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Qualitative research –
the in-depth view
Although sometimes labour-intensive, qualitative research has
many advantages, writes Claire Collins
THE OBJECTIVE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH is to increase
understanding of a phenomenon as opposed to generalising
data extrapolated from a sample to the population at large.
While quantitative research outcomes are presented in statistical format, the results of qualitative research needs to
include direct quotations from participants.
Qualitative research offers a holistic, often naturalistic
perspective on the world, in which issues are contextualised
with detailed description. Reality is derived rather than
measured.
Advantages of qualitative research include the ability to
look in-depth at phenomena and to examine complex questions such as those dealing with systems/processes, which
are difficult to access through quantitative methods.
Despite these advantages, it is important for the researcher
to be aware of the possible disadvantages of qualitative
research such as subjectivity, researcher bias and difficulty
of replication – all of which can be identified and in most
instances limited if not eliminated. Qualitative research can
also be labour intensive and expensive.
When beginning the research, it is advisable to record all
choices made with regard to the methods used and the
sample chosen, and include reasons for the choices. This
can serve as an audit trail.
Qualitative methods include focus groups, individual indepth interviews (IDIs), observation and documentary
analysis.
Focus groups
Focus groups are a form of interviewing where the
researcher provides the focus on which the group bases itsdiscussion. A traditional focus group consists of a 60-120
minute discussion among seven to ten individuals selected
on the basis of having predetermined characteristics or
experience in common.
A trained facilitator/moderator conducts the session. The
session should be audio-taped (and in some instances videotaping may also be relevant). The use of a group discussion
allows for the interaction between participants and the
opportunity to ‘brainstorm’ ideas in a group setting. The
moderator plays an essential role – if the moderator is not
experienced enough, it is very easy for the whole discussion
to be dominated by a few people.
Focus groups are not as effectives as IDIs in dealing with
sensitive topics as it can be difficult to get participants to
share their real feelings and experiences in a group situation.
Individual interviews
Individual in-depth interviews allow for person-to-person
discussion which can provide an increased insight into peoples’ thoughts, behaviours etc. This technique can be used
to gather ideas, information and develop materials.
IDIs can allow for honest and informative responses from
interviewees but subjective views may prevail, and these are
not always amenable to making more general conclusions.
The information gathered depends not only on the questionnaire/topic guide, but also on the ability of the
interviewer to get information out of the interviewee.
There is usually one participant and one interviewer and
the session typically lasts 30-60 minutes. This type of interview can be structured or unstructured, but regardless of
structure, it is useful to remain flexible. Remaining flexible
encourages the participant to talk.
Ideally, the session should be audio-taped but it is acceptable not to audio-tape once the interviewer takes
comprehensive notes. IDIs can be organised to suit the
interviewee and may thus encourage participation; however,
they can be time and cost-consuming.
Qualitative observation
Qualitative observation involves observing the situation/
interaction of interest and recording details regarding the
physical space, the object under observation, the actors, the
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Research
act undertaken, and the goal and feelings of those involved.
It can be participant (researcher is also an actor in the situation) or non-participant.
A written account is produced detailing all important
minute detail – location, time, behaviours, activities,
changes over time, the researcher’s experience, the people
who entered and exited the site, patterns of interactions,
etc. Observation is slow and labour-intensive. The observer’s
physical presence might cause the subject(s) to behave in
an atypical manner. In addition, the intrusiveness of personal observation may mean some people are reluctant to
participate.
Documentary analysis
Documentary analysis involves the examination of existing
written, audio and video material. A written account is produced detailing all important minute detail, location, time,
activities, etc.
A topic guide is used in both focus groups and IDIs and is
an aide memoire for the moderator/interviewer. It contains
a list of the essential topics for coverage and if relevant,
other aids and instructions for conducting the interview.
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A future article will discuss qualitative sampling techniques and sample size further. Suffice to say now that
qualitative researchers sample with a purpose and ensure to
provide sufficient detail regarding the participants and their
selection to allow the reader to determine how/when the
results apply.
Content analysis
Content analysis is employed to analyse qualitative data.
Content analysis determines the presence of certain words
or concepts and involves quantifying and analysing the presence, meanings and relationships of words and concepts
and then making inferences about the messages within the
texts.
The text is coded and then examined using either conceptual analysis or relational analysis. In conceptual
analysis, the focus is on looking at the occurrence of
selected terms, although the terms may be implicit as well
as explicit. Relational analysis explores the relationships
between the concepts identified.
Claire Collins is director of research with the ICGP
Further reading:
1. Krueger RA, Casey MA. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide
for Applied Research. 3rd Edition. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California 2000
2. Silverman D. Doing Qualitative Research: A practical
Handbook. Sage Publications Ltd. London 2002
References
1. De Paulo P. Sample size for qualitative research: the risk of missing
something important. Accessed at
www.quirks.com/articles/article.asp?arg_ArticleId=636
2. Massey A. The way we do things around here: the culture of ethnography’
Paper presented at the Ethnography and Education Conference, Oxford
University Department of Educational Studies (OUDES), 7-8 September,
1998. Accessed at www.geocities.com/Tokyo/2961/waywedo.htm
3. Busch C, De Maret PS, Flynn T, Kellum R, Le S, Meyers B, Saunders M,
White R, Palmquist M. Content Analysis. Writing@CSU. Colorado State
University Department of English 2005. Accessed at
www.writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/