Scripting Screenplays: An Idea for Integrating Writing, Reading, Thinking, and Media
Literacy
Author(s): Lawrence Baines and Micah Dial
Source: The English Journal, Vol. 84, No. 2 (Feb., 1995), pp. 86-91
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/821058 .
Accessed: 21/11/2014 17:56
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
.
National Council of Teachers of English is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
The English Journal.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 129.15.105.109 on Fri, 21 Nov 2014 17:56:01 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Scripting Screen
for
ntegratin
lays:
An
tin
Idea
Reading,
MediaMit
an
Thwncinking,
Lawrence
BainesandMicahDial
to civilization
verystepfromsavagery
is dependent
upontheinventionof med•iawhichenlargethe rangeof purely
immediateexperience
andgiveit deep,enedas wellas widermeaningby connectingit withthingswhichcanonlybe
signifiedorsymbolized."
-John Dewey(1966,232)
If you try:toibegin a conversation
with a student about a recentlyreleased young adult novel or a literary classic, chances are that she or he will
have preciouslittle to say.If you try to begin
a conversationwith a student about a recently releasedfilm (say,the cinematicversion of MichaelCrichton's
JurassicPark)or a
television show (BeverlyHills90210, for example), chances are you will become enOurstudents gagedin a lively discussion.
Forbetteror worse,studentsarebecomknowthe
increasinglyattuned to the moving immovies,and ing
and less patient with mere words on a
we canuse age
page. More than sixty years ago, Samuel
their Rosenkranzwrote that teachers "refuseto
familiarityin recognize the fact that they [students]are
to the picture shows, and that we
screenwriting going
adapt our literatureand composition
activities. must
coursesin such a mannerthat adequaterecognition is given to the fact that there are
some genuineneeds to be met"(Rosenkranz
1931, 824).
Today,VCRs exist in over seventy-five
percent of Americanhomes, television sets
stay turned on for over seven hours a day,
cable television operatorsofferhundreds of
viewing alternatives, and students spend
hours playing video games, so getting students to spend time reading or writing is
more challenging than ever. For further
proof of the appeal of the moving image,
compare the number of teenagers in the
crowds in the video store waiting to check
out the new releases with the number of
teenagersloiteringaroundthe "newreleases"
section of books at the local library.In re-
sponse to the electronicmedia'susurpation
of student attention,many state and federal
officalshaveurgentlydeliverededictsto parents that they "turnoff theirtelevisions"and
insteadencouragetheirchildrento read.Despite such advice,the networks,Hollywood,
and cable television companies have managed to eke out enoughprofitto stayin business:Undeniably,most studentsspend more
time with nonprintmedia thanwith books.
TEN REASONSTO USE
SCREENWRITINGIN ENGLISHCLASS
Screenwritingis one effectiveway to use
students'familiaritywith the electronicmedia to fosterreading,writing,and media literacy Screenwritingin Englishclass has the
followingpositiveattributes:
1. Screenwriting
motivatesstudentsto
write.Becausemoststudentshavespent
moretimein frontof theirtelevisionsets
andin movietheatersthanathomereadin
ingliteraryclassics,theyareinterested
a movie."
"writing
2. Screenwriting
involvesa full-blown
writingprocessandmore.Students
writecharacter
brainstorm,
research,
biogconstruct
scenes,critique
raphies,visually
thewritingof peers,andmustbe ableto
writedialogueaswellas deeffectively
scription.
3. Screenwriting
requiresbothindividual
andgroupwork.Whilemuchof theinitialwritingin theunitrequiresthatstuwhenit comes
dentsworkindividually,
timeto shootthevideo,studentsmustnegotiatetheirindividualroleswithintheir
groups,discuss,andselectthescreenplay
to be shot,anddecideon howto go
aboutshootingit.
4. Screenwriting forces students to think
in terms of camera angles, music,
words, and images. Screenwritingsurreptitiouslyteachesstudentshow the components of the electronicmediawork to
communicatetheirmessages.Presto!Media literacy
5. Screenwriting invokes all of the seven
intelligences hypothesized by Howard
1995
February
86
This content downloaded from 129.15.105.109 on Fri, 21 Nov 2014 17:56:01 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Gardnerin Frames of Mind (1983). Students write dialogueand description(linguistic);arecompelledto create,visualize,
write, and negotiatemeaningas individuals (intrapersonal)and with other students (interpersonal);calculatetime
intervalsand match time expectations
againstthe scriptwritingparadigm(mathematical);furnishmusic and sound effects
to accompanythe action (musical);map
out scenes using existinglocationsor
buildingsuitablesets (spatialand kinesthetic);and put everythingtogetherin a
filmedor livepresentation
(a synthesisof
diversetalents).
6. Screenwriting involves hands-on, active
learning for students in a real-life situation. Studentsfind it virtuallyimpossible to hide or slough off duringthis
activity
7. Screenwriting
has been the most lucrative writingprofessionin the twentieth
century.Whilemanywritersstruggleat
makinga livingchurningoutnovelsand
arerelatively
wellpoetry,screenwriters
James
paidandhealthyWilliamFaulkner,
T.Farrell,AldousHuxley,E ScottFitzgerald,TheodoreDreiser,RingLardner,
John
Richard
Steinbeck,RaymondChandler,
West,GoreVidal,Beth
Wright,Nathaniel
Henley,ArthurMiller,EdwardAlbee,
HaroldPinter,Tennessee
Williams,Billy
Wilder,EliaKazan,NeilSimon,David
Cronenburg,
StephenKing,WilliamGoldandothershave
man,JamesMichener,
writtenscreenplays
at one timeor another
in theircareers.Writers
inHollywood,
1915-1951(Hamilton1990)recounts
how a bevyof American
literarystalwarts
wereluredto Hollywoodby thepromise
of big dollars.In 1939,E ScottFitzgerald
wasmaking$1,500a weekwritingin Hollywood,whilehis bookroyaltiesduring
1939broughtin a grandtotalof $33.00.
8. Screenwritingmaylead to scripts
whichmaybe filmedby studentsor offered to the drama department for the
production of an original play or video.
If the screenplaysget filmed, the videos
could be shown at open house, after
ChannelOne viewing (if the school subscribes),or during"dead"times during
the school year (such as on exam days or
the last day of the gradingperiod). Other
inter-disciplinaryconnectionsare certainlypossible-math and industrialarts
classes could help design and build sets,
art classescould paint and shape them,
science classescould help develop special
effects,historyclassescould help supply
pertinentbackgroundinformationabout
certainperiodsof time.
9. Screenwriting is writing with portfolio
possibilities. Some literarygiantsdid not
transfertheirbrillianceto the screenbecause they could not adjusttheirwriting
stylesforfilm.Writingwellforthescreen
is challenging,
intensework,andit is certhanwritingpureprose.
tainlydifferent
Whileprovidingstudentswithanother
avenueof expression
withwhichto exa
anda videowould
periment, screenplay
alsoaddcontemporary
touchesto anystudentportfolio.
10. Screenwriting
is fun. Studentsoften
groanwhentheyreceivewritingassignmentafterwritingassignment,
but
complaints
usuallyrecede(atleastmounit.
mentarily)
duringa screenwriting
Studentsseemto enjoya feelingof accomplishmentwhentheyseeworkstheyhave
createdin printandon film.
SOURCESAND ACTIVITIES
I adapted materialsfor the screenplay
unit from four major sources-two of Syd
Field's books, The Screenwriter's
Workbook
(1984) and Screenplay:The Foundationsof
(1981); John Gardner'sTheArt
Screenwriting
of Fiction(1984); and the last hundredpages
of William Goldman's Adventuresin the
Screen Trade(1984) in which Goldman
transposesone of his shorter short stories
into an actual screenplay I have used the
screenwritingunit concurrentlywith other
classroomactivitiesor as a unit in itself.
Listedbelow are a chronologyof activities and writing assignmentsthat can help
studentsto completetheirown screenplays.
Activity One: Brainstorming for Ideas
Required writing:
Favoritefilmslist
Elementsof film identification
Idea for a scriptin one sentence
To begin, students do three short, shotgun writing assignments.
First, they list their all-time favorite
films (at least ten). Next, they identify common elements on their favorite films list. Do
they enjoy suspense, action, westerns, detective stories, romance, adventure, or documentaries?
The third assignment, composed after
the first two assignments have been completed, is a description of two or three films
that they would like to see made. One student, Jayne, wrote, "I'dlike to see a film of a
romance between a black man and a black
woman, without any explicit sex or psycho
EnglishJournal
87
This content downloaded from 129.15.105.109 on Fri, 21 Nov 2014 17:56:01 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
killers in it. Real love." From these three
pieces-the favoritefilms list, the description of the elementsthatthey enjoyseeingin
films, and the idea generation for their
scripts-students jot down a generalidea for
a film in one sentence on a sheet of paper.
This one-sentencesummaryshould answer
the question,"Whatis the film about?"
Activity Two: Structuring the Idea
Required writing:
Break-downof the script idea into setting, conflict, and resolution with 3-4
sentencesabout each section.
Whereasnovelists have the freedom to
"letthe story take over,"screenwritersmust
abide by a set patternof development.Accordingto Field,"Ascreenplayfollowsa certain, lean, tight, narrativeline of action, a
line of development ... [which] always
moves forward,with direction toward the
resolution"(1984, 12). Basically,the screenplay contains three parts:the establishment
of the setting, the introductionof the conthe resolution.
Becausemost flict,Atand
the beginningof the movie, Raidersof
have the LostArk,
students
for example, directorStephen
establishes
the settingby showing
Spielberg
timein ront the discoverysomewherein the MiddleEast
of an ancient artifact thought to possess
mystical powers. The conflict comes when
lead character,IndianaJones, discovers
andin movie the
that the Nazis, who are seeking the same
theatersthan artifact,
try to keep him and his companions
from their search. The resolution involves
Jones' escape from the Nazis and the Nazis'
eventualcomeuppance.
Usually,about half of a screenplayis devoted
to the main action, or the conflictof a
areinterested
with
approximatelya fourth used to
a story,
in "writing
the setting and another fourth to
movie." establish
a
provide resolution.Studentswrite several
sentences (most students do it in three or
four sentences) for each section in order to
flesh out theirideas for the threepartsof the
story.
For example,Kelidescribedthe conflict
in her storythis way:
spentmore
their
oJ
sets
television
athome
reading
literary
classics,
they
Diane can'tstandher mother'snew
boyfriend,Tyrone.Somethingabout
him gives Diane the creeps.The mom
acts totallydifferent,kind of like one
of Diane'smore immaturefriends,
when Tyroneis around.Tyronenever
talksabouthis work, says he is "an
independentbusinessman."One night
whenshegoesoutwitha wildfriend
Dianesneaksintoa night(Shantell),
club.In thenightclub,shespotsTyroneat a tablewitha woman.
AlthoughDianecomesup andsays
actslikehe doesn'trec"hello,"
Tyrone
her.
ognize
Activity Three: CharacterBiographies
Required writing:
Listof all main characterswith briefdescriptionsabout each
In-depth description of at least one
main character
Studentslist adjectivesor write a paragraphdescribingthe physicaland emotional
dimensions of all majorcharacters.For example,Juan describedone of his characters
this way:
Garthis likeClintEastwoodprobably
wasat 16, doesn'tsaymuch,isn'tthat
butstillhasallthese
good-looking,
highschoolgirls,andevensomecollegegirlscrazyforhisbod.Theguys
don'treallylikehimbecausethey
knowthatif theypickon him,he'sgoing to hitback.Andhe'sgoingto hit
backhard.
Next, studentszero in on one (or more)
main character(s)who will be the focus of
the screenplay and write in more detail
about them. These biographies might include a physicaldescription(height,weight,
usual type of dress),informationconcerning
the way the character sits, walks, and
speaks; the place in which he/she lives,
friends,job, hobbies, mannerisms,political
beliefs, habits, and other pertinent details.
The phrase that many writing teachersrepeat often, "Show,don'ttell,"is equallycritical in getting students to createbelievable,
interestingcharactersfor film.
For his in-depth characterbiography,
Will wrote:
Joeyis an officeworker.Hewearsa tie
to workeventhough
andsportscoat
he hatesties.He'sneatandtidy
aroundothers,butwhenhe works
leaves
alone,his personalappearance
much to be desired .... Some days,
he'sthemostintelligentmanon the
planet.He canworkanymathematical
equation,solve any problemwith the
system,and completetaskswith inhu-
manspeedandefficiencyThenthere
arethosedayswhenhe'stotally
snapless.Likethe time he left the
printeron and went for a coffeebreak,
February1995
88
This content downloaded from 129.15.105.109 on Fri, 21 Nov 2014 17:56:01 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
onlytocomebackto2,463copiesof
Printer
andYou."
"Your
ActivityFour:DescribingPlot
and Settingby Scene
Requiredwriting:
writtenout on 3"x 5"
Scenes/locations
indexcards.
Oncestudentshavesketchedouta basic
in
storylineand know the maincharacters
theirstories,theyarereadyto begindescribing the settingandthe plot. I showa video
montageof the firstminute(afterthe credits) fromtheopeningof thefilmsTheChocoThe
lateWar,SounderToKilla Mockingbird,
I
The
am
theCheese,
Outsiders,
Shipof Fools,
ColorPurple,Hamlet,and TheRockingHorse
WinnerAfterseeingthe video,studentsdiscussthewordsandtheimagesevidentin the
firstminuteof eachfilmthathelpedestablish its setting.Studentswritea shortsummary of their openingscene on an index
card.
To help show how authors change
scenes to keep the actionlively,I ask the
shiftedloclassto analyzehow Shakespeare
cationsin the first few pages of Macbeth.
Specifically,the firstscene of Macbethinvolves threewitchesrecitinga riddlein a
desertedheath;the secondis at KingDuncan'scampoutsideof Forres.Forthe third,
it'sback to the heathand the witches;the
fourthtakesplacein a roominsideDuncan's
castlein Forres,andthe fifthis at Inverness,
Macbeth's
castle.
Studentsget out all of their previous
sketches,plot summary,
writings(character
of
the
description
settingon an indexcard)
and spreadthemout so theycan see all of
themat once. Thenthey decidea possible
seriesof eventsthatmighthappento their
main character(s).On 3" x 5" index cards,
studentswriteno more than one or two sentences about the locations that the main
charactermight visit.
Matt, for example, wanted to write a
storyabouta footballplayer,a seniorin high
school, who gets caughtcheatingon his final
exam in English, thus endangering his
chancesat graduationand an athleticscholarship. The first scene showed the senior
cruising the hallways, talking with his
friendsbetween classes.In the second scene,
the senior was at the footballpracticefield
wherethe teamworkedout afterschool. The
third scene moved to the coach's office,
wherea coachtellshimabouta possiblevisit
by a recruiterfroma big-namecollege.The
fourthscenetookplaceat home,wherethe
senior strugglesto understandhis school
notes, then constructsa cheat sheet on a
scrapof paper.In this manner,Mattvisualizedthebasiclocalesforhis story.
ActivityFive:Backtrackthe Main
CharacterTwenty-fourHoursBeforethe
StoryTakesPlace
Requiredwriting:
Shortpieceof fictionthatputsthe main
intoactionfora day
character
When I firststartedaskingstudentsto
write scripts,I discoveredthat manystudentsattemptedto begintheirstoriesfrom
theverybeginningratherthanin mediasres.
themaincharacter
fortwentyBacktracking
fourhoursbeforethestorytakesplacefamiliarizes the student with the thought
at themoprocessesof themaincharacter(s)
that
the
ment
screenplayopens.Somestudentsenjoywritingthe backtrackso much
thattheywantto begintheirscreenplays
a
That
is
earlier.
but
students
still
fine,
day
shouldbe encouragedto writeanother24hour backtrackfrom whence the story
opens.
Activity Six: Getting Students Familiar
with the Format of the Screenplay
Required writing:
A briefscreenadaptationof a shortstory
done in groups.
Thereis nothing arduousabout the format forscreenplays.The nameof the character who is speakingis written in all-capital
letters in the middle of a page (about four
inches from the left edge of the paper)over
the dialogue,which is single-spacedand indented about 10 spaces from the left margin.
Descriptions of how characters deliver lines
may be written in parenthesis with the dialogue. Directions about where and when the
action takes place are written in all capital
letters flush against the left margin. Two
lines should be skipped in between lines of
dialogue and stage directions.
To get students familiar with the format
of a screenplay, I assign a group project
where they transpose short stories with
much dialogue or action (such as Hemingway's "The Indian Camp" or a scene from
Ernest Gaines' "The Sky is Gray") into
screenplays. I keep copies of screenplays
89
EnglishJournal
This content downloaded from 129.15.105.109 on Fri, 21 Nov 2014 17:56:01 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
fromseveralpopularfilms in class as examples.
to videotape in the classroomor on school
grounds. Most groups want to film after
school, so I use the video camerasfurnished
Activity Seven: Writing the Screenplay
by parentsof groupmembersor checkvideo
Requiredwriting:
camerasout with the libraryafterschool.
Initialdraftof a screenplay.
Afterall videos have been shot and the
Field (1984) suggests that the main
videotapes and scripts turned in, students
character,the dramaticpremise,and the cir- respondindividuallyon a groupassessment
cumstancessurroundingthe actionbe intro- form concerning each member'scontribuduced within the firstfew pagesof the script. tion (includingtheir own) to the group. InIn other words, all the work assignedin the
evitably,it will take some groups longer to
character
activities-the
sketch,
previous
produce a finished video than others. I althe screenplayparadigm(in which students ways give non-negotiable deadlines first,
Duringthe decided on conflict,setting,and resolution), then negotiateonce I see studentsfeverishly
backtrack,the ten to twenty workingto finishtheirprojects.
screenwriting the 24-hour
the
Few activitiesmatch the excitement of
notecards,
adaptation
unit,students of a short samplescreenplay
on
an
have
the premiere of a student-produced, stustory-should
impact
wantto write the construction
of the first few pages. In
dent-scripted, student-acted video. Howandfilm the most films, the opening ten minutes
or so
ever, to keep the level of excitement in
bestvideo involves following the main character scripts and videos high, premieresare usuevermade. aroundso that the audiencecan get a "feel" ally limited to two to four (depending on
for the story.
length) per week.
Studentsuse their index cardsas a base
THE POWEROF SCREENWRITING
structurearoundwhich to build the action
Becausemanyproductsof the electronic
of the story and often revise their cards
media
aspireto be nothingmorethanprofitthrough the first day of filming. Length of
able pap and succeed beautifullyat it, eduscreenplaysvarywith each student'slevel of
cators have often viewed television, video,
interest,attentionspan, and patience. Genand film with a certaindegree of contempt.
erally,one page of a script is equivalentto
True,the languageof film and televisionis
one minute of screen time, so a script of
not as sophisticated as that of literature
twenty-fivepages would last approximately
(Baines 1993). But, Ong (1967, 1982) has
twenty-fiveminutes.
pointed out that film and televisionstill rely
Peer
Editing, Shooting
Activity Eight:
primarilyon words to communicate their
the Video, Showing Off the Results.
messages.Televisionshows and movies are
Required writing:
derivedfromwrittenscriptswhich are conA workingscript
structed and revisedwell before any actual
Editingremarks
productionbegins.
Groupassessment
Screenwritingis difficult, challenging
work
into
involvingwriting,rewriting,and more
During peer editing, students get
groupsof four to six and sharetheirscreen- rewriting.It is a way to get previouslylackaplays. Every student reads the scripts of all
members of the group with the intent of deciding which screenplay would likely make
the best film. Each student responds to all
screenplays, noting out good points, scenes
that they did not like or understand, and
parts of the story that might be difficult to
capture on film. The group votes on which
screenplay to shoot and who will act as the
stars, the cinematographer, the set designer,
and the director.
Two class periods during the unit are
"on the set" days when I check out video
cameras from the library and allow students
daisical students to produce stacks of written work about characters, plot, setting,
dialogue, conflict, and description. In addition, students are compelled to think critically about writing, images, and sounds;
they experience first-hand how nonprint
media can be manipulated for specific purposes; they collaborate actively with their
peers and use a variety of skills and intelligences. Perhaps most importantly, during
the screenwriting unit, students want to
write and film the best video ever made. And
when students want to do well, teaching is a
blast.
February1995
90
This content downloaded from 129.15.105.109 on Fri, 21 Nov 2014 17:56:01 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
WorksCited
in
Baines,Lawrence.1993. Aspectsof Language
and Film.UnpublisheddissertaLiterature
of Michigan.
tion,AnnArbor,MI:University
and
Dewey,John. 1966. [c. 1916] Democracy
NewYork:FreePress.
Education.
TheFoundations
Field,Syd. 1981. Screenplay:
of
Dell.
New
York:
Screenwriting.
New
Workbook.
1984. TheScreenwriter's
York:Dell.
Gardner,
John. 1984. TheArt of Fiction.New
York:AlfredKnopf.
Gardner,Howard.1983. Framesof Mind.New
York:BasicBooks.
intheScreen
William.1984.Adventures
Goldman,
NewYork:Dell.
Trade.
in Hollywood
1915Hamilton,Ian.1990.Writers
1941. NewYork:HarperandRow.
New
oftheWord.
Ong,Walter.1967.ThePresence
Press.
Haven:YaleUniversity
New Haven:
-. 1982. OralityandLiteracy.
Press.
YaleUniversity
Samuel.1931. "English
at the CinRosenkranz,
20:10(Dec.):824.
ema."EnglishJournal
.
.
The
In
Greenwood
ScreenplayResources
1969.LittleFaussandBigHalCharles.
Eastman,
York:
New
Straus,andGiroux.
Farrar,
sey.
Faragoh,Francis.1981. LittleCaesarMadison,
WI:University
of WisconsinPress.
Fitzgerald,
E Scott.1978. [c. 1938] ThreeComrades. Carbondale,IL: SouthernIllinois
Press.
Goodrich,Francis,AlbertHackett,FrankCapra,
A
andJoSwerling.1986.It'sa Wonderful
Life:
New
York:
St.
Martin's.
Screenplay.
Sayre,Joel, and WilliamFaulkner.1981. [c.
IL:
1936] TheRoadto Glory.Carbondale,
SouthernIllinoisUniversity
Press.
Stone,Oliver,and RichardBoyle.1987. Oliver
PlatoonandSalvador.
Stone's
NewYork:VintageBooks.
Lawrence
Bainesteaches
at Florida
StateUniversity
in Tallahassee.
MicahDialis a research
associate
for
educationand trainingprograms
with EDASin
Houston.
......s
responseto requestsfromsecond-
aryschool librariansfor resourcesto
supportinterdisciplinaryapproachesto
literature,Greenwoodproudlylaunches
"Literaturein Context," a uniqueseries
of sourcebooksdesigned to serve as a
resource for students studying literature in the historical, social, and cultural context of its time. Each sourcebook is a rich collection of historical
documents, collateral readings, and
commentarydesignedto workwith the
literatureto bringpastand presentinto
sharperfocus and to provide materials
for the student to make connections
between literatureand history.
in the seriesare
Forthcoming
sourcebooks
to:
"*Huckleberry
Finn
"*AnneFrank'sDiaryof a YoungGirl
"*Hamlet,andothers.
in
"Literature
Press
!
Series
Context"
S.i
Elk
E
Understanding
To Kill a Mockingbird
A StudentCasebookto Issues,
Sources,andHistoricDocuments
Understanding
The Scarlet Letter
A StudentCasebookto Issues,
Sources,andHistoricDocuments
By ClaudiaDurst Johnson
By ClaudiaDurst Johnson
GreenwoodPress.1994.248pages.
0-313-29193-4.$35.00
GreenwoodPress.1995..272pages.
0-313-29328-7.$35.00
...
p
I.f IN,
8o R0adWet ..Bx50,Wsp.CT
i80540
PLC
4 0
ORC:sfCR
"8
RERTRWA
HU$ADY
This content downloaded from 129.15.105.109 on Fri, 21 Nov 2014 17:56:01 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
0
oes81-i
i5
..
........
iii
i