OPEN AND CLOSED- FORM WRITING
OPEN- FORM WRITING
From the perspective of rhetorical organization, writing at college level can be said to be made
up of two broad categories, namely open and closed form writing.
Open form writing tends to be theme based. More significantly, it uses literary techniques that
we apply in telling a story. Through the techniques, we are able to present moving pictures,
objects in operation, life in motion and the transformation of such life from one moment to the
next.The movement of time is thus a key element in telling a story, since events move from one
point in time to another.
One cannot talk about literary techniques without considering the notion of a dramatic and
meaningful sequence of action through a plot, which doesn't always have to follow the order in
which events occur. It is also notable that in a plot, there is often some kind of tension or conflict
within a writer, or between a writer and a given context.This aspect draws attention to the
importance of pace in a narrative.
The consideration of literary techniques means we have also to be aware that a story requires a
point of view, which brings to the fore, the person and position of a narrator.In essence, your
task in examining the features of open form writing must target the following areas:
1) Usage;
2) Organization;
3) Sentence level features;
4) Orthographic features;
5) Tone of voice and style.
CLOSED- FORM WRITING
Closed form essays are thesis based. This suggests the following:
The essays are governed by position statements that limit their scope to what can be discussed
in detail in the space available. More crucially, their development is based on one controlling
idea, or thesis, or conclusion. Such ideas would typically tend to have only one interpretation.
Furthermore, closed form essays reveal important organizational elements at the paragraph
level. Here, it is common to find singleness of purpose as expressed through relevant topic
sentences.
At the level of larger orthographic units such as the journal article as an example, one is likely to
find in closed form essays, tighter organizational patterns like the ones that are predominant in
journal articles. These typically have the following sections and in the order presented:
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a) An introductory part to define a problem and to describe its importance;
b) A materials and methods section to point out the rationale behind a given investigation;
c) A results section to describe what was discovered;
d) A discussion section to analyze the importance of the results of the investigation.
Sentence level units that contribute to cohesion also appear to be more pronounced in closed
form essays. Here, the roles of cohesive devices as reflected in the use of pronominal
reference, conjunctions, different kinds of transition expressions and lexical reiteration stand
out.
Parts of a Closed- Form Essay
A closed form essay is intended to communicate a main point to a particular audience and for a
specific purpose. The parts of such an essay generally follow a basic pattern.
The title provides information on the topic of the essay and may even hint at the writer's main
point. The introductory paragraph subsequently presents some background information on the
topic before focusing on a main proposition through the thesis statement.Each paragraph in the
body of the essay deals with one sub-idea of the thesis statement.Finally, the concluding
paragraph reminds the reader of the thesis statement through a number of options which
include:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
the simple summary conclusion;
the larger significance conclusion;
the proposal conclusion;
the scenic or anecdotal conclusion;
the hook and return conclusion;
the delayed thesis conclusion.
The Title
This is the first part of the closed form essay. It functions as a preview of the thesis statement
and as an advertisement for the essay. Usually, it needs to be original, short and direct. It can
also be catchy, but should never be misleading.Options for presenting an effective title for your
term papers include the following:
·
Using a good question.This means your question has to be interesting, significant and
problematic.
·
Using a short form of your essay's central idea;
·
Using a two-part title with a colon in the middle;
·
Using a short form of your essay's purpose statement.
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The important aspect is that a good title normally has an old information element, drawn from a
reader's existing knowledge base, and a new information component that is often from the
writer's thesis statement.
The Introduction
This is the first major part of the essay. It is usually the first paragraph, although it can be longer
than one paragraph. Its purpose is to clarify the topic of an essay in a way that will spark the
reader's interest through for instance, a startling fact or statistic. Other mechanisms include the
use of a thought-provoking question, an incident, a historical account or concise,
lively statements. Secondly, it aims to establish the tone of an essay by creating certain
expectations in the reader. Thirdly, it aims to zero in on the essay's thesis statement.
In academic papers such as the journal article, key features are likely to include the following:
A sentence on the question or problem to be investigated;
The word problem as used here refers to the gap between an existing situation and the ideal
one.
One or two statements to provide a rationale for the investigation to be undertaken;
The writer's view or thesis or conclusion on an issue,must bring something new, surprising, or
challenging to a target audience;
An optional forecasting statement which previews the content of the article;The preview can be
given in a number of ways that include:
·
·
·
·
using a short thesis;
providing a detailed thesis;
stating a purpose or intention statement;
relying on a blueprint or mapping statement.
The Body (note though that there is no such section heading as ‘the body.’
This part of the closed form essay consists of paragraphs in the middle of the essay and must
contain supporting information for the thesis statement.The number of paragraphs and the
amount of information will vary according to the thesis statement. However, to be complete and
well -developed, the body must have enough support to explain or defend the thesis statement
thoroughly and adequately. This makes it possible to meet all of the expectations set up by the
thesis statement.
The body supports the thesis statement with examples,details, facts, reasons, or incidents. The
paragraphs in the body of an essay develop the sub-topics,either stated or unstated, of the
thesis statement.
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The Conclusion
An effective conclusion leaves readers satisfied with an essay and gives them something to
think about. It also reminds them of your main idea or thesis. You can develop a statement or
restatement of the main idea in one of several ways, namely:
·
Through a rhetorical question that you would ask only for effect;
·
Through a concise summary of the important points in your paper;
·
By using your powers of persuasion to call for some action;
·
By closing your paper with some speculation about what the future would be if the action
you propose is -or is not-taken. This can have a powerful impact on your readers.
An effective conclusion also summarizes, but it ought to do a lot more than that. Consequently,
when editing, try to focus on the single most important idea, apart from doing the following:
·
·
·
·
Being direct, since wordiness can undermine the authority of your final sentences and
weaken your message;
Using transitional expressions such as in conclusion, all in all, or to sum up;
Making sure you do not limit the scope of your conclusion too much;
Limiting your claims.
THESIS SENTENCE AND SUPPORT IN CLOSED FORM ESSAYS
DEVELOPING A THESIS STATEMENT
A thesis statement presents the main idea of a piece of writing, usually in one sentence. It
normally points you in a specific direction, helping you to stay on track and out of tempting
byways. In addition, it tells your reader what to expect. Converting a topic to a question can help
you to uncover backup ideas to be used in writing a thesis statement.
Example:
Topic: The uncertain future of robots in industry
Question: What are some of the drawbacks of using robots in industry?
Thesis statement: The expense of using robots, the lack of qualified personnel to service them,
and the moral problems of replacing workers with them —all cloud the future of robots in
industry.
Note that in this case, the thesis statement stems from the specifics unearthed while answering
the question.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD THESIS STATEMENT
Unless intended for a lengthy paper, a thesis statement focuses on just one central point
orissue. Suppose you prepare the following thesis statement for a two-or three- page paper:
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New Generation College should re-examine its policies on open admissions, vocational
programs and aid to students.
This sprawling statement would commit you to grapple with three separate issues: at best, you
could make only a few general remarks about each one.
To correct matters, consider each issue carefully in light of how much it interests you and how
much you know about it. Then, make your choice and draft a narrower statement. The following
thesis statement would do nicely for a brief paper: it shows clearly that the writer will focus on
just one issue:
Because of the rising demand among high school graduates for job-related training, New
Generation College should expand its vocational offerings.
A good thesis statement also tailors the scope of the issue to the length of a paper. No writer
could deal adequately with “Many first- year college students face crucial adjustment problems”
in two or three pages. The idea is too broad to yield more than a smattering of poorly supported
general statements. Paring down to “Free time is a responsibility that challenges many first —
year college students,” however, results in an idea that could probably be developed
adequately.
A good thesis statement further provides an accurate forecast of what’s to come. If you want to
discuss the effects of over eating, don’t say that “Over eating stems from deep-seated
psychological factors and the easy availability of convenience foods.” Such a statement,
incorrectly suggesting that the paper will focus on causes would only mislead and confuse your
reader. On the other hand, “Over eating leads to obesity, which can cause or complicate several
serious health problems” accurately represents what’s to follow.
Finally, a good thesis statement is precise, often previewing the organization of a paper.
Assertions built on fuzzy, catchall words like fascinating, bad, meaningful, or interesting or
statements like “My paper is about…” tell neither writer nor reader what’s going on. To illustrate:
·
·
Nairobi is a fascinating city.
My paper is about no-fault divorce.
These examples raise a host of questions. Why does the writer find Nairobi fascinating? And
what about no-fault divorce? Will the writer attack it, defend it, trace its history, and suggest
ways of improving it?
Now look at the re-written versions of those faulty statements:
·
·
Nairobi’s friendly people offer visitors an opportunity to learn much about inter-cultural
communication.
Compared to traditional divorce, no-fault divorce is less expensive, promotes fairer
settlements, and reflects a more realistic view of the causes of marital breakdown.
These points tell the reader not only what points the writer will make, but also the order they will
follow.
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PRESENTING A STRONG THESIS IN ACADEMIC WRITING
What makes a thesis strong? For one thing, a strong thesis always contains an element of
uncertainty, risk, or challenge. A strong thesis implies a counter thesis. In other words, it is
something that can be quarreled with. It surprises the reader with a new, unexpected, different,
or challenging view of the writer’s topic. Two ways of creating a surprising thesis include: trying
to change your reader’s view of your subject and giving your thesis tension.
To change your reader’s view of your subject, you must first imagine how the reader would view
the subject before reading your essay. You can change your reader’s view of a subject in
several ways.
·
First, you can enlarge it. Writing that enlarges a view is primarily informational; it provides
new ideas and data to add to a reader’s store of knowledge about the subject. For
example, a research paper on wind-generated electricity might have the following thesis:
“The technology for producing wind-generated electricity has improved remarkably in
recent years.”
·
Second, you can clarify your reader’s view of something that was previously fuzzy,
tentative, or uncertain. This kind of writing often explains, analyzes, or interprets.
Third, you can change your reader’s view by doing the opposite of clarifying; you can
raise questions or problems that will make your reader feel less certain and more
puzzled.
·
·
Still another kind of change occurs when an essay actually restructures a reader’s whole
view of a subject. Such essays persuade readers to change their minds or to make
decisions.
Another element of a surprising thesis is tension. By tension is meant the reader’s sensation of
being stretched from a familiar, unsurprising idea to a new, surprising one or of being twisted by
two ideas pushing in opposing directions. Stretching theses teach readers something they didn’t
know about a subject.
One of the best ways to create surprise in a thesis statement is to begin the statement with an
“although” or “whereas” clause: “Whereas most people believe X, this essay asserts Y.”
SUPPORTING A THESIS WITH CONVINCING DETAILS
Consider here the role of primary and secondary support sentences.
Task:
Write a one-paragraph micro-theme that uses specific details to support the provided point
sentences that are given below.
·
·
·
Directly or indirectly, anyone who is not a vegetarian causes animals to suffer.
Although the college library looks as though it is a good place to study, it has many
distractions that lure you from your work.
Although doing X looks easy, it actually requires remarkable skill. (For X, substitute any
activity of your choice)
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·
Although X works reasonably well, it has one major problem. (For X, substitute anything
of your choice)
The most memorable trait of (person’s name) is X.
·
WRITING PARAGRAPHS
Definition
A paragraph is a set of related sentences that express or develop a topic. In narration or
description, a new paragraph usually signals a shift in time, scene or speaker. In exposition or
argument, a new paragraph adds information or announces another point that supports your
thesis.
In general, there are two types of paragraphs namely topical paragraphs (those that develop a
topic or idea) and special paragraphs (those that introduce or conclude a piece of writing or
provide transition between major parts).
Paragraphs serve several purposes for you and your readers:
·
·
·
You can use them to divide your topic into manageable units of information;
You can also use them to control emphasis;
Thirdly, by placing a paragraph in a particular position, you can demonstrate the relative
importance of an idea in an essay;
· Finally, you can use paragraphs to establish rhythm.
Requirements of Topical Paragraphs
An effective topical paragraph must meet four requirements:
·
·
·
·
First, it must discuss one topic only; that is, its statements must display a unity of subject
matter often expressed in a topic sentence.
Second, it must be complete or adequately developed to do what it is intended to do;
Third, the sentences within the paragraph must exhibit an order that your readers can
recognize and follow;
Fourth, the sentences within the paragraph must display coherence, allowing readers to
move easily from one sentence to the next without feeling that there are gaps in the
sequence of ideas or points.
1. Unity:
A paragraph with unity develops one and only one key controlling idea that is expressed through
the topic sentence. Think of the topic sentence as a rallying point with all supporting sentences
developing the idea it expresses. Placement of the topic sentence varies from paragraph to
paragraph as the following examples show.
Topic sentence stated first
The road is one of the great fundamental institutions of mankind. Not only is the road
one of the great human institutions because it is fundamental to social existence, but also
because its varied effects appear in every department of the state. It is the road which
determines the sites of many cities and the growth and nourishment of all. It is the road
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which controls the development of strategies and fixes the sites of battles. It is the road
that gives its framework to all economic development. It is the road which is the channel of
all trade, and, what is more important, of all ideas. In its most humble function, it is a
necessary guide without which progress from place to place would be a ceaseless
experiment; it is a sustenance without which organized society would be impossible. Thus
the road moves and controls all history. (Hilaire Belloc).
In this paragraph, the first sentence states the subject. It is the topical sentence. The body of the
paragraph consists of examples which prove the statement in the first sentence. The final
sentence sums up the whole.
Topic sentence last
In order to emphasize the support and build gradually to a conclusion, a topic sentence can end
the paragraph. This position creates suspense, as the reader anticipates the summarizing
remark. Here’s a typical example.
An experience of my own comes handily to mind. Some years ago, when the Restaurant
de la Pyramide in Vienna was without question one of the best half dozen restaurants in
the world, I visited it for the first time. After I had ordered my meal, the wine steward
appeared to set before me a wine list of surpassing amplitude and excellence. But as I
cast my eyes down this unbelievable offering of the world’s most tantalizing wines, the
steward bent over me and pointed out a wine of which I had never heard, ticketed at a
price one fifth that of its illustrious neighbors. “Monsieur,” said the steward, “I would
suggest this one. It is a local wine, a very good wine. It is not a great wine, but after all
monsieur, you are likely to pass this way only once. The great wines you will find
everywhere; this one you will find only in Vienne. I would like you to try it while you have
the opportunity.” This, in my mind was true sophistication- on the part of M. Point for
having the wine and on the part of the waiter for offering it. [Stephen White, “New
Sophistication: Defining the Terms”]
Topic sentence stated first and last
Some paragraphs lead with the main idea and then restate it, usually in different words at the
end. This technique allows the writer to repeat an especially important idea as in the following
case.
Everything is changing. This is a prediction I can make with absolute certainty. As
human beings, we are constantly in a state of change. Our bodies change every day. Our
attitudes are constantly evolving. Something that we swore by five years ago is now
almost impossible for us to imagine ourselves believing. The clothes we wore a few years
ago now look strange to us in old photographs. The things we take for granted as
absolutes, impervious to change, are, in fact constantly doing just that. Granite boulders
become sand in time. Beaches erode and shape new shorelines. Our buildings become
outdated and are replaced with modern structures that also will be torn down. Even those
things that last thousands of years, such as the Pyramids and the Acropolis also are
changing. This simple insight is very important to grasp, if you want to be a no-limit person
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and are desirous of raising no-limit children. Everythingyou feel, think, see, and touch
is constantly changing. [Wayne Dyer, “What Do You Really Want for Your Children?]
Topic sentence stated in the middle
On occasion, the topic sentence falls between one set of sentences that provides background
information and a follow-up set that develops the central idea. This arrangement allows the
writer to shift emphasis and at the same time preserve close ties between the two sets. Here’s
an example.
Over the centuries, China has often been the subject of Western fantasy. In their own
way, a number of scholars, journalists, and other travellers have perpetuated this tradition
in recent years, rushing to discover the country after its long period of isolation. Some of
these visitors, justifiably impressed by the Communists’ achievements in eliminating the
exploitative aspects of the pre-1949 mandarin society, propagated the view that the
revolution, after its initial successes, had continued to “serve the people” and that China
was the “wave of the future”- a compelling alternative to the disorder and materialism of
contemporary Western society. Human rights were not an issue, they argued, because
such Western concepts were inapplicable to China. In the past year however, the Chinese
have begun to speak for themselves, and they are conveying quite a different picture. In
the view of many of its own people, China is a backward and repressive nation. “China is
Asia’s Gulag Archipelago,” an elderly Chinese scholar said to me shortly after I had
arrived in China last spring. [David Finkelstein, “When the Snow Thaws]
Topic sentence implied
Some paragraphs, particularly in narratives and in descriptive writing, have no topic sentence.
Rather, all sentences point toward a main idea that readers must grasp for themselves. The
following is a typical example.
Captain Robert Barclay once went out at 5 in the morning to do a little grouse shooting.
He walked at least 30 miles while he potted away, and then after dinner set out on a walk
of 60 miles that he accomplished in 11 hours without a halt. Barclay did not sleep after
this, but went through the following day as if nothing had happened until afternoon, when
he walked 16 miles to a ball. He danced all night, and then in early morning walked home
and spent a day partridge shooting. Finally, he did get to bed- but only after a period of
two nights and nearly three days had elapsed and he had walked 300 miles. [John
Lovesay, “A Myth is as Good as a Mile]
Note that the details of this paragraph collectively suggest a clear central idea that Barclay had
incredible physical endurance.
2. Completeness or Adequate Development
You develop a paragraph by supplying detailed support for the main idea of the paragraph. To
check whether for instance you are providing sufficient detail in a body paragraph, use the
RENNS TEST. As used here:
R= Reasons
E= Examples
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N=Numbers
N= Names
S= Senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch)
3. Order or Organizational Pattern
Some of the patterns include:
· Formal classification or whole to parts
In formal classification, you group items according to a principle of classification- that is
according to some observable characteristic that every item in the group possesses.
Example:
There are medium friends, and pretty good friends, and very good friends indeed, and these
friendships are defined by their level of intimacy.
· Chronological order (Arranging by time)
In a paragraph arranged according to time, or chronological order, events are presented in
whatever order they took place. For example, when you tell a story, you write what happened
first, then second, then third and so on. Using time sequence is a very natural and easy way to
organize a paragraph.
· Arranging by location
A paragraph arranged by location or spatial order leads the reader’s attention from one place to
another. The movement can be in any direction- from top to bottom, left to right, inside to
outside, and so on.
· Arranging from general to specific
The most common pattern for arranging information is from general to specific. Typically, the
general statement is the topic sentence, while the supporting details explain the specifics. A less
common paragraph arrangement moves from specifics to general. With this arrangement, to
achieve the greatest impact, the paragraph starts with details that support the topic sentence.
· Arranging from least to most important
A paragraph arranged from least to most important uses the climactic order which means that
the high point- the climax- comes at the end. For a paragraph to be arranged from least to most
important, it has to have at least three items: least, better, best. And remember that the last item
always packs the greatest impact and is the most memorable.
· Arranging from problem to solution
In some cases, an effective arrangement for a paragraph is the problem-solution pattern.
Usually, the topic sentence presents the problem. Then, the rest of the paragraph covers the
specifics of the solution.
· Arranging from question to answer, or from effect to cause
A paragraph may begin with a question and give the answer or with an effect and explain the
cause. Such a paragraph may have no specific topic sentence beyond the opening question or
statement of the effect.
COHESION
Cohesion concerns the flow of sentences from one to another. When we write academic
essays, we work hard to foster cohesion structurally, which enhances a reader's understanding
of ideas.
Cohesion can be achieved through:
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1. Reference
This type of cohesion mainly depends on the use of pronouns to achieve cohesion.
2. Substitution
This is a grammatical relationship through which one linguistic item acts as a substitute for a
longer one. The following are some of the relevant examples.
My knife is too blunt. I must get a sharper one. [Nominal substitution]
A: “Give me six biscuits.”
B: “I’ll have the same.”
A: “Did you see John last week?” [Verbal substitution]
B: “I did.”
A:”Did you see John last week?” [Clausal substitution]
B; “They say so.”
3. Lexical Repetition
This means, repeating the same, similar or related words in successive sentences, so that later
occurrences of such words refer back to and link up with previous sentences.
Example:
Epilepsy is a brain or neurological disorder where excess electrical energy causes seizures.
Seizures result when the brain's nerve cells, or neurons, produce an excessive or abnormal
amount of electrical activity.
To prevent repetitions from becoming dull, an author may use:
Variations of the word (golf, golfer, golfing)
Synonyms (jump, hop, bounce)
4. Conjunctions
Most of these are adverbs of one kind or another. Typical examples include coordinating,
subordinating and correlative conjunctions.
Coordinating, Subordinating, and Correlative Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions each have
their own purpose.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with similar values. In other
words, coordinating conjunctions may connect two words, two phrases, two independent
clauses, or two dependent clauses.
For example, in each of the following sentences, the coordinating conjunction “and” connects
equal words or groups of words:
Connects two words:
John and Reggie stayed up all night practicing their guitars.
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Connects two phrases:
The squirrel scurried up the tree trunk and onto a low branch.
Connects two clauses:
Several managers sat with their backs to us, and I could almost hear them snickering at us lowly
workers.
There are only seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language, namely: for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, and so.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one into a subordinating
clause. The subordinating clause acts as one huge adverb, answering the questions “when” or
“why” about the main clause, or imposing conditions or opposition on it.
Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions changing a clause into adverbial
subordinating clauses in different ways:
·
·
·
·
I can go shopping after I finish studying for my exam.
Because the night was young, Gertrude decided to take a walk.
I’ll give you a dime if you give me a dollar.
Although he never figured out why, Hanna winked on her way out the door.
Note: The subordinating conjunction does not always come between the two clauses it
connects. Often, it comes at the beginning of the first clause.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They are similar to coordinating conjunctions,
because they join sentence elements that are similar in importance or that are parallel.
The following are some examples of coordinating conjunctions:
Both, and:
Both Rodney and Xing made the varsity team this year.
Neither, nor:
Neither Rodney nor Xing made the varsity team this year.
Not only, but also:
Not only did Rodney make the varsity team, but he also becomes one of the strongest players.
5. Transition Words
Transitional words and phrases, also known as tags, are used to hold a paper together. They
can be simple conjunctions, or complex transition expressions. Here is a chart of transitional
devices accompanied by a simplified definition of their function:
Transition
Function
Addition
again, also, then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further,
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Transition
Function
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second, still,
too
Comparison
also, in the same way, likewise, similarly
Contrast
although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite that,
even so, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead,
nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand,
otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet
Concession
granted, naturally, of course
Emphasis
certainly, indeed, in fact, of course
after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion,
Example/illustration indeed, in fact, in other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely,
specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly
Summary
all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other
words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole,
that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize
Time sequence
after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length,
at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past, last, lately,
meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly,
simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too,
until, until now, when
Place/direction
above, below, father on, nearby, to the right
Relationships
therefore, so, consequently, for this reason, since
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
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