done by standing in the water and,
as a wave passes you, keep track of where the trough and crest of the wave come in contact with your body.
Caladesi Island Guide
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35
Then measure the heights on your body with the meter stick. Make three to five measurements and record
them on the Wave Height Table below.
wavelength
crest
crest
amplitude
wave height
Still water level
trough
Figure 8. Terminology associated with waves.
Wave Height Table
Reading
Crest height (cm)
Trough height (cm)
Wave height (cm)
1
–
=
2
–
=
3
–
=
4
–
=
5
–
=
Average
–
=
Tides
Tides are created by the attractive forces of the sun and moon on the earth and by the earth’s constant
motion. Marine coasts experience a rise and fall of the sea level due to tides. A rising tide is referred to as
the flow and the falling tide is referred to as the ebb.
The common tidal pattern occurs twice a day (semi-diurnally), with a rise and fall occurring approximately
every 12 ½ hours. About 6 ¼ hours after the high water, a low water stage will occur. Once-a-day (diurnal)
tides have a rise and fall occurring approximately every 24 hours. Tidal range is the difference between
high and low water levels.
Every two weeks, a spring tide occurs where the tidal range is greater than usual. The week after a spring
tide is when the tidal range is less than usual, the neap tide.
When you are at the beach you can observe the tidal wave. Observe where the water level is when you
arrive at the beach, then before you leave see where the water level has moved. (See Figure 9 on the next
page for some help.)
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During your visit, was the tide flowing or ebbing?
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4399 27° 57.0' N 82° 48.0' W Clearwater, Gulf Coast-cont
Sunrise 6:36AM
3
20
Sunset 8:30PM
2.725 ft.
11:13AM
21
Sunrise 6:36AM
Sunset 8:30PM
2.859 ft.
11:53AM
2.392 ft.
1:13AM
2.333 ft.
12:27AM
2
1
0.986 ft.
6:20AM
0.970 ft.
5:38AM
0
-0.360 ft.
6:48PM
2
4
6
8
10
12
2
Legend:
Zero Line;
Solstice: 6/21 3:38AM New Moon: 6/21 7:59AM
4
6
8
-0.465 ft.
7:31PM
10
2
4
6
8
10
12
2
4
6
8
10
Figure 9. Tides near Caladesi Island; 6/20-21/01.
Depositional Energy
As we have mentioned before, the type of beach formed in any particular area is influenced strongly by
the energy there. A beach with very large waves (high energy) will tend to be made up of large grains such
as cobbles, whereas a beach with very small waves (low energy) will tend to be made up of fine-grained
sediments such as sand.
In this exercise, we will look at how the shape and size of a particle affects its ability to be moved by currents.
To do this, we will drop three different objects in the water and record how fast they sink and how far down
current they move. All of the objects are about the same weight, but their shapes and sizes vary. Two are
balls and one is a plate.
What type of particle found on this beach do you think the plate represents? Why?
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Caladesi Island Guide
37
Settling Speed Exercise
Equipment:
• two balls
•plate
• two meters sticks
•stopwatch
One person holds a meter stick upright with its bottom resting in the sand. Another meter stick is placed
on the bottom so that it is parallel to the path of the longshore current. The person holding the meter stick
will also be the timer. A second person will drop one of the objects at the water surface, measured on the
meter stick (see Figure 10). The timer will determine how long it takes for the object to fall to the bottom.
On Worksheet 2 on the next page, the third person will record the starting height, the time elapsed, and the
distance the object was carried by the current. Do this three times for each object and average the distances
for each.
The plate mimics the behavior of many shells on the beach: they are flatter and larger than the sand grains
around them. Although they are larger than the sand grains, they are moved around very easily by currents
(see Figure 10).
Do your results from this exercise support this?
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Settling Speed
Vertical Distance Traveled
IIIIIII
Object
Start
time
End
time
IIIIIIIIIIIII
Horizontal Distance Object Traveled
Figure 10. Settling speed diagrams near Caladesi Island.
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Worksheet 2
A. Settling speed measurements
Object:
Total time (s)
Vertical distance (cm)
Horizontal distance (cm)
Total time (s)
Vertical distance (cm)
Horizontal distance (cm)
Total time (s)
Vertical distance (cm)
Horizontal distance (cm)
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
Object:
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
Object:
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
Which object settled the quickest?
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Which object settled the slowest?
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Which object traveled the farthest horizontal distance?
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How do you think shape and size affect the sediment particles that you see on the beach?
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Caladesi Island Guide
39
The Science of Surfing
Let’s put what we’ve learned about
coastal hydrology to good use and
find out what a bathymetric field
study can tell us about the quality
of a particular surfing spot!
The key to understanding surfing
waves lies in bathymetry. As
you now know from reading
the previous section, waves are
created by wind blowing across
the surface of the ocean. Wind
energy is transferred into kinetic
energy when waves form. Further
off shore, perhaps standing on a
pier, you might observe a wave
coming towards you and think
that what you are seeing is a
massive wall of water rushing
towards shore. In reality, the water itself is not moving very far, and it is more appropriate to think of a wave
as energy traveling towards you, energy generated by winds far out at sea.
When a wave finally makes it
near the beach, the bathymetry
of the ocean floor will determine
whether a wave will be surfable
or not. When a swell—large wave
formation—approaches the shore,
water on the bottom of the ocean
slows down (because of friction),
causing water near the surface
to increase in height (again,
physicists refer to the height of a
wave as the amplitude; they also
refer to the distance between each wave as the period of a wave—see the diagram on the previous page).
Thus, if the ocean floor rises steeply towards the beach, a wave will be quite large and likely be fun to surf.
The rate at which the depth changes as a wave approaches the shore has a great deal to do with the size and
magnitude of a given wave. The greater the change in depth, the bigger the wave will be.
There are three major types of wave breaks: a beach break, point break, and reef break. A beach break occurs
when a wave breaks over a beachy bottom. These types of breaks are generally the safest (although perhaps
not the most dramatic) for beginner surfers because there is little risk
of hitting jagged rocks or coral outcrops. Point breaks are much more
dangerous. A point break occurs when the crest of a wave passes over a
rocky point or land mass, rapidly gaining amplitude and crashing with
considerable force. A reef break, as the name implies, occurs when a
wave begins to break once it hits a shallow reef. With both reef breaks
and point breaks, surfers must be careful not to fall, because if they do,
they may be dragged across coral structures and sharp rocks.
http://www.surfing-waves.com/peeling_waves.htm; http://www.csiro.au/scope/episodes/e14.htm
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Putting it All Together:
Now that you have used a bottom profiler to get a sense of the underwater topography offshore, let’s figure out a few things.
Surfers maintain that waves begin to break when the depth of the water beneath a wave is 1.3 times the height of the wave.
Measure the waves coming onshore and determine where you think, based on your bottom profile, the waves will break
offshore.
Keep in mind that wind patterns play a large role in determining whether waves will be surfable. A strong offshore wind
(wind blowing towards sea), for example, can make waves crumble, whereas an onshore wind (wind coming from the sea)
can help sustain waves as they move towards shore.
Putting together your wind speed data and bottom profile analysis, talk about why the beach you visited is or is not a
hotspot for surfers. Considering wind patterns, was today a particularly good day for surfing?
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Caladesi Island Guide
41
A Civic Environmentalist’s Vacation:
Despite what one may think, beaches are not barren deserts devoid of living organisms. As we have seen in the section on
beach vegetation, a variety of plants have adapted to the beach ecology and call the dry, sandy landscapes home. Many
animals—crabs, avians, and other sea creatures—also inhabit Florida’s beaches.
Beaches are also popular vacation spots for humans, and have thus, unfortunately, become polluted environments as
people have left behind empty cans and other trash.
Even if you’re on vacation, you should always think of yourself as a civic environmentalist looking for ways to help protect
the natural environments you visit. This afternoon, comb the beach with a friend and spend some time picking up trash that
you find. Describe what you find on the beach and how those things might be dangerous to coastal organisms.
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Sweetwater Organic Farm
Sweetwater Organic Community Farm is a non-profit organic farm and educational facility located in Tampa,
Florida. Founded in 1995, it’s an example of Community Supported Agriculture that serves approximately
250 members and supporters and operates on 6 acres of suburban property along Sweetwater Creek in
Hillsborough County. Commonly known as CSA, Community Supported Agriculture was introduced to the
United States in 1985 with the intention of fostering social and ecological responsibility by establishing a
direct partnership between farmers and consumers. Unlike most forms of agriculture in which the farmer
bears all the risk, a CSA partnership allows members to share the risks and rewards with Sweetwater while
enjoying a sense of responsibility for appropriate land stewardship. Families and individuals become
members of Sweetwater by agreeing to pay a seasonal fee, which entitles them to a weekly portion (share)
of the harvest. Committing to a CSA is more than just access to produce; it involves the deliberate support
of sustainable, healthy agriculture.
It is now estimated that there are more than 1,000 CSAs nationwide, representing
a variety of operational approaches. At some, membership is a simple matter
of paying membership dues up-front, then picking up the goods once ready.
Sweetwater Farm encourages learning and member involvement by offering
rebates on paid memberships for work performed at the farm. This option is a
great way to help keep alive the vital, hands-on knowledge of producing food, as
well as offering experienced gardeners a chance to try things on a grander scale.
Sweetwater Farm is also a great source for learning!
Organic Earth
Today’s program is called Organic Earth. We will be tackling a topic that has no easy answers – pollution!
A haze of thick smog. An oil spill. An overflowing landfill. It’s not hard to find examples of pollution in our
society. You may be surprised to know that for the scientific community it is hard to precisely define pollution.
For example, is a can tossed on the ground pollution? How about an unsightly billboard? The noise from a
nearby airport?
According to science, all of these examples can be types of pollution. Broadly defined, pollution is any
human-caused change in the environment that creates an undesirable effect on living and non-living things.
Most types of pollution cause some form of physical harm, but some don’t. Noise, for example, often creates
more psychological damage than physical, but it’s still considered a type of pollution. In short, pollution is
bad stuff – for the environment and for the people and other living things in the environment.
For thousands of years, pollution wasn’t much of a problem. As long as people lived in scattered settlements
and the world’s human population was relatively small, the earth’s natural systems could accommodate
the effects of human waste. But once people began to live in cities and invent machines and synthetic
chemicals, pollution started taking its toll. Pollution has been linked to the fall of Rome (lead in the water
pipes); the cholera epidemic in 19th-century London (garbage in the streets); and many other significant
events throughout history.
Though pollution has been around for thousands of years, the sources of our pollution problems have
changed and the amount of pollution has increased dramatically. A century ago, people were dealing with
pollution from animal waste, coal ash, and open dumps. Today, pesticides, fertilizers, radiation, carbon
monoxide, acid rain, and a host of other new and toxic pollutants are the troublemakers. This increase in
the amount, number, and toxicity of pollutants, combined with an ever-increasing human population, has
made pollution worse than ever before – threatening the very integrity of earth’s life support systems.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Water Quality and Pollution
43
Today we are all going to be a part of the “Pollution Patrol” and work to unravel the causes of some of the
toxins in our environment and what we can all do right now to live a cleaner, healthier lifestyle. We will begin
by going through a series of training activities so that we can better understand the scientific techniques
behind environmental forensics. Once we are sufficiently trained, we will be faced with our final task of
determining responsibility in a bitter battle over the contamination of a major body of fresh water called
Carter Creek!
Soil Scientists
Soil consists of small particles of broken rock mixed with organic material (materials produced by living
things). Both the size of its particles and the amount of organic material it contains affect a soil’s waterholding ability.
Organic material in the soil (humus) acts something like a sponge, taking up water that enters the soil.
Organic material also helps to keep the soil’s pores open. As a result, soil rich in humus absorbs moisture
quickly. Quick water absorption means that there is little water left on the surface to become runoff, so
humus-rich fields are less likely to be damaged by erosion than fields that lack humus.
Humus-rich soils are preferred by farmers and gardeners, because the high water-holding ability of rich soil
provides more moisture for plant growth. The more moisture that enters the soil, the more productive a field
is likely to be. In dry areas, humus-rich soils require less irrigation to produce the same crop. Since irrigation
costs the farmer money, fields that retain their soil moisture are more profitable.
If the soil samples used in this experiment were in a farmer’s field rather than in plastic containers, the water
that passed through the soil would not drip out into a beaker but would continue sinking deeper into the
subsoil toward the water table. Although deep-lying soil moisture may not be directly accessible to plants
growing on the surface, it does recharge groundwater supplies. Therefore, having rainwater soak into the
subsoil is preferable to allowing much of it to become runoff.
Water absorption data
Rich soil
Poor soil
Time when water is added:
____________
____________
Time when dripping begins:
____________
____________
Time when dripping stops:
____________
____________
How many minutes did it take for the water to begin dripping in to the beaker from
a) the rich soil? ________ minutes
b) the poor soil? ________ minutes
Unabsorbed water data
After 20 minutes:
Rich soil Poor soil
Volume of water that did not enter the soil:
_________ ml
___________ ml
Volume of water that passed through the soil:
_________ ml
___________ ml
_________ ml
___________ ml
Total unabsorbed water: 44
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Dive In Discovery Journal
Determine how much water the rich and poor soil samples absorbed by subtracting the volume of
unabsorbed water from 500ml (the starting water volume) for each sample.
Water absorbed by soil sample = 500ml - total unabsorbed water
Water absorbed by the poor soil = 500ml - ______ ml = ______ ml
Water absorbed by the rich soil = 500ml - ______ ml = ______ ml
On the basis of your results, decide which of these soils you think would be best suited for growing
crops. Explain how you reached your decision.
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Why do you think that the soil samples absorbed different amounts of water?
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Water Quality and Pollution
45
Taking the Swamp out of Swamp Water
Water in lakes, rivers, and swamps often contains impurities that make
it look and smell bad; it may also contain bacteria and other organisms
that can cause disease. In most places, you should not drink from surface
water sources until the water has been cleaned. This activity illustrates
how both water treatment plants and nature turn swamp water into
drinking water. While actual water treatment plants work with huge
volumes of water daily, the processes that they use are fundamentally
similar to those that you will complete.
Of the four processes presented during your visit, coagulation is the
least familiar to most people. Alum (potassium aluminum sulfate) is
used in many water treatment plants to help settle out small particles
that are suspended in the water. Alum causes the very fine particles of
soil to stick together (coagulate), forming floc. The largest clumps of
floc quickly settle to the bottom of the water treatment tank. The floc
that remains suspended in the water is easier to filter from the water
than uncoagulated soil particles.
Describe the appearance and smell of the swamp water.
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Does aeration change the appearance or smell of the water? Describe any changes that you observe.
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After you have added alum crystals to the swamp water, allow the water to stand undisturbed in the
cylinder. Do not mix it or shake it. Observe the water at five minute intervals, and describe any changes in
the water’s appearance. Write your observations in the following spaces:
5 minutes: _______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
10 minutes:______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
After your treatment of the swamp water is complete, compare it with a sample of untreated swamp
water. How has treatment changed its appearance and smell?
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How do you think chemicals and toxins in the earth’s soil can affect the natural process of water
purification?
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Water Quality and Pollution
47
pH Patrol
Scientists describe the acidity of liquids in terms of their pH. The pH scale ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) to
14 (strongly basic). Pure distilled water is neutral, and has a pH of 7. Each unit on the pH scale indicates an
acidic change by a factor of 10. A solution of pH 6 is ten times as acidic as a pH 7 solution; a solution of pH 5
is one hundred times as acidic as a pH 7 solution.
Acid rain is the more commonly known description for precipitation
having a pH of 5 or lower. It takes two steps to make acid rain. First,
coal-burning power plants send sulfur dioxide into the air, and nitrogen
oxides come from the tailpipes of cars and trucks. Then, high in the
sky, these two pollutants meet up with water vapor and sunlight. The
result is the pollution precipitation.
There are many kinds of acid precipitation: rain, snow, sleet, hail,
fog, dew, and frost. Although the popular press often uses the term
acid rain in a generic sense to describe this problem, dew and frost
are technically not precipitation, so acid deposition is the most
comprehensive term.
Acid deposition is damaging plant and animal life in the United States, Canada, and Europe. Forests
are dying and some streams and lakes have become so acidic that fish can no longer live in them. The
precipitation in some areas of the northeastern United States often has a pH between 4 and 5 – sufficiently
acidic to injure or kill many types of living organisms. Lakes with a pH of about 6.5 (just slightly acidic) provide
optimal conditions for maintaining healthy populations of fish and other aquatic organisms. But as a result
of acid deposition, the lakes in certain areas of the country are becoming more and more acidic. Once the
pH of a lake’s water falls below 5 very few
organisms can survive.
There are some areas, however, that receive
acid deposition but seem to have suffered
far less obvious damage. This supports the
notion that the variety of soil composition
across habitats may be one of the factors
that determine the severity of the acid
deposition’s effects. Lakes and streams
that are surrounded by soils and rocks
that contain limestone and other naturally
occurring basic substances may not be
harmed immediately by acid precipitation.
The calcium carbonate in limestone
neutralizes some of the acid, preventing
the pH of the water in the lakes from falling
to dangerously low levels when it rains.
On the other hand, there are many places
where the soil is thin and the main type
of rock present is granite. Granite breaks
down into silica and clays that lack the
ability to neutralize acids to any large degree. In some areas where granite and granite-based soil are the
main geological features, the lakes have become so acidified that they can no longer support plant and
animal life. Forests surrounding these lakes often exhibit signs of damage from acid rain too.
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To find out if the water that rains on you is acid, here’s a simple way to test the waters.
Check your water and soil against this pH chart:
pH of common acids
pH of soda
________
pH of lemon juice________
pH of vinegar
________
pH of acid rain absorbed by different soils:
Type of soil
Color of strip_ Plain sand
____________ Sand and limestone
____________ pH
_________
_________
Which type of area do you think would be most likely to be damaged by acid rain – one where the soil
is sandy and contains little limestone, or an area with limestone-rich soil? Explain why you believe
this to be the case.
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Using the knowledge you gained from this activity, suggest a method to help reduce the problems of
acid rain.
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Water Quality and Pollution
49
What’s the Story on Oil Spills?
When we talk about oil spills, how much oil are we talking about?
Quite a lot:
•
The United States uses about 700 million gallons
of oil every day.
• The world uses nearly three billion gallons of oil
each day.
• The largest spill in the United States so far was
the Exxon Valdez spill into Prince William Sound,
Alaska, in March 1989. An oil tanker ran aground
causing this spill of almost 11 million gallons of
crude oil. While this was a big spill, it was actually
only a small fraction (less than 2%) of what the
United States uses in one day!
•
These big numbers are hard to relate to everyday
life, so here’s a comparison: that oil would have
filled up nine school gyms or 430 classrooms.
Birds killed as a result of oil from the Exxon Valdez spill.
Photo courtesy of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council.
For what do we use all of this oil?
We use oil to:
•
•
•
•
•
fuel our cars, trucks, and buses, and to heat our houses
lubricate machinery, large and small, such as bicycles or printing presses
make the asphalt we use to pave our roads
make plastics, such as the toys we play with and the portable radios or CD players we listen to
make medicines, ink, fertilizers, pesticides, paints, varnishes, and electricity
How do spills happen?
Oil spills into rivers, bays, and oceans are caused by accidents involving tankers, barges, pipelines, refineries,
and storage facilities, usually while the oil is being transported
to its users.
Spills can be caused by:
•
•
•
•
people making mistakes or being careless
equipment breaking down
natural disasters such as hurricanes
deliberate acts by terrorists, countries at war, vandals, or
illegal dumpers
Then what happens?
A supertanker, the Amoco Cadiz, sinking off the coast of
France in 1978.
Oil floats on salt water (the ocean) and usually floats on fresh water (rivers and lakes). Very heavy oil can
sometimes sink in fresh water, but this happens very rarely. Oil usually spreads out rapidly across the water
surface to form a thin layer that we call an oil slick. As the spreading process continues, the layer becomes
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thinner and thinner, finally becoming a very thin layer called a sheen,
which often looks like a rainbow. (You’ve probably seen colorful sheens
on roads or parking lots after a rain.)
Depending on the circumstances, oil spills can be very harmful to marine
birds and mammals, and also can harm fish and shellfish. Oil destroys
the insulating ability of fur-bearing mammals, such as sea otters, and
the water-repelling abilities of a bird’s feathers, thus exposing these
creatures to the harsh elements. Many birds and animals also ingest oil
when they try to clean themselves, which can poison them. Depending
on just where and when a spill happens, tens, or hundreds, or thousands
of birds and mammals can be killed or injured.
Once oil has spilled, any of various local, state, and federal government
agencies, as well as volunteer organizations may respond to the
incident. People may use any of the following kinds of tools to clean up spilled oil:
• booms, floating oil barriers (for example, a big boom may be placed around a tanker that is leaking
oil, to collect the oil)
• skimmers, boats that skim spilled oil from the water surface
• sorbents, big sponges used to absorb oil
• chemical dispersants and biological agents, which break down the oil into its chemical constituents
• in-situ burning, a method of burning freshly-spilled oil, usually while it’s floating on the water
• washing oil off beaches with either high-pressure or low-pressure hoses
• vacuum trucks, which can vacuum spilled oil off of beaches or the water surface
• shovels and road equipment, which are sometimes used to pick up oil or move oiled beach sand and
gravel down to where it can be cleaned by being tumbled around in the waves
Which methods and tools people choose depends on the circumstances of each event: the weather, the
type and amount of oil spilled, how far away from shore the oil has spilled, whether or not people live in the
area, what kinds of bird and animal habitats are in the area, and other factors. Different cleanup methods
work on different types of beaches and with different kinds of oil. For example, road equipment works very
well on sand beaches, but can’t be used in marshes or on beaches with big boulders or cobble (rounded
stones that are larger than pebbles, but smaller than boulders).
People also may set up stations where they can clean and rehabilitate wildlife. At times, people may even
decide not to respond at all to a spill, because in some cases, responding isn’t helpful or even adds to the
damage from the spill.
Who takes care of the problem?
In the United States, depending on where the spill occurs, either the U.S. Coast Guard or the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency takes charge of the spill response. They, in turn, often call on other agencies (NOAA and
the Fish and Wildlife Service are often called) for help and information.
The goal of new federal regulations is to prevent oil spills from happening. People who cause oil spills now
must pay severe penalties, and the regulations also call for safer vessel design in the hopes of avoiding
future spills. In the U.S., people who respond to oil spills must practice by conducting training drills. Those
who manage vessels and facilities that store or transport oil must develop plans explaining how they would
respond to a spill, so that they can respond effectively if there is ever the need.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Water Quality and Pollution
51
What about the rest of us?
Because oil and oil products in the environment can cause harm, we need to prevent problems when we
can. For example, by avoiding dumping oil or oily waste into the sewer or garbage, we avoid polluting
the environment in which we live. Sometimes, we can find ways to avoid using oil in the first place. For
example, we can bicycle, walk, or take the bus rather than driving a car. When we use less oil, less needs to
be transported, and there’s a lower risk of future oil spills. We should understand that it is because we rely
on oil that we run the risk of oil spills. That means that all of us share both the responsibility for creating the
problem of oil spills and the responsibility for finding ways to solve the problem.
Oil spill clean up
Describe how the oil reacts when you first introduce it to the water.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
How much oil can you clean up using the cotton pads? What problems does this method face?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
How do the sticks help you to clean up the oil?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
What happens to the oil when you add the dish detergent? What is the major problem with using the
detergent for a real oil spill?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Water Quality and Pollution
Dive In Discovery Journal
Water Quality
Clean water contains only hydrogen and oxygen. It becomes polluted when toxins, or poisons, get into the
water. Pollutants can be industrial chemicals, fertilizers, wastes, biological contaminants (like bacteria or
viruses), gasoline, or sediment. Poisons even stick to a speck of soil as it runs into the water. Pollutants get
into the water directly through pipes, or they seep in through the ground.
When water is polluted, it can
make humans, animals, and
plants sick. We can’t survive
without fresh clean water. Most of
the time in this country, we don’t
think about pollution. We believe
that the water at the kitchen sink
is clean. But sometimes, we may
have to boil our water before
we can drink it just to keep from
becoming sick.
We don’t have to drink polluted
water. We purify our water in
treatment plants, and nature also
recycles water through the natural
cycle. That way, it’s clean enough
for us to use again. We can also try
to keep pollutants from getting
into the water in the first place.
Pollution starts in different places and in different forms, but it often ends up in the same place: our water.
Garbage and litter on the ground washes into local waters. When people use fertilizers to help crops grow or
pesticides to kill insects, rainwater washes them into the ground and nearby waters. Fertilizers cause algae
to grow, which robs fish and other water creatures of oxygen.
Sometimes, it’s easier to blame what we can see easily. For example, a pipe that pours toxic chemicals directly
into a stream is point source pollution. But most water pollution is caused by nonpoint sources, such as
water that runs off streets, fields, mines, or logging sites. This nonpoint pollution, or polluted runoff, is
harder to see and harder to control.
Water on the move picks up poisons and carries waste with it. Storm drains carry runoff through pipes
beneath the streets. Some of those pipes lead directly to lakes, rivers, and even the ocean. Other runoff
seeps directly into the ground.
Carter Creek
Carter Creek has been the center of commerce and commercialization for Carterville Township over the
last 100 years. The scenic creek has recently been the site of luxury home building and has been the source
of power, fresh water, and water transportation. The fertile banks and surrounding woods provide trees for
wood and pulp products.
Now that you have been sufficiently trained in water pollution, we face our final challenge as environmental
forensic scientists. We must determine who is responsible for contaminating Carter Creek. Carterville
Township believes Carter Creek Paper and Plastics, Inc. (CCPP) is the culprit, though CCPP believes otherwise.
Either way, both the township and CCPP stand to lose a significant portion of revenues and development
unless we can locate the source of pollution and suggest a method of eliminating the problem.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Water Quality and Pollution
53
Map of Carterville and Carter Creek
Carter Creek flows from the north to the southwest at a fairly constant rate. It is fed by a natural underground
aquifer.
Sampling
Samples of water and stream bottom (X1 – X8 and Y1 – Y8, respectively) were taken at the same time,
on the same day. Each water sample was taken at a depth of one meter below the surface of the water,
approximately three meters from the bank of the stream. Bottom samples were taken directly below the
coordinating water sample.
Testing
It is necessary for us to test the water and sediment samples for suspect contaminants – specifically tests
for foreign organic compounds (2,4 D and polychlorinated biphenyls) and inorganic (lead and mercury)
contaminants.
Background for tested materials
Polychlorinated biphenyls: Compounds which are used for insulation and plastic-coated wire and
insulation purposes in transformers and capacitors. Polychlorinated biphenyls have been also used in
computer and electronics applications. These compounds are not very soluble in water and are usually
found (if present) in the sediment at the bottom of a lake or stream.
2,4 D: A compound which is a waste product of various industrial processes and a waste product of plastic
synthesis. It is also used as a defoliant. It has been used in conjunction with 2,4,5 T as a compound called
Agent Orange during the late ‘60s in Vietnam. Agent Orange was a suspected cancer agent in soldiers
exposed to this chemical mixture during the Vietnam conflict. 2,4 D is only marginally soluble in water.
Almost all 2,4 D will be found in the sediment at the bottom of a lake or stream.
Water Quality and Pollution
54
Dive In Discovery Journal
Lead: Lead compounds are used in exterior and sometimes interior oil-based paints. Lead gives superior
wear and resistance to weathering. Oil paints containing lead are used in arts and crafts because lead
paint pigments give excellent color with superior color retention over years of wear. Lead compounds
are usually soluble in the nitrate rich water of Carter Creek.
Mercury: Mercury compounds have many of the same properties as lead-based ones. In addition,
mercury compounds are used in marine bottom paints. The mercury in the paint prevents build-up of
barnacles, algae, and water plants on the bottom of boats, piers, and pilings. It is not unusual to find
mercury in water samples near industry or boating areas.
Data
Table A – Sediment samples
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
PCB
2, 4 D
Lead
Mercury
Table B – Water samples
Y1
PCB
2, 4 D
Lead
Mercury
Table C – Water pH samples
X1
X2
pH
Table D – Bottom pH samples
Y1
pH
Y2
Dive In Discovery Journal
Water Quality and Pollution
55
Conclusions
What part of Carter Creek is most contaminated?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
What evidence do you have of this supposition?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Is Carter Creek Paper and Plastic, Inc. liable for the pollution found in Carter Creek?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
What evidence do you have of CCPP’s innocence or guilt?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Is the pollution found in Carter Creek of significant magnitude to warrant human corrective
intervention?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
What suggestions do you have for remedying the situation?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Did you know?
There are five to six million storage tanks buried under the ground in the United States. Many hold gasoline,
and 10,000 are estimated to leak.
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Water Quality and Pollution
Dive In Discovery Journal
Further on down the River:
Understanding Estuarine Ecology
Let’s not forget that many of the inland rivers and streams with which we are familiar ultimately make their
way to the coast. Where these rivers flow into the ocean is called an estuary. An estuary is the given name
for an ecosystem where freshwater streams and saltwater bodies merge. They are nutrient-rich zones
where an incredibly diverse array of animals and plants make their home. Estuaries go by many names.
They can be lagoons, bays, inlets,
or sounds.
Estuaries serve as sanctuaries for
a plethora of living organisms.
Many animals, especially birds,
use estuaries as breeding
grounds, nurseries in which
to bring up their young. One
reason for this is that estuaries
are incredibly nutrient-rich.
Environmental scientists have
discovered that estuaries
generate four to ten times as
much organic material compared
to a corn field…wow, that’s a lot
of biota!
Upstream of estuaries we find
another type of ecosystem:
wetlands. Wetlands are essentially ecosystems inundated with water (think swamps, bogs, marshes) that
support fauna that can grow year-round in saturated conditions. You might have heard wetlands referred
to as marshland. Unique vegetation grows in wetlands, including mangroves. These bushy plants provide
protective habitat for numerous creatures and generates large amounts of sulfur which helps make the
wetlands particularly efficient sites of organic decomposition.
Mouth of an Estuary
Time to get muddy!
Good environmental scientists get down and dirty. They jump into their work…
literally. So let’s do just that. Let’s jump into the muddy marshland and describe
what the decomposing slosh feels like. Don’t be afraid…You know, some people
pay top dollar to have their face covered in similar stuff when they get a facial!
Describe how the muck makes your skin feel. What does it smell like? Describe the
experience below.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
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Water Quality and Pollution
57
It is impossible to overstate the ecological importance of estuaries and wetlands. They serve very practical
functions. Besides providing essential habitat for an enormous array of animals, the dense marshlands surrounding estuarine waterways are capable of absorbing large amounts of water. Thus, wetlands serve to
abate floods, absorbing excess water and preventing upland areas from being inundated with water. Wetlands also serve to filter freshwater streams of detritis, debris, and even sewage and other pollutants, thus
ensuring the purity of water that enters marine waterways.
Understanding the costs of destroying our wetlands and our estuaries:
The theme we keep reiterating in this journal is that all living organisms are connected to one another. We may think that
we live in closed systems and that we are unaffected by environmental degradation taking place downstream of us, but the
reality is that the destruction of wetlands and estuaries can have far-reaching effects on people and other living organisms
that do not live in the marshlands. This exercise is designed to get us to think about what those costs are.
Tiger Wood’s rival, Don-Care “Bout-Da” Environment, is hoping to drain one of Florida’s estuaries in order to construct a new
golf course. He claims that there is no good reason why he should not be able to do this, but he is facing considerable pressure from a variety of people who believe that the environmental repercussions associated with the project will negatively
impact their lives. Below, take on the personality of the following people opposed to Mr. Environment’s project. Outline the
reasons why these people would be opposed to the project. Be sure to be specific and identify the very real problems these
individuals would face.
A homeowner approximately 10 miles upland of the estuary/wetlands:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
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Water Quality and Pollution
Dive In Discovery Journal
A birdwatcher in Miami:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
A marine fisherman:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
A beach-resort owner:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Dive In Discovery Journal
Manatees and Rainbow River
59
Manatees
Manatees are large, fully aquatic marine mammals sometimes known as sea cows. The name comes from the
Spanish manatí, which itself comes from a Carib word meaning “breast.” Manatees comprise three of the four
living species in the order Sirenia, the other being the dugong, which is native to the Eastern Hemisphere.
The species of Sirenia are thought to have evolved from four-legged land mammals over 60 million years ago,
with their closest living relatives
being the Proboscidea (elephants)
and Hyracoidea (hyraxes). The fifth
species of Sirenia was the Steller’s
sea cow, hunted to extinction in
the 1700s. The Steller’s sea cow
was 25 feet long, weighed over
8,000 pounds, and was uniquely
found in cold, sub-polar waters.
The sea cow became extinct only
27 years after being discovered by
modern humans.
The scientific order of Sirenia is
named after the sirens of ancient
Greek Mythology. Sirens were
half-woman, half-bird creatures
that tried to lure Odysseys and
his ship with sweet songs of
love; they were also commonly
confused with mermaids. Mermaids were mythical creatures described as half-woman, half-fish. It is thought
that early European explorers assumed manatees and dugongs to be mermaids because of their pectoral
breasts, dexterous forelimbs, and fish-like tails. For example, Columbus wrote about seeing mermaids in the
Caribbean but said they were not as lovely as he expected.
For many years, manatees and dugongs were harvested by local cultures for food. The large-scale commercial
hunting of them during the last three centuries is what has drastically reduced the population numbers.
At the peak of that harvest, 7,000
manatees were killed per year!
Hunting decreased, not as a form
of conservation, but because
populations were so reduced that
it was no longer economically
feasible.
As the only living marine
mammal herbivores, manatees
play an important role as the
primary consumer of sea grass.
Today, however, manatees and
dugongs are still illegally hunted
in many countries. Dugongs in
Australia have a very high cultural
significance for aboriginal people,
and in certain places they are
legally hunted for subsistent use.
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Manatees and Rainbow River
Dive In Discovery Journal
Besides hunting, their greatest known threats are habitat loss and competition for space with humans.
As coastal areas continue to be developed for human use, dredging, wastewater discharge, and runoff
negatively impact manatee habitats.
In Florida, scientists conduct minimum population counts each year
by counting the number of manatees in warm water areas on very cold
days. Those numbers have ranged between 1,796 and 3,276 animals
in recent years. However, converting minimum counts to reliable
population estimates is impossible, so scientists cannot say for sure
whether the Florida population is declining, increasing, or stabilized.
The number of manatees using areas with strong protection (like
Crystal River and Blue Springs) has increased over the past 20 to 30
years. At the same time, however, the number of manatees living in
areas of increasing and uncontrolled boat traffic is probably decreasing.
We also know that the number of manatees killed by boats each year
has increased.
Manatees have been in recent media due to their local declassification. As you may know, there are many
levels of protection for species provided by international, federal, and state regulating bodies. The most
familiar set of classifications is governed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in the Department of the Interior,
and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries, in the Department of Commerce. They
are responsible for the administration of the Endangered Species Act.
The history of this legislation started when Congress passed the Endangered Species Preservation Act in
1966, allowing the listing of only native species and providing limited protection. The Endangered Species
Conservation Act of 1969 was passed to provide additional protection to species in danger of “worldwide
extinction.” In 1973, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) restricted international commerce in plant and animal species. Later that year, the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 was passed. The categories of classification are endangered (any species in danger of
extinction throughout all of its range), threatened (any species which is likely to become an endangered
species throughout a significant part of its range), and species of concern (species that may need conservation
action but currently are under no
IUCN Red List
protection).
Status
Definition
Examples
EXTINCT
Last remaining individual of the
species has died
Dinosaurs, dodo bird, passenger
pigeon, Barbary lion, Bali tiger
EXTINCT IN THE WILD
Only survives in captivity,
reintroduced populations, or outside
its native habitat
Przewalski’s horse, Sahara oryx,
black-footed ferret, Mexican gray wolf
CRITICALLY
ENDANGERED
Faces an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild
Red wolf, golden lemur, black
rhinoceros, angle shark, California
condor
ENDANGERED
Faces a very high risk of extinction in
the wild
Giant panda, orangutan, Grevy’s
zebra, gorilla, blue whale, brown kiwi
VULNERABLE
Faces a high risk of extinction in the
wild
African lion, wolverine,
hippopotamus, polar bear, American
crocodile
NEAR THREATENED
Does not face a high risk of extinction,
but is likely to be threatened in the
near future
Black-tailed prairie dog, cougar,
striped hyena, giant anteater, jaguar
LEAST CONCERN
Species is thriving, widespread, and
abundant
Gray seal, naked mole-rat, American
beaver, giraffe, bald eagle
Another organization that has
global influence on the protection
of species is the IUCN, The World
Conservation Union. The IUCN
assesses the conservation status
of species throughout the world.
You may be familiar with the IUCN
Red List. It is a system designed
to determine the relative risk of a
species’ extinction. The categories
recognized by the IUCN are
Vulnerable, Endangered, and
Critically Endangered.
The Manatee Dilemma is that
they are protected federally by
the Endangered Species Act and
the Marine Mammal Protection
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Manatees and Rainbow River
61
Act, and Internationally by CITES, but the species does not meet the criteria to be protected by the state.
The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission reclassifies the manatee as threatened, as it does not
meet the state’s criteria for determining if the species deserves protection under this legislation. According
to the IUCN Red List, the Florida manatee is Endangered on the basis of two factors: (1) its population size
is less than 2,500 mature individuals, and (2) its population is estimated to decline at least 20% over the
next two generations due to anticipated changes in warm water habitat and threats from increasing water
traffic.
Why might the state want to de-list the Florida West Indian Manatee?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
What effects might this have on conservation efforts?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Now that you have a better understanding of endangered species, break into teams and create a
conservation poster with the following information:
•
Natural history information about one of Florida’s endangered species
•
What the species looks like and eats
•
Where the species lives (range map) and when it’s active
•
Why the species is in trouble
•
What people are doing to help the conservation
Note: The posters should be designed to help attract attention and share information in a creative easy-to-read way.
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Rainbow River
Rainbow River is a tributary of the Withlacoochee River in central Florida. It flows south from Rainbow Springs
in Rainbow Springs State Park. The riverside is largely unspoiled, and the river is used as a leisure resource for
kayaking, boating, and snorkeling. Known for its pristine and natural beauty, the river is filled with a variety of
freshwater fish. The entire Rainbow River was designated as a Registered Natural Landmark in 1972, an Aquatic
Preserve in 1986, and an Outstanding Florida Waterway in 1987.
Since the river flows from Rainbow Springs, it’s important to understand the creation and magnitude of
Florida’s springs system. Florida was formed many millions of years ago as an underwater limestone plateau,
consisting of many years of deposits from small sea creatures. As these creatures died, their bodies would
sink and fossilize, forming limestone, or calcium carbonate. This limestone is home to Florida’s groundwater,
the aquifer. When this aquifer is close to the surface, springs empty groundwater onto the surface. Rainbow
Springs is considered a first-magnitude spring, in that more than 100 cubic feet of water per second (cfs) is
being discharged, or 64.6 million gallons per day. Florida has more first-magnitude springs than any other state
or any other nation in the world. Currently, experts recognize 33 first-magnitude springs. Rainbow Springs has
an average flow rate of 760 cfs, which can be broken down into at least a dozen springs over 1.5 miles.
How is flow rate measured?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
We have two tools to help us with this measurement. The first tool is the Vernier
LabQuest. The second tool is a rubber ducky.
Before we get started, how would you measure the flow rate with a bathtub toy?
What additional tools would you need?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Record your results.
The flow rate of Rainbow Springs in cubic feet per second,
using the LabQuest: using rubber ducks:
Which technique worked better? Why?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Does increased technology always yield better science?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Dive In Discovery Journal
Lido Beach
Shell Challenge
While at Lido Beach, every team member must find a shell and write a one-paragraph
metaphorical life story of your shell’s personality. Within the team, choose the best story
and be prepared to share it with the rest of the group. The most creative author will be
awarded a prize!
63
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Everglades National Park
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National Parks
The first known effort by any government to set aside protected lands was in the U.S. in 1832 when President
Andrew Jackson signed legislation setting aside land around Hot Springs, Arkansas, protecting the natural
thermal springs. The next major effort to protect land was also made by the U.S. when Abraham Lincoln signed
an Act of Congress granting the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove
of Sequoias to the state of California. The world’s first truly national
park was established in 1872 and is known as Yellowstone National
Park. President Theodore Roosevelt added five more national parks and
18 national monuments.
The two classes of reservations comprising the national park and
national monument system differ primarily in the reasons for which
they are established. National parks are areas set apart by Congress
for the use of the people of the United States generally, because of
some outstanding scenic feature or natural phenomena. Although
many years ago several small parks were established, under present
policies national parks must be sufficiently large to yield to effective
administration and broad use. The principal qualities considered in
studying areas for park purposes are their inspirational, educational, and
recreational values. National monuments, on the other hand, are areas
reserved by the National Government because they contain objects
of historic, prehistoric, or scientific interest. Ordinarily established by
presidential proclamation under authority of Congress, occasionally
these areas also are established by direct action of Congress. Size is
1938 Yellowstone National Park Poster.
unimportant in the case of the national monuments.
Another federal agency protecting land is the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service whose goals are to restore,
protect, and manage habitat for America’s wildlife. The National Wildlife Refuge System comprises 95 million
acres in the U.S. and encourages use in outdoor pursuits such as hunting and fishing, wildlife observation
and photography, and environmental education.
State parks are usually governed by the state’s Department of Environmental Protection, Division of
Recreation and Parks. The mission of the Florida state parks is to provide resource-based recreation while
preserving, interpreting, and restoring natural and cultural resources. Their goal is to help create a sense
of place by showing park visitors the best of Florida’s diverse natural and cultural heritage sites. Florida’s
state parks are managed and preserved for enjoyment by this and future generations through providing
appropriate resource-based recreational opportunities, interpretation, and education that help visitors
connect to Florida.
On an International level, organizations such as the United Nations Environment Programme-World
Conservation Monitoring Centre, World Commission on Protected Areas, and the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) have defined protected area management categories.
They are as follows:
CATEGORY Ia:
Strict Nature Reserve: protected area managed mainly for science
Definition
Area of land and/or sea possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems, geological or
physiological features, and/or species that is available primarily for scientific research and/or environmental
monitoring.
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Everglades National Park
65
CATEGORY Ib
Wilderness Area: protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection
Definition
Large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea, retaining its natural character and influence,
without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural
condition.
CATEGORY II
National Park: protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation
Definition
Natural area of land and/or sea, designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems
for present and future generations, (b) exclude exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of
designation of the area, and (c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational, and
visitor opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible.
CATEGORY III
Natural Monument: protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features
Definition
Area containing one, or more, specific natural or natural/cultural features, which are of outstanding or unique
value because of its inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic qualities, or cultural significance.
CATEGORY IV
Habitat/Species Management Area: protected area managed mainly for conservation through
management intervention
Definition
Area of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for management purposes so as to ensure the
maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of specific species.
CATEGORY V
Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation
and recreation
Definition
Area of land, with coast and sea as appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature over time has
produced an area of distinct character with significant aesthetic, ecological, and/or cultural value, and
often with high biological diversity. Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the
protection, maintenance, and evolution of such an area.
CATEGORY VI
Managed Resource Protected Area: protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural
ecosystems
Definition
Area containing predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to ensure long-term protection and
maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at the same time a sustainable flow of natural products
and services to meet community needs.
As you can see, the conservation of land is not only a local project but also a global one.
66
Everglades National Park
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Throughout time, political cartoonists have been sharing opinions through their art. Florida is home to
J.N. “Ding” Darling National Wildlife Refuge, named after an editorial cartoonist. Born in Norwood,
Michigan, in 1876, Jay Norwood Darling was to become one of the most well known men of his era. A
nationally syndicated editorial cartoonist, he was famous for his witty commentary on the many different
subjects that concerned the nation.
An affable, dynamic, and talented man, Darling
began his cartooning career in 1900 with the Sioux
City Journal. After joining the Des Moines Register as
a cartoonist in 1906, he began signing his cartoons
with the nickname “Ding” – derived by combining
the first initial of his name with the last three letters.
In 1924, “Ding” was honored with a Pulitzer Prize for
a cartoon that espoused hard work. He would win
this prestigious award again in 1942.
An avid hunter and fisherman, Mr. Darling became
alarmed at the loss of wildlife habitat and the
possible extinction of many species. As an early
pioneer for wildlife conservation, he worked this
theme into his cartoons and influenced a nation. In
July 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed
him as the Director of the U.S. Biological Survey, the
forerunner of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
In his 18 months as Director, Darling initiated the
Federal Duck Stamp Program, designed the first
duck stamp, and vastly increased the acreage of the
National Wildlife Refuge System. The Migratory Bird
Hunting Act, often referred to as the Duck Stamp
Act, was passed by Congress in 1938. It required
all waterfowl hunters 16 years of age and older to
purchase a Federal Duck Stamp for each bird that
they killed. Proceeds from the sales of these stamps
were used to purchase wetlands for the protection
of wildlife habitat. Since its inception, over $670
million in funds have been raised and more than
5.2 million acres of habitat have been purchased
for wildlife conservation. Darling also developed
partnerships with state universities to train scientists
in the emerging study of wildlife biology.
Darling examines his Duck Stamps.
Darling also designed the Blue Goose logo, the
A more recent Duck Stamp issued by the U.S. Department of Interior.
national symbol of the refuge system. Rachel Carson,
author of Silent Spring, scientist and chief editor for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service from 1932-52, wrote of the
emblem, “Wherever you meet this sign, respect it. It means that the land behind the sign has been dedicated
by the American people to preserving, for
themselves and their children, as much of our
native wildlife as can be retained along with
our modern civilization.”
Dive In Discovery Journal
Everglades National Park
67
Create a Political Cartoon
During your bus ride to the Everglades National Park, your team will have to create a political cartoon. Use the
poster board and markers to create a political cartoon pertaining to anything you feel that has a relationship
with the Everglades or National Parks. Remember that political cartoonists often express their views on
debatable “hot topics” in an intelligent and artistic manner.
Duplicate that cartoon below for your own keeping.
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Everglades National Park
Dive In Discovery Journal
Park Ranger Roundtable
Aside from inquisitive students and nature-loving tourists, one additional group of humans flocks to the
Everglades National Park – park rangers. These highly knowledgeable and passionate men and women serve
as the intermediary between visitors and nature, acting as both tour guide and protector. And while many
visitors may think that they’re being protected from any dangers of the Everglades, the rangers are more
accurately protecting this fragile ecosystem from those visitors far less informed than you and your group.
You will have the opportunity to meet with a park ranger from the National Park Service. There are a wealth
of choices for careers in management and conservation in the Everglades or at other national parks around
the country. Use this time to talk with the park ranger about his or her interests, specialties, educational path,
and future career goals. In addition, you may choose to ask questions about the National Park Service itself.
In order to prepare for the question and answer session, make a list of questions to ask during this
opportunity.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Everglades National Park
69
Comparative Data Collection
Date:__________________________________ Time of day:_______________________________________
Weather conditions:_______________________________________________________________________
Parameters tested
Site A: Shark Valley
GPS coordinates:
Site B: Pahokee
GPS coordinates:
Temperature
pH
DO
Conductivity
Turbidity
Flow rate
Nitrate
Chloride ion
The Everglades are historically a nutrient poor system. Based on your results, is this true?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Based on the data above, which parameter has a direct effect on what wildlife is found in the park?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Did the flow rate increase from the first site or decrease? Why might this be?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Were there any biases in any of the data collection? Did it affect the outcome of your data?
________________________________________________________________________________________
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70
Mangroves and Kayaking
Dive In Discovery Journal
Kayaking
On our tour we will focus on the mangrove shoreline and the seagrass beds. Throughout our kayaking
adventure, we are going to observe as many species within the ecosystems as we can. After your adventure,
complete the following scavenger hunt by filling in the blanks where appropriate.
Hardwood hammock
We begin by kayaking past canopy species such as the __________________, _____________________,
_____________________, and __________________.
The hammock, another word for forest, comes from the Indian word for “cool shady place.” The hardwood
hammocks were cleared extensively by early Keys pioneers. They used the wood from trees like the mahogany
for building homes and used the clearings to plant crops such as _________________, _________________,
_______________, and other fruit trees.
Other dominant hammock trees include:
Poisonwood can be identified by the dark black stains on the bark due to the oil in the tree.
Gumbo Limbo has an interesting bark giving it the nickname “_________________________” because
it is red and peeling.
Jamaican Dogwood is known as the “________________________________________.” An early use
that the settlers learned is to crush the leaves of this tree and deposit them in the water.
Mangrove shoreline
Most people envision tropical shorelines with wide sandy beaches graced with arching palms. The natural
shoreline of the Florida Keys is dominated by mangroves. There are ________________ mangrove species
in the Keys and they are vital to both the landscape and the creatures that live here. Mangroves are salttolerant trees found in tropical regions around the planet. Some of the dominant mangrove trees include:
Red Mangrove: This rooty tree comprises most of the natural shoreline in the Keys. Its adventitious roots
are very important in both creating and preserving low-lying land. The red mangrove is nicknamed the
“walking tree” because it tends to grow more out than up, marching further into the sea.
Black Mangrove: These trees
have a small gray-green leaf
that is encrusted with salt on
the underside. They also have
an interesting root system
involving roots radiating off
the main trunk from which
numerous pneumatophores,
or “____________________,”
protrude.
White Mangrove: White
mangroves don’t have the
distinctive roots of the red
and black mangroves so the
best way to identify them is by
process of elimination. If you
get close enough to one of
Dive In Discovery Journal
Mangroves and Kayaking
them growing amongst the red mangroves, two small, raised pores
on the leaf stem will provide a positive identification. This is where
it excretes ________________.
Seagrass beds
Between the mangrove shoreline and the coral reef are huge tracts of
seagrass beds and meadows. Seagrasses stabilize marine sediments and
trap silt which gives us clear waters. They produce excess oxygen which
is released into the atmosphere. Numerous animals graze and forage
on seagrasses including manatees, ____________________________,
__________________________,
____________________________,
and some species of fish.
Some of the seagrass beds include:
Turtle Grass: The most common seagrass, with blades that are
flat and wide (4 – 12 mm). They have deep roots going up to
_______________ cm deep.
Manatee Grass: This grass has a round leaf which can be rolled to
positively identify. Blade length can reach 50 cm.
Shoal Grass: This grass also has _______________ leaves but is much narrower than turtle grass.
71
72
Coral Reefs and Snorkeling
Dive In Discovery Journal
Snorkeling
Snorkeling is the practice of
swimming at the surface of a
body of water while equipped
with a diving mask, a shaped
tube called a snorkel, and usually
swim fins. In cooler waters, a wet
suit may also be worn. Combining
these tools allows the snorkeler to
observe underwater attractions
for extended periods of time with
relatively little effort.
The primary attraction of
snorkeling is the opportunity
to observe underwater life in a
natural setting. This may include
coral reefs and their denizens,
such as fish, cephalopods,
starfish, sea urchins, and mollusks.
Snorkeling in sandy areas may allow sighting of rays and various flatfish. Other organisms that can be seen
while snorkeling could include various forms of seaweed, jellyfish, sea turtles, and various types of sea
cactus. Snorkeling is possible in almost any body of water, but snorkelers are most likely to be found in
locations where there are minimal waves, warm water, and something particularly interesting to see near
the surface.
Snorkeling requires no special training, only the ability to swim and to breathe through the snorkel. Before
we begin snorkeling, your Course Leader will give you thorough instruction regarding general equipment
usage, basic safety, what to look for underwater, and how not to damage fragile organisms such as coral. As
with scuba diving, it is always recommended that one not snorkel alone. We’ll be going into the water as a
group, and you should also stick with a “buddy” during your swim.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Coral Reefs and Snorkeling
73
What is a Coral Reef?
Coral polyps are soft-bodied animals related to anemones and jellyfish. Their tube-like bodies are closed at
one end, with a mouth opening at the other end, surrounded by flexible, stinging tentacles (see the diagram
below). When coral polyps of the same species grow in close proximity to one another, they form a colony
with each polyp joined to the one beside it. Beneath
outer
this layer of living tissue, the polyps of reef-building
nematocyst
epidermis
tentacle
corals create hard “cups” of calcium carbonate. This is
what we consider the hard, or stony, part of the reef.
This is the coral skeleton.
mouth
As coral colonies grow, new layers of skeleton are
deposited. The amount of growth in coral skeletons
is determined by variations in temperature and other
weather conditions. When corals are mentioned, most
people immediately think about clear, warm, tropical
mesoglea
seas and fish-filled reefs. In fact, the stony, shallowdigestive
water corals—the kind that build reefs—are only one
filament
type of coral. There are also soft corals and deep water
stomach
corals that live in dark, cold waters.
septum
gastrodermis
Most corals feed at night. To capture their food, corals
coenosarc
use stinging cells called nematocysts. These cells
are located in the coral polyp’s tentacles and outer
tissues. If you’ve ever been “stung” by a jellyfish, you’ve
encountered nematocysts. Nematocysts are capable
of delivering powerful, often lethal, toxins, and are
theca
essential in capturing prey.
Forming a coral reef
Coral reefs begin to form when free-swimming coral
larvae attach to submerged rocks or other hard surfaces
along the edges of islands or continents. As the corals
grow and expand, reefs take on one of three major
characteristic structures — fringing, barrier, or atoll.
basal
plate
Anatomy of a coral pulp.
Fringing reefs, which are the most common, project seaward directly from the shore, forming borders
along the shoreline and surrounding islands.
Barrier reefs also border shorelines, but at a greater distance. They are separated from their adjacent
land mass by a lagoon of open, often deep water.
Atolls are usually circular or oval, with a central lagoon. Parts of the reef platform may emerge as one or
more islands, and gaps in the reef provide access to the central lagoon.
Importance of coral reefs
Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on earth. Coral reefs support more species
per unit area than any other marine environment, including about 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard
corals, and hundreds of other species. Scientists estimate that there may be another one to eight million
undiscovered species of organisms living in and around reefs. This biodiversity is considered key to finding
new medicines for the 21st century.
Storehouses of immense biological wealth, reefs also provide economic and environmental services to millions
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of people. Coral reefs provide goods and services worth $375
billion each year. This is an amazing figure for an environment
that covers less than one percent of the earth’s surface.
Coral reefs buffer adjacent shorelines from wave action and
prevent erosion, property damage, and loss of life. Reefs also
protect the highly productive wetlands along the coast, as
well as ports and harbors and the economies they support.
Threats to Coral Reefs
Coral reefs face numerous threats. Weather-related damage
to reefs occurs frequently. Reefs are also threatened by
tidal immersions. Corals exposed during daylight hours
are subjected to the most ultraviolet radiation, which can
overheat and dry out the coral’s tissues. Increased sea surface
temperatures, decreased sea level, and increased salinity from
altered rainfall can all have devastating effects on a coral’s
physiology.
In addition to weather, corals
are vulnerable to predation.
Fish, marine worms, barnacles,
crabs, snails, and sea stars all
prey on the soft inner tissues of
coral polyps. In extreme cases,
entire reefs can be devastated
by this kind of predation.
Coral reefs may recover from
periodic
traumas
caused
by weather or other natural
occurrences. If, however, corals
are subjected to numerous and
sustained stresses, including those
imposed by people, the strain may
be too much for them to endure,
and they will perish.
Human activity continues to Coral rock that has experienced bioerosion, potentially a result of coral bleaching.
represent the single greatest
threat to coral reefs living in earth’s oceans. In particular, global warming, pollution, and over fishing are
the most serious human-related threats to these ecosystems. Physical destruction of reefs due to boat
and shipping traffic is also a problem. The live food fish trade has been implicated as a driver of decline
due to the use of cyanide and other chemicals in the capture of small fishes. Finally, the increased water
temperatures mentioned above, caused by climate phenomena such as El Niño and global warming, can
cause coral bleaching. (When snorkeling, be sure to note where bleaching occurs.) Some statistics state
that if destruction increases at the current rate, 70% of the world’s coral reefs will have disappeared within
50 years.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Coral Reefs and Snorkeling
75
Fishing
The world’s population depends
on fish as a major food source.
The United Nations’ Food and
Agriculture Organization claims
that one in four animals caught
in fishing gear dies as by-catch,
meaning the fish was caught
by a method intended to target
another species, or that the fish
was a reproductively-immature
juvenile of the target species. These
unused animals play an important
role in the food chain and their
unnecessary capture and death
could upset the balance. By-catch
is luckily not a given or inevitable
occurrence. The greatest success story of late is when consumers forced the tuna industry to change fishing
methods to prevent the by-catch of dolphin. To prevent by-catch, fishing methods must be as selective as
possible. For example, catching shrimp in trawl nets can kill up to 10 pounds of other animals for every pound
of shrimp. On the other hand, by using shrimp traps fishermen can release 98% of unwanted animals alive.
Habitat damage is a huge issue troubling our oceans. As our population increases, the demand on the ocean
increases. By protecting the coasts and the wetlands filtering out nutrients we assure success in the estuaries.
Many organisms prefer the sea floor habitat. In order to protect this area it is important to support fishermen
that favor methods that spare the sea floor such as long lining, hook and line, and trap fishing. These, unlike
dragging, spare some mercy on the ocean’s bottom.
Overfishing is catching fish faster than they reproduce. Therefore, the slower the species grow, the more
vulnerable they are to overfishing. As gear becomes more effective and the number of fishermen increases,
the pressure on fisheries is extreme. At one time off the New England coast, it was thought that cod were in
endless supply. Now there are very few left and fishermen have switched to new species.
The final issue deals with fish farming, or aquaculture. It is estimated that over half of our seafood comes from
farms. Fish farms actually depend on wild fish not only for eggs but also as food for the farmed fish. Net-pen
farming is a technique used to raise lots of fish in a small area. The large numbers of fish lead to excess feces
polluting the water. Farmed fish
have also been known to escape
their pens and compete for habitat
with the wild stocks. The best way
to raise fish may be inland, away
from the coastal waters in closed
systems.
As a consumer, our choices make
a difference. Making educated
decisions on what fish we consume
can have a direct effect on ocean
wildlife and the environment.
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Dolphin Swim
Dive In Discovery Journal
Dolphins
The Bottlenose Dolphin is found in nearly all waters of the world and is probably the most well-known
dolphin. Like other marine mammals, the Bottlenose Dolphin is streamlined for greater efficiency in the
water. Its body color is usually various shades of gray, with the darker grays on the upper part of its body
fading to a creamy white or sometimes pinkish color on the underbelly.
The dolphin’s body parts have adapted to life in the marine environment. These include:
Rostrum: The ‘beak’ at the front of the head, is 7-8 cm in length with the lower jaw slightly
longer than the upper, holds from 72 to 148 cone-shaped teeth in each jaw.
Eyes: Located on either side of the head, just above and behind the mouth, glands secrete an
oily substance to help lubricate and protect the eye.
Ears: Almost impossible to detect unless you are quite close to the animal, these are seen as pin
pricks/creases approximately 2½ cm behind the eye.
Pectoral fins: Medium-sized fins that are curved on the rear edge and pointed at the tip, they
are deeply notched and enable a great deal of movement. Like other marine mammals, they
have a skeletal structure that is similar to that of a human hand and forearm.
Dorsal fin: Midway between the head and the tail on the upper part of the body, it curves
backward, and is designed to help stabilize the animal.
Tail stock and flukes: These are similar to other dolphin species.
Observe a dolphin swimming. Briefly explain how a dolphin breathes.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
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Dive In Discovery Journal
The concept of leave-no-trace
tourism should apply even
underwater. Coral reefs are
actually living organisms, so when
humans decide to take “artifacts”
from these habitats, they are
often uprooting a living organism
from its native environment.
Some coral species are sensitive
to oils on human’s skin, and thus
suffer damage when touched by
divers. When you swim around
the beautiful coral sanctuary,
then, let your eyes wander, but
leave the marine life be. Your
conservationist efforts will help
ensure that Cano Island’s coastline
remains an ecological wonder for
years to come.
Snorkel Adventure
77
Coral Polyp
A Snorkeling Scavenger Hunt:
The biodiversity of marine ecology of Florida’s coast is quite impressive. Partner up with a buddy, keep a sharp eye out, and
try to spot the following aquatic creatures on your snorkeling expedition. Each marine creature has a specific point value
associated with it (indicated in parenthesis). The team with the highest point total will be declared the winner. DIVE IN!
FAUNADESCRIPTION
Humpback Whale (10)
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Dolphin (5)
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Snorkel Adventure
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FAUNADESCRIPTION
Manta Ray (5)
_______________________________________________________________
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Horseeye Jacks (3)
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King Anglefish (4)
Barracuda (7)
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Dive In Discovery Journal
Snorkel Adventure
79
FAUNADESCRIPTION
Puffer Fish (3)
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Goat Fish (3)
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Jellyfish (3)
Other (2) (provide a sketch)
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Pollution and Conservation
Dive In Discovery Journal
Become an Active Conservationist:
How do you convince people that an endangered species needs to be saved? It’s not always easy to make people realize
the importance of a small animal that seems to have very little impact on most people’s everyday lives. Your job today is to
become an active civic environmentalist and create a poster that teaches the public of your conservation effort. You will need
to execute a campaign to get the word out that includes:
vNatural history information about one of Florida’s endangered species (where is lives, what it eats, when it
is active, etc.)
vWhy is the species in trouble
vWhat are people doing to help this species
vWhat this species looks like (draw it)
vWhere your species lives (range map)
Note: The posters should be designed to help attract attention and share information in a creative easy to read way.
GET STARTED SAVING A SPECIES!
Conservation Organizations:
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
Founded in 1961, the WWF is the largest privately-funded international environmental organizations in the
world today. It’s declared mission is to “stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to
build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by: conserving the world’s biological diversity,
ensuring that the use of renewable resources is sustainable, [and] promoting the reduction of pollution and
wasteful consumption.” Wow, no small feat, but why start small when there is so much to be done! A nonprofit organization supported by over 5 million activists worldwide, the WWF has considerable resources
that smaller non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and non-profit organizations cannot marshal. The
organization is truly international with affiliates in over 30 countries.
In its over 45-year-old history, the WWF has been responsible for a number of major conservation hallmarks.
In 1990, the organization helped bring about the cessation of the international ivory trade-- a global industry
that had decimated elephant populations throughout Africa and elsewhere. In that same year, they also
secured a moratorium (stop of activity) on commercial whaling.
Greenpeace
In 1971, a group of environmental activists set out on a journey from Vancouver to protest US testing of
nuclear weapons in Alaska. This cohort formed Greenpeace. From that date to today, Greenpeace has grown
into one of the most important environmental groups in the world. Like the WWF, Greenpeace relies on the
generous support of people like you, receiving no money from the federal government (they also do not
solicit donations from corporations).
Greenpeace is particularly interested in reaching out to the next generation of environmental activists, and
as such as created a Greenpeace Student Network-- a youth-based branch of the organization designed
to get young people involved in environmental protection programs. Most recently, the network has
executed a series of effective campus campaigns to boycott paper products produced by Kimberley-Clark,
a corporation known for its clear-cutting operations (clear-cutting is when a timber company cuts down
vast acreage of land, rather than selectively cutting down trees in ways that ensures the sustainability of the
harvesting fields).
Dive In Discovery Journal
Pollution and Conservation
81
The Sierra Club
In his The Yosemite (1921), John Muir, perhaps America’s most renowned conservationist, exclaimed,
“Everybody needs beauty as well as bread, places to play in and pray in, where nature may heal and give
strength to body and soul alike.” Muir’s words speak to the mission of the Sierra Club. Founded in 1892
by John Muir and a cohort of western environmentalist opposed to a plan to reduce the size of Yosemite
National Park in California, the Sierra Club was the first conservationist organization established in the United
States for the express purposes of preserving the country’s wondrous natural spaces.
Originally an organization focused on the American West, it quickly spread across the nation. Today, in an
effort to bring more people into the organization, the Sierra Club sponsors local outings across the country.
You can visit the Sierra Club website (http://www.sierraclub.org/) when you get back to the states and link
up with a trip near your home community.
The Earthwatch Institute
Founded in the same year as Greenpeace, Earthwatch has a slightly different message than the other world
organizations we have discussed. Their primary focus is to link volunteer researchers with naturalists and
conservationists working in the field. The Institute leads expiditions all over the world that focus on subjects
such as Biodiversity, Coral Reef Health, Indigenous cultures, sustainability, Habitat loss, and climate change.
The Rich and Famous:
Popular Icons in Civic Environmentalism
The Dave Matthews Band has become a fixture of the American pop music scene in the past two decades,
transforming from an obscure band from Charlottesville, Virginia to a national megaband. But their rise
to fame seems to have little effect on their humanitarian convictions. Dave Matthews and his band have
made significant efforts to support conservation projects. They have participated in eco-friendly festivals,
including the 2007 “Green Concert” in Atlanta’s Piedmont Park, which took place in 2007. Over 50,000 fans
attended the event. Proceeds from the event went to help expand Atlanta’s largest inner-city park. Through
their foundation Bama Works, the band helped launch a Ben and Jerry’s ice cream called One Sweet Whirled,
setting aside a portion of the profits to go towards global warming research and education.
Speaking of Ben and Jerry’s,
the Vermont-based ice cream
company has become a leader
among corporations looking for
creative ways to help protect
the environment. Every year the
company publishes a very candid
report on the company’s impact
on the environment. Some of the
facts they mention are flattering,
but they also include things they
need to improve. For example,
in 2006, they regretted to inform
their customers that they had to
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Pollution and Conservation
Dive In Discovery Journal
switch from an eco-pint packaging that featured unbleached paperboard because of increasing production
costs. However, in their 2006 report, they happily announced that they had far exceeded their carbon dioxide
emission goals for the period 2002-2006, reducing normalized emissions by over 30%! Ben and Jerry’s is
truly a model of how a company can pursue profits while looking out for the environment.
Leonardo DiCaprio
Leonardo DiCaprio has become a major civic environmentalist in
Hollywood, helping to promote awareness about global warming and
linking up with other prominent activists and politicians like Al Gore to
educate the public about global climate change issues. A strong believer
in the motto that you should practice what you preach, DiCaprio has
even had a special compost toilet installed in his home and is working
closely with the Four Seasons to construct an eco-friendly, “green”
hotel on property he owns in Belize. He has also produced the film,
The 11th Hour, which speaks of the growing problems associated with
global warming.
André Benjamin (André 3000)
While the hip-hop industry is perhaps best known for harsh lyrics
and bling-bling studded rappers, many hip-hop artists have become
activists in the crusade to save the planet. André Benjamin of the
Atlanta-based duo Outkast is one such crusader. Known for his
flamboyant dress and bizarre lyrical style, Benjamin is also a dedicated
vegan (does not eat meat or products produced by animals, such as
milk). He also writes songs that speak directly to humans’ devastating
effects on the environment.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Pollution and Conservation
83
Craft an Eco-JAM!
Visiting Florida can be a truly breathtaking experience. When Dave Matthews crafted his smash hit “Don’t Drink the Water” he
was camping up near Lake Superior and was moved to write a song about Americans’ lack of respect for sacred lands. Now you
have a chance to craft a tune that speaks to your experience. Put down some lyrics that you think will help increase awareness
about environmental issues in Florida that concerns you.
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Pollution and Conservation
Dive In Discovery Journal
The Pursuit of Renewable Energy Sources
As we mentioned earlier, fossil fuels are a non-renewable energy source; that is, it is a resource that is finite
and that will ultimately be depleted if humans continue their voracious consumptive behavior. It is amazing
to think how many things in our world are powered by fossil fuels (either coal, natural gas, or petroleum).
What is certain is that we can’t keep up this pace forever. As a global community we must come together
to investigate alternative fuel sources—to develop new technology that will allow us to diminish our
dependence on fossil fuels. Let’s explore some of the ongoing scientific research devoted to renewable
energy.
Renewable energy sources can be broken down into four main categories which we will explore in detail in
this section: geothermal, biomass, solar, and wind.
Biomass Energy
For centuries, humans have relied on biomass fuel to keep warm, to fuel their vehicles, and to cook their
food—mainly by burning wood. Biomass fuels come from organic materials (crops, wood, etc.). Wood still
remains the most popular biomass fuel used by humans, but there are many other biomass energy resources
that are becoming more popular. For example, ethanol—an alcohol fermented from corn—has become a
popular fuel supplement added to gasoline. Fuels mixed with ethanol burn cleaner, some reducing carbon
emissions by up to 29% compared to standard gasolines. Biodiesel, another biofuel generated from organic
matter, is also fast becoming a popular alternative fuel. It’s important to keep in mind that there are sociopolitical considerations associated with certain countries switching to biofuels. Take for example the United
States. A country that has become so reliant on foreign oil can only shake its dependency by finding energy
resources on home soil. Biofuels provide such an opportunity for an escape from dependency on foreign oil.
Solar Energy
As we have already seen, the sun provides the energy that powers life
on earth. For this reason, humans have sought to develop technology
that can trap solar energy directly. Perhaps the most popular—or at
least most well known—method for trapping solar energy directly is
by creating a collection field of photovoltaic (PV) cells (also known as
solar cells). As a student, you probably utilize PV cells to power your
calculators, or perhaps even your watch. These cells contain electrons
that when energized by solar rays move around the solar cells,
generating energy.
Wind
From a historical perspective, it’s amazing what wind has allowed
humans to do. Without wind, the early colonizers of the 16th century
would never have been able to cross the Atlantic and would, thus, have
never found the coastline of the Americas. Wind has, for centuries,
helped propel man across the globe, but in recent years, entrepreneurial
engineers have been looking in to new ways to tap into wind energy.
Solar Panels
According to the National Renewable Energy Lab, the US—because of recent technological advancements—
can harness 10,000 megaWatts (MW) of energy from wind, enough to meet the energy demands of roughly
2.5 million American households. So what engineering tricks have allowed humans to transform the kinetic
energy provided by wind into electricity?
In truth, modern day turbines (wind machines) function much like the first windmills used by centuriesold civilizations. There are two types of wind turbines in use today: horizontal wind-machines and vertical
Dive In Discovery Journal
Pollution and Conservation
85
wind-machines. Horizontal windmachines look a lot like horizontal
fans (blades are perpendicular
to the ground). They transform
the kinetic energy in wind into
electrical energy. As wind blows
through the blades of a turbine,
pressure differentials on the
blades of the turbine cause the
blades to spin. The rotating
blades are connected to a drive
shaft connected to an electric
generator so that when they
spin, the kinetic energy in wind is
converted into electricity.
While horizontal wind-machines
are by far the most commonly
Horizontal Wind Machine
Vertical Wind Turbine
used turbines, some wind farms
use vertical wind-machines to trap kinetic wind energy. These machines, for the most part, function
much the same way as horizontal wind-machines do, though they look more like egg-beaters than fans
(see picture).
Geothermal
Geothermal energy—as the
name implies (geo, in Greek,
means “earth” and therme means
“heat”)—comes from heat energy
released from the core of the
earth. Accessing geothermal
reservoirs below the surface
sometimes involves digging holes
that can be over two miles deep
into the earth, but some reservoirs
are close to the surface.
Some geothermal systems are
more complex than other. For
example, one common way in
which humans have tapped into A Geothermal Power Plant
geothermal energy is by using
warm water from springs in underground springs near the
surface of the earth to cook food and heat buildings. In
Reykjavik, Iceland (the capital of the country), 95% of the
buildings are heated via geothermal energy (warm water
piped into a heating network).
Geothermal energy can be used to produce electricity as well.
As you can see in the diagram to the left, geothermal power
plants convert geothermal energy trapped in reservoirs below
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Pollution and Conservation
Dive In Discovery Journal
ground (between the surface of the earth’s crust and above the mantle, a subterranean layer containing
magma) into electricity (see diagram of the earth’s layers. Interestingly, the United States—world leader in
geothermal energy use—meets only 1% of its energy needs via the transformation of geothermal energy
into electricity.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has openly declared that geothermal heating and
cooling networks are the most energy efficient and environmentally friendly systems currently available to
consumers. Because water 10 feet below the surface maintains a constant temperature (between 50 and
60 degrees Fahrenheit), creating hydrological cooling networks in the summer and heating systems in the
winter makes a lot of sense.
Dive In Discovery Journal
Master Naturalist Checklist
NameScientific Name
Habitat
Date
Algae q Sea Lettuce Ulva lactuca __________________
_________________
q Dead Man’s Fingers
Codium sp. __________________
_________________
q Sand Moss Caulerpa sp. __________________
_________________
q Shaving Brush Algae Penicillus capitatus ___________________________________
q Sargassum Weed Sargassum sp. __________________
_________________
q Red Algae Gracilaria sp. __________________
_________________
Seagrasses
q Shoal Grass Halodule wrightii__________________
_________________
q Manatee Grass Syringodium filiforme ___________________________________
q Turtle Grass Thalassia testudinum __________________
_________________
q Widgeon Grass Ruppia maritima __________________
_________________
Marsh plants
q Sawgrass q Smooth Cordgrass q Salt Meadow Cord q Needle Rush q Southern Glasswort q Saltwort q Spike Grass q Salt Joint Grass q Sea Oxeye/Sea Daisy q Sea Lavender q Red Mangrove q Black Mangrove q White Mangrove q Buttonwood Cladium jamaicense __________________
_________________
Spartina alterniflora __________________
_________________
Spartina patens __________________
_________________
Juncus roemerianus ___________________________________
Salicornia virginica __________________
_________________
Batis maritima __________________
_________________
Distichlis spicata__________________
_________________
Paspalum vaginatum __________________
_________________
Borrichia frutescens __________________
_________________
Limonium carolinianum __________________ _________________
Rhizophora mangle ___________________________________
Avicennia germinans __________________
_________________
Laguncularia racemosa __________________
_________________
Conocarpus erectus __________________
_________________
Beach plants
q Sea Oats q Dune Panic Grass q Railroad Vine q Beach Morning Glory q Bayberry q Sea Purslane q Firewheel
q Dune Sunflower q Seaside or Bay Bean q Marsh Elder q Prickly Pear Cactus q Beach Pennywort q Cabbage Palm q Sand Bur or Sandspur Uniola paniculata ___________________________________
Panicum amarulum __________________
_________________
Ipomoea pes-caprae __________________
_________________
Ipomoea imperati __________________
_________________
Myrica pensylvanica ___________________________________
Sesuvium portulacastrum __________________
_________________
Gaillardia pulchella
___________________________________
Helianthus debilis __________________
_________________
Canavalia maritima __________________
_________________
Iva frutescens __________________
_________________
Opuntia compressa __________________
_________________
Hydrocotyle bonariensis __________________ _________________
Sabal palmetto __________________
_________________
Cenchrus tribuloides __________________
_________________
Introduced coastal plants
q Paper Bark Tree q Australian Pine q Brazilian Pepper Melaleuca quinquenervia __________________
_________________
Casuarina spp. __________________
_________________
Schinus terebinthifolius __________________
_________________
Poriferans (sponges)
q Boring Sponge q Loggerhead Sponge q Basket Sponge q Sheepswool Sponge q Fire Sponge Cliona sp.__________________
_________________
Spheciospongia vesparium
___________________________________
Hircinia canaliculated __________________
_________________
Hippospongia lachne ___________________________________
Tedania ignis __________________
_________________
87
88
Master Naturalist Checklist
Dive In Discovery Journal
NameScientific Name
Habitat
Date
Cnidarians
q Portuguese Man-o-War Physalia physalis __________________
_________________
q Common (moon) Jellyfish Aurelia aurelia __________________
_________________
q Cannonball Jellyfish Stomolophus meleagris __________________
_________________
q Upside-Down Jellyfish Cassiopeia xamachana __________________
_________________
q Sea Whip Leptogorgia sp. __________________
_________________
q Sea Pansy Renilla muelleri __________________
_________________
q Sea Anemone Condylactus gigantean __________________
_________________
q Brown Sea Anemone Aiptasia pallida __________________
_________________
q Large Star Coral Montastraea cavernosa __________________ _________________
q Brain Coral Diploria labyrinthiformis __________________
_________________
q Elkhorn Coral Acropora palmate ___________________________________
q Staghorn Coral Acropora cervicornis __________________
_________________
q Fire Coral Millepora alcicornis __________________
_________________
Ctenophores
q Sea Walnut Comb Jelly Annelid worms
q Fire or Bristle Worm q Spaghetti Worm q Christmas Tree Worm Hermodice carunculata __________________
_________________
Amphitrite sp. __________________
_________________
Pirobranchus giganteus __________________
_________________
Fish q Southern Stingray q Spotted Eagle Ray q Smooth Butterfly Ray
q Bonnethead Shark q Scalloped Hammerhead
q Blacktip Shark
q Nurse Shark q Gulf Killifish q Menhaden q Sheepshead Porgy q Pinfish q Atlantic Croaker q Spotted Seatrout q Silver Seatrout q Striped Burrfish q Toadfish q Mullet
q Tarpon
q Hardhead Catfish
q Gafftopsail Catfish (Sailcat)
q Black Seabass q Gag Grouper q Red Grouper q Nassau Grouper q Goliath Grouper
q Gray Snapper q Red Snapper
q King Mackerel q Spanish Mackerel q Yellowfin Tuna q Greater Amberjack
q Jack Crevalle
q Permit q Lookdown Dasyatis sabina __________________
_________________
Aetobatus narinari
___________________________________
Gymnura micura __________________
_________________
Sphyrna tiburo __________________
_________________
Sphyrna lewini __________________
_________________
Carcharhinus limbatus __________________ _________________
Ginglymostoma cirratum __________________
_________________
Fundulus grandis __________________
_________________
Brevoortia spp. __________________
_________________
Archosargus probatocephalus __________________
_________________
Lagodon rhomboids __________________
_________________
Micropogonias undulates __________________
_________________
Cynoscion nebulosus __________________
_________________
Cynoscion nothus __________________
_________________
Chilomycterus schoepfi
__________________ _________________
Opsanus beta __________________
_________________
Mugil cephalus__________________
_________________
Megalops atlanticus
___________________________________
Arius felis __________________
_________________
Bagre marinus __________________
_________________
Centropristis striata __________________
_________________
Mycteroperca microlepis __________________ _________________
Epinephelus morio ___________________________________
Epinephelus striatus __________________
_________________
Epinephelus itajara ___________________________________
Lutjanus griseus __________________
_________________
Lutjanus campechanus __________________
_________________
Scomberomorus cavalla __________________
_________________
Scomberomorus maculates ___________________________________
Thunnus albacares ___________________________________
Seriola dumerili __________________
_________________
Caranx hippos __________________
_________________
Trachinotus falcatus ___________________________________
Selene vomer __________________
_________________
Mnemiopsis mccraydi ___________________________________
Dive In Discovery Journal
Master Naturalist Checklist
NameScientific Name
Habitat
Date
q Bluefish q Great Barracuda
q Triggerfish q Blue Angelfish
q Queen Angelfish q Spadefish
q Lined Seahorse
q Southern Flounder
q Snook q Doctorfish/Surgeonfish
q Hogchoker q Planehead Filefish
q Lizardfish q Blenny (Molly Miller)
q Trumpetfish
q Black Drum
q Red Drum or Redfish
q Dolphin Fish (Mahi mahi)
Pomatomus saltatrix __________________
_________________
Sphyraena barracuda __________________
_________________
Balistes sp. __________________
_________________
Holocanthus bermudensis __________________
_________________
Holocanthus ciliaris ___________________________________
Chaetodipterus faber ___________________________________
Hippocampus erectus __________________
_________________
Paralichthyes lethostigma __________________
_________________
Centropomus undecimalis __________________
_________________
Acanthurus sp. __________________
_________________
Trinectes maculatus __________________
_________________
Monacanthus hispidus __________________
_________________
Synodus sp. __________________
_________________
Scartella cristata __________________
_________________
Aulostomus maculates __________________
_________________
Pogonias cromis __________________
_________________
Sciaenops ocellatus __________________
_________________
Coryphaena hippurus __________________
_________________
Reptiles
q Green Turtle
q Loggerhead Turtle
q Leatherback Turtle q Hawksbill Turtle q American Alligator q American Crocodile Chelonia mydas__________________
_________________
Caretta caretta __________________
_________________
Dermochelys coriacea ___________________________________
Eretmochelys imbricate __________________ _________________
Alligator mississippiensis __________________ _________________
Crocodylus acutus __________________
_________________
Birds
q Brown Pelican q Double-crested Cormorant
q Anhinga q Roseate Spoonbill q Great Blue Heron
q Snowy Egret
q Great Egret
q White Ibis q Mallard Duck
q Redhead Duck
q American Coot
q Purple Gallinule
q Hooded Merganser
q Laughing Gull
q Ring-billed Gull q Least Tern q Bald Eagle
q Osprey
q Willet
q Black Skimmer
q American Oystercatcher
q Belted Kingfisher q Redwing Blackbird
q Boat-tailed Grackle
q Wood Stork
q Limpkin Pelecanus occidentalis __________________
_________________
Phalacrocorax auritus ___________________________________
Anhinga anhinga ___________________________________
Ajaia ajaja __________________
_________________
Ardea herodias __________________
_________________
Egretta thula __________________
_________________
Casmerodius albus ___________________________________
Eudocimus albus __________________
_________________
Anas platyrhynchos ___________________________________
Aythya americana ___________________________________
Fulica americana__________________
_________________
Porphyrula martinica ___________________________________
Lophodytes cucullatus __________________
_________________
Larus atricilla __________________
_________________
Larus delawarensis __________________
_________________
Sterna antillarum ___________________________________
Haliaeetus leucocephalus __________________ _________________
Pandion haliaetus __________________
_________________
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus __________________
_________________
Rynchops niger __________________
_________________
Haematopus palliates __________________
_________________
Ceryle alcyon __________________
_________________
Agelaius phoeniceus __________________
_________________
Cassidix mexicanus __________________
_________________
Mycteria americana __________________
_________________
Aramus guarauna ___________________________________
Mammals
q Manatee q Bottlenose Dolphin Trichechus manatus Tursiops truncatus __________________
_________________
___________________________________
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