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Surfacing Consumers’ Unconscious Country-Brand Assessments:
FMET Findings for China, New Zealand, UK, and the USA
Drew Martin, University of Hawaii
Nitha Palakshappa, Massey University
Arch Woodside, Boston College
March 2015
Send correspondence to Drew Martin, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 West Kawili
Street, Hilo, HI, 96720, USA; Telephone 808-932-7250; e-mail: [email protected]. Nitha
Palakshappa, Massey University, Private Bag 102 904, NSMC, Auckland, New Zealand,
telephone: 64 9 414 0800; e-mail: [email protected]. Arch G. Woodside, Boston
College, Department of Marketing, Carroll School of Management, 140 Commonwealth Avenue,
Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, telephone/fax: +1 617-552-3069/6677; e-mail:
[email protected].
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Surfacing Consumers’ Unconscious Country-Brand Assessments:
FMET Findings for China, New Zealand, UK, and the USA
Purpose - Country image and country-of- origin (COO) literatures generally employ positivist
research methodologies limiting the understanding of consumer attitudes about foreign products.
This study answers calls for COO studies to better understand symbolic and emotional aspects
(Verlegh and Steencamp, 1999), to develop ecologically appropriate research designs (Samiee,
2010), and to use multiple methods to collect data and interpret consumer behavior (Woodside et
al., 2012).
Design/methodology/approach - Using a zoomorphic forced metaphor-elicitation technique
(FMET) in long interviews of Indian consumers, this study uncovers surf
nonconscious/conscious belief-attitude associations about products from China, New Zealand,
the United Kingdom, and the United States. Additional insights come from informant selection
of products and their country-of-origin from a catalog.
Findings - The findings demonstrate collecting rich metaphor-generated data offers new
perspectives on how consumers view foreign products. Results suggest both brand image and
COO affect consumers’ attitudes; however, these sentiments may not apply uniformly across all
product categories.
Practical implications - Consumers tend to trust brands even if they are manufactured in
another country. When brands are not identified, well-known industries associated with
individual countries influence product choices.
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Originality/value - This indirect approach collects the consumers’ conscious and unconscious
thoughts about countries, brands, and industries. Findings suggest gestalt brand and country
images explain consumer attitudes about foreign products.
Keywords country of origin; brand; FMET; elicitation; metaphor; India
Paper type Research paper
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Prior research demonstrates the complexity in understanding consumers’ attitudes about
products from a given country. “Country image is the overall perception that consumers form of
products from a particular country, based on their prior perceptions of the country’s production
and marketing strengths and weaknesses” (Roth and Romeo, 1992, p. 480). An extensive body
of literature examines country-of-origin, country-of-manufacturer, country-of-brand, and country
image issues; however, these studies often collect data by directly ask respondents to rate
attitudes or feelings about foreign products and brands (e.g., d'Astous and Boujbel, 2007; Insch
and McBride, 2004; Van Ittersum et al., 2003). Do the self-reporting, five- and seven-point
scales capture how people process information? As respondents likely possess biases about
countries not related to products they examine, Samiee (2011) recommends passive data
collection methods to understand the relationship between country, brand, and consumer.
Woodside (2011, p. 154) concludes, “Direct question is insufficient for understanding and
describing the actual thinking process.” How do people process and store information? The
human thought processes primarily are metaphorical, suggesting more robust data if researches
adapt to the respondents (see Lakoff and Johnson, 2008; Zaltman, 2003).
A second general concern with foreign product studies is where most foreign product
studies are conducted. Many studies investigate North American consumers (cf. Batra et al.,
2000; Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Kaynak and Kara, 2000; Sharma, 2010). Studies of Western,
industrialized countries offer important insights; however, dynamic global economy changes
suggest the possibility of shifting attitudes. Projections of India’s 14-15 million middle class
households suggest a growth to 40 million within five years (Pilling et al., 2011). India’s
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growing middle class ought to compel foreign companies to better understand customers’ needs
abroad or risk losing them to more enlightened competitors.
Finally, many foreign product studies employ student samples. While meta-analyses find
no difference in effect size comparing student versus consumer samples, the study
methodologies prevent drawing conclusions on underlying mechanisms (Samiee, 2011; Verlegh
and Steenkamp, 1999). Further, combining student samples with products they cannot purchase
(e.g., new automobiles) is somewhat problematic (e.g., Magnusson et al., 2011a; Peterson and
Jolibert, 1995). Understanding the consumer decision-making process likely requires multiple
methods to enrich self-reporting. Rich, multi-method data offer a more complete understanding
of the human thought process (Weick, 2007).
The preceding concerns suggest commonly employed methodological approaches may
miss important clues regarding consumer attitudes about foreign products. This study answers
calls for country of origin (COO) studies to better understand symbolic and emotional aspects
(Verlegh and Steencamp, 1999), to develop ecologically appropriate research designs (Samiee,
2010), and to use multiple methods to collect data and interpret consumer behavior (Woodside et
al., 2012). Data are collected using McCracken’s (1988) long interview method and a
zoomorphic forced metaphor-elicitation technique (FMET) (see Woodside, 2010). This indirect
research method extends application of FMET to COO research. Both emic (self) and etic
(researcher) interpretations uncover insights on consumer attitudes about country of origin,
product, and brand image. Additional insights come from informant selection of products and
their COO from a catalog. The results suggest a strong brand image influences consumer choice
more than country image. When strong brand image does not exist, country image affects the
country metaphor triad.
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Country and brand image
A recent debate offers two perspectives on the importance of country image on
consumers’ decision making. Magnusson et al. (2011) conclude COO affects brand attitudes.
Although respondents incorrectly identify brand origin in some cases, the authors suggest COO
affects consumer product evaluations. Using a more holistic approach, Diamantopoulos et al.
(2011), find foreign country and brand images form a gestalt or interlinked view for consumers.
They conclude strong brand and country images are an optimal position for global brands. As
brand image assessments reduce perceived risk, positive country images arguably serve the same
purpose (see Laroche et al., 2005). Consumer animosity studies support this proposition by
demonstrating that consumers avoid foreign products based on country image. An individual’s
attitude about a country’s political, economic, social environments plus personal feelings affect
consumers’ product and brand attitudes (see Riefler and Diamantopoulos, 2007).
Some authors question COO’s relevance. Samiee (2011) feels weak research design and
few useful managerial implications question the need to continue investigating COO as a key
factor to explain consumer behavior. Studies asking consumers to identify a brand’s country
origin do not suggest respondents will buy the product. Further, consumers often cannot
correctly identify the brand’s origin (e.g., Samiee et al., 2005). Usunier (2011) notes brand
names sometimes suggest a different country origin to consumers. For example, China’s Haier
brand sounds more German than Chinese. Further, Samiee (2011) suggests that considerable
overlap exists between brand origin and country origin study results in Magnusson et al. (2011a)
questioning the relevance of the latter.
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The common ground in this debate is a need for better research designs (Magnusson et
al., 2011b, Samiee, 2011, Usunier, 2011). Typically, COO studies are quantitative. This
approach often constrains respondents’ information to specific products (e.g., Hong and Wyer,
1990; Iyer and Kalita, 1997; Magnusson et al., 2011a). A better approach is asking respondents
to describe products associating with specific countries (cf. Shimp et al., 1993). Researchers
discover reducing consumer attitudes to fixed categories does not measure the complexity of
COO and country image. Compelling evidence confirms multiple variables affect product
evaluations including product attributes, brand, and demographics (Johansson et al., 1985).
For example, consumer ethnocentrism studies reveal challenges in understanding COO.
Shimp and Sharma’s (1987) CETSCALE demonstrates consumers have preconceived notions
about buying foreign goods; however, six non-ethnocentric dimensions fail to satisfy
psychometric requirements. Kaynak and Kara (2000) employ CETSCALE and conclude
ethnocentrism varies by region. Their study in a developing country finds lifestyle dimensions
affect willingness to buy foreign products.
COO increasingly becomes problematic because many products are hybrids—sourcing
and manufacturing cross national borders. Hong and Wyer (1989) find little evidence COO
affects interpretation of other product information. Chao (1993) differentiates between countryof-design and country-of-assembly and concludes the former relates to perceptions of higher
price. Differences in country-of-design perceptions likely relate to differences between
developed and developing economies (see Iyer and Kalita, 1997). Brand image becomes the
primary evaluation criterion. Iyer and Kalita (1997) conclude country-of manufacture does
matter when brands names are not known, suggesting country-of-manufacture is more significant
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for non-technical or fashion products. Brand image rather than price affects consumer product
preferences.
Several studies investigate the cognitive process underlying COO and attributes on
product evaluation (Hong and Wyer, 1989; 1990; Laroche et al., 2005; Roth and Romeo, 1992).
Hong and Wyer (1989) find COO stimulates interest in products and leads to further thoughts
about product information and evaluation implications. Laroche et al. (2005) find country image
to be multidimensional—cognitive, affective, and conative components. Most studies focus just
on cognitive components, ignoring affective and conative components (Roth and
Diamantopoulos, 2009). Roth and Romeo (1992) demonstrate country image dimensions
include innovation, design, prestige, and workmanship. These images vary by product category
following Porter’s (1990) findings that suggest national competitive advantages tend to cluster
by complementary industries.
Country-of-origin is likely one of many concepts affecting product evaluations (Hong
and Wyer, 1990). Shimp et al.’s (1993) qualitative study primarily investigates how price and
quality images affect country image. They conclude country equity is separate from brand
equity; however, the latter reinforces the former. Hong and Wyer (1990) suggest country images
build over time. Consumers retrieve conscious and possibly unconsciously stored memories to
formulate country image (see Bargh, 2002). Do studies introducing country and product
simultaneously result in direct, informational influence on respondent evaluations? Hong and
Wyer (1990) suggest varying the order of COO and product attributes to a separate concept of
product to form. One shortcoming of Hong and Wyer (1990) is the relatively limited time
between country and product information conditions introduced in their study; country
impressions likely build over much longer time periods.
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COO and country image literatures demonstrate why modeling human behavior is
difficult. While quantitative studies contribute to testing theories, results tend to explain little of
the data’s variation. Comparing regression analysis to simple tallying data, the former fits the
data better; however, the latter’s ability to predict is higher (see Gigerenzer and Brighton, 2009).
Adding more independent variables (e.g., n>10) to account for the data variation increases the
likelihood of multi-collinearity resulting non-significant independent variables in a model
explaining high data variance (Woodside, 2013). The evidence suggests data collection and
analyses need to conform to how people think and store information.
Zoomorphic forced metaphor-elicitation propositions
Consumers probably develop gestalt images not easily captured using structured survey
instruments. Diamantopoulos et al.’s (2011) irradiation perspective supports a fuzzy two-way
relationship exists between country and brand image constructs. Structured survey instruments
do not emulate how information is stored, creating image distortion. As Usunier (2011, p. 493)
notes, consumers “live in a cluttered environment with overabundant information which far
exceeds their information processing capacity.” Considerable evidence suggests most thinking
occurs unconsciously. According to Zaltman (2003, xiii) “as much as 95 percent of consumers’
thinking occurs in their unconscious minds….” As a result, people unlikely can explain their
feelings or actions. An unstructured approach allows respondents to interpret metal images
reducing distortion between images and thoughts. The spontaneous cognitive processing Hong
and Wyer (1989) describe requires accessing both conscious and unconscious memories to aide
in the evaluation process. Gladwell’s (2005) blink proposition helps explain this simultaneous
process. These instincts show the unconscious mind at work. Gigerenzer and Brighton (2009)
suggest the human cognitive system naturally creates a filtering system to reduce information,
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allowing more efficient information processing. Bargh’s (2002) research demonstrates
unconscious memories effectively influence goal activation. Because people lack insight to the
unconscious memories, they cannot fully explain their feelings (see Wilson, 2002). Getting
people to explain their feelings helps release unconscious memories. Respondents often interpret
their thoughts as stories rather than lists and categories (Shank, 2000). Consumer behavior
research demonstrates people think narratively (e.g., Arnould and Price, 1993; Arnould and
Wallendorf, 1994). P1: A person’s memory includes stored and retrieved episodic information
about experiences, outcomes/evaluations, and summaries/nuances including person-and-country
and person-and-brand relationships (Fournier, 1998; Shank, 2000).
How can unconscious memories be accessed? Lakoff and Johnson (2008) conclude the
human thought processes are primarily metaphorical. People use metaphors to structure
perceptions, thoughts, and activities. Interaction theory posits self-interpreting metaphors
involves a two-way transfer—from source to target and target to source—allowing emic and etic
interpretations (Black, 1962). Zaltman (2003) suggests metaphors help to unlock the memories
filed away as stories or story fragments. Metaphors allow understanding one domain experience
in terms of another. A domain structure within an experience conceptualizes as an experiential
gestalt. “Such gestalts are experientially basic because they characterize structured wholes
within recurrent human experiences in terms of natural dimensions” (Lakoff and Johnson, 2008,
p. 117). P2: Metaphor-elicitation unlocks unconscious memories to understand consumer
attitudes about foreign brands and products.
How do people archive information? Pinker (1994) concludes images rather than words
shape thoughts. Linking non-verbal images to language helps consumers better convey richer
representations and meanings (see Zaltman and Coulter, 1995). These stored images likely take
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many forms. Following Gaia theory, viewing the world as a large self-regulating organism,
Goatly (2007) proposes a human-animal cooperative and symbiotic relationship (also see Levy,
1981). Woodside (2010) demonstrates zoomorphic forced-metaphor elicitation. He asks
respondents to choose animals and perceived attributes for self- and product-visualizations, both
current and aspirational. P3: Zoomorphic forced metaphor-elicitation surfaces implicit beliefs
and feelings about foreign countries, products, and brands.
Finally, do country, product, or brand image affect consumer choice? Consumer
ethnocentrism studies (Kaynak and Kara, 2000; Shimp and Sharma, 1987) suggest the construct
is not easily measured or understood. The relationship between country image, product, and
brand also becomes more complex with design, components, and assembly spread out over
several countries. Further, middle class consumers living in a developing country may have
limited domestically produced product options. Superior foreign products offer a temptation too
great to resist (Porter, 1990). Product purchases and aspirations likely weigh competing
conscious and unconscious memories as well as external influences. The evidence suggests an
ecological perspective helps to understand the context. Ecological systems extend beyond dyads
(e.g., consumer and product) and consider perceived environmental influences on an individual’s
behavior, often at multiple different levels (see Bronfenbrenner, 1979). P4: Consumers’ feelings
about other countries and their products do not necessarily affect their aspirations to own
foreign-made goods.
Method
To examine the propositions, a field study was designed to include 60- to 90-minute long
interviews (McCracken, 1988). An adaptive approach to Woodside’s (2010) forced metaphor-
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elicitation technique (FMET) was employed. First, informants were asked to name the animal
that first-comes-to-mind when a country was named. China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom,
the United States were listed. Second, informants described the animal’s features that best
represented the country. Third, respondents named brands they associate with the specific
country. If brand names could not be named, interviewees discussed product categories. Finally,
they were asked to explain how the animal/country features fit the brands or products.
The interview’s second stage employed a catalog featuring visual images of 20
comparably priced consumer items. An array of household and personal items (some genderspecific) including a wall clock, man’s wallet, foot spa, and DVD player was shown to
interviewees. They were instructed to imagine signing up to receive one gift per month for an
entire year from the list of 22 items. They chose both the items and the country origin from any
of the four countries listed previously. Respondents then identified the product and country
origin for each gift. Results were tallied and compared by country. This approach does not
employ sophisticated statistical procedures; however, compelling evidence supports a simple
tally’s predictive ability over regression analysis (see Armstrong, 2012; Gigerenzer and
Brighton, 2009). Figure 1 shows a map of the research method.
Figure 1 here.
A purposeful sample of eight, middle class Indian professionals was selected, exceeding
recommendations by Corbin and Strauss (1990). On-site interviews allow researchers to develop
a more reflexive approach to the qualitative analysis (Hall, 2004; Hollinshead and Jamal, 2007).
Interviewees were recruited from New Delhi and Bengaluru. Middle-class consumers at these
locations typically are well-educated and aware of foreign products and brands. The final sample
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included two women and six men ranging from 23-49 years in age. The key interviewer has indepth knowledge of the local cultural context and experience in qualitative methodologies.
Audio-taped interviews were later transcribed for analysis. Two researchers read the transcripts
and independently diagramed each interview by country. Coding disagreements were resolved
by discussions between researchers. To better visualize the interviews’ major themes, these
relationships were loaded into NodeXL template and analyzed using Gephi Graph and
Manipulation software (Gephi). Individual graphs for each country were developed using the
ForceAtlas2 algorithm which repels weakly-related nodes more than strongly-related nodes (see
Jacomy et al., 2014). This simultaneous process helps to interpret the visual representations.
Table 1 provides background information about the informants.
Table 1 here.
Results
This section begins by discusses country results. Summary results of respondents’ gift
preferences follow.
China
Figure 2 maps the consumer comments about China. Respondents do not reveal many
positive images about China. Even the respondent naming a panda to represent China did not
feel the relationship between the animal and country exists. “Panda is a docile animal and it is
shy, but I see Chinese consumer products as very aggressive” (Santhosh). Six respondents name
the dragon to symbolize China. They note the dragon image likely comes from historical
references, sharing a common border, and Chinese movies. The dragon is secretive, mystic, and
volatile. “[W]hen it works in tandem with nature…it’s really good” (Smitha). Should the
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dragon awake or become out of balance with nature, most respondents feel major destruction
follows.
The dragon’s unknown aspects lead to questions about Chinese products. Volatility
affects product interpretations. “[I]t’s good only for a short while, there is no reliability when
you buy these products” (Ashwin). Further, the respondents note Chinese manufacturing is
widespread. “Shoes, torches, cell phones, TVs, VCD players, anything, computers, if you want
them cheap and affordable, but they can’t promise reliability, it is Chinese” (Ashwin).
No one could recall a Chinese brand name. “Half of the names we can’t pronounce”
(Trinny). Respondents note Chinese manufacturing seems to cover the gamut of consumer
goods. One respondent compares Chinese products entering the market to a swarm of locusts.
“[T]hey’re huge in numbers—millions of them flood the market” (Mayook). People making the
products work hard, “they put in more than some fourteen hours in a day for working, hence the
cost of the product comes down, and of course the quality also comes down” (Avinash).
As several respondents note, China manufacturing branded products from other countries
creates a paradox. On one hand, the foreign brands such as Apple evoke high quality images;
however, Chinese branded products have low quality images. “I mean everything is made in
China, so all product, even the iPod, says ‘Made in China’ so I guess everything is made there”
(Trinny). A sort of yin yang relationship helps explain this paradox. The main difference
relates to the production standards required by the brand owner. Lower quality appears to be
connected to Chinese brands, “They have different qualities coming out so when it’s less
monitored and the numbers are larger.” However, foreign designed brands evoke a different
image, “When they’re monitored further their quality is far better” (Smitha).
Figures 2 and 3 here.
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Figure 3 shows China’s overall network based on the eight interviews. Node size
represents a word’s relative frequency. Only nodes with a frequency of two or more are included
in these graphs. An edge’s (line between nodes) thickness shows the frequency of direct
connections between nodes, and all edges are two-way relationships. Figure 3 shows the most
frequent consumer images of Chinese products. Overall, respondents view Chinese products as
second-rate and they express mistrust of Chinese products in general. As brands are not
mentioned, country image alone appears to be guiding consumers’ opinions.
New Zealand
Generally, respondents’ zoomorphic metaphors describe New Zealand as friendly,
innocent, and timid. For example, sheep appear to embody these characteristics, “not very
aggressive, and honestly doing its job, and giving… the wool grows, you take it off, and it
doesn’t complain” (Madhumita). Figure 4 maps consumer comments about New Zealand.
The nonaggressive metaphor translates to limited brand awareness. Most respondents
could not recall specific New Zealand brands. Industries commonly mentioned include farming
(dairy and wool products), tourism, and sports. Respondents generally were not aware of any
New Zealand products that they had purchased. Only Smitha and Santhosh made conscious
efforts to purchase New Zealand brand products. Smitha purchased women’s clothing from
Glassons, a New Zealand fashion retailer with stores in Australia as well. Her limited comments
about New Zealand suggest she probably visited Australia rather than New Zealand. Santhosh
recalls eating New Zealand Naturals ice cream. “[T]hey’re (New Zealand Naturals) very soft
and not a very aggressive kind of product, they don’t go all out to sell it” (Santhosh).
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Primarily, respondent contacts with New Zealand come passively from media or friends.
The Lord of the Rings and Whale Rider movies helped to create positive impressions about New
Zealand. “The only thing I know [about New Zealand] is Lord of the Rings which was made
there” (Trinny). Other respondents learned about products from New Zealand from friends.
Rajesh’s friend gave him a coat purchased from Kathmandu, an outdoor clothing retailer.
“[T]hey need to be probably more present everywhere so that people are aware these products
are from New Zealand” (Rajesh).
Figures 4-5 here.
Figure 5 shows New Zealand’s overall network. Two brands are mentioned favorably
based on personal experience, but dairy products and wool appear to be on the top-of-mind to
most respondents when they think of New Zealand. Tourism and consumerism also emerge as
positive and negative themes respectively. Like China, brand image appears secondary to
country image. Unlike China, New Zealand’s country image appears to be non-threatening and
arguably positive.
United Kingdom
Each respondent named a different animal to describe the UK. A gestalt UK animal is
majestic and combines powerfulness, restlessness, and stubbornness. References to the country’s
historical, global reach and prior innovativeness suggest respondents feel the sun is setting for
the UK. The ostrich lost the ability to fly long ago embodies the UK. “[I]t lost its ability after
the Second World War” (Ashwin). A yak serves as another example of a large and stubborn
animal. “The yak is a wise old thing sitting next to the wood fire, sipping on whiskey” (Smitha).
Figure 6 maps consumer comments about the UK.
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High-end clothing, alcohol, and food were most commonly mentioned during interviews.
Addressing majestic qualities associating with UK products, the product positioning seems to
influence perceptions. “The high-end clothing and the luxury segment which they represent, and
other than that were their scotch whiskies” (Santhosh). Although these brands probably are
aspirational goods, surprisingly few brands were listed. Rolls Royce and Bentley automobiles
are some of the few brand names listed, but these products “cater to a particular segment only”
(Rajesh). Respondents mention a few brands targeting middle class. Retailers Mothercare,
Marks & Spencer, and the Body Shop are examples of companies becoming global and retaining
their unique identities. Only one clothing brand is mentioned and the product is footwear. Doc
Marten shoes stand out as a unique UK product, “if you are walking across the street, they attract
attention…because people want to have those kind of shoes” (Trinny).
Figure 6-7 here.
Figure 7 shows the United Kingdom’s overall network. Three general themes emerge
from the map. First, the figure’s top shows pioneering brands such as Marks & Spencer, Body
Shop, and Mothercare. These brands appeal to the middle class and respondents suggest all three
have strong brand image positions in their minds. Further, some respondents purchase products
from these retailers. The luxury segment products and brands occupy the left one-half of the
image. Studies asking respondents to identify country origin likely would find respondents
correctly match the brand (e.g., Usunier, 2011). Middle class consumers unlikely will purchase
these products; however, these brands may provide a halo effect that positively influences on
country and brand images (Holbrook, 1983). The lower-right quadrant identifies reckless
behavior. The multinational corporation is sandwiched between the ostrich and huge risks. This
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imagery appears to describe sentiments about all multinational corporations offering
standardized products in India.
United States
Regarding the US, few positive and many negative country images emerged from the
interviews. Figure 8 maps consumer comments. The most positive description uses the eagle to
describe the US. “[T]he whole idea of soaring high with a structured plan and organized manner,
and everybody wants to reach somewhere and the focus…” (Madhumita). Most respondents
describe the US as a big animal that eats too much (e.g., a cow) and a large, out-of-control
animal such as an elephant or bear. “[I]t’s large, it’s huge, it’s steady, I doesn’t move” (Smitha),
or “it’s huge, it goes on rampage, it tramples on people at times” (Ashwin). Finally, one
respondent suggests a jackal best describes the US because the country as cunning and cautious
(Santhosh).
Respondent brand awareness was very high. Some respondents describe positive
relationships between the metaphor, image, and brand for automobiles (i.e., Chevrolet and Ford),
computers/internet (i.e., Apple, Microsoft, Google, and Yahoo), shoes (i.e., Nike and
Footlocker), and food products (i.e., Coca-Cola and McDonalds). The rough and tough grizzly
bear metaphor suggests a product able to stand-up to the elements including Rajesh’s cloths
washing machine and Woodland brand shoes. Despite admiring the washing machine’s heavy
use, he cannot recall the brand name. Following the jackal metaphor, these brands identify
consumer needs, create an aspirational image in consumers’ minds, and serve as a benchmark for
competitors. “[A]ll these brands which I spoke about have been able to think about what a
customer needs and they have been able to get into the shoes of the competitor much before the
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competition is able to think” (Santhosh). Santhosh admits a he is seduced by the US brands and
buys them frequently. The eagle metaphor fits Nike particularly well for Trinny, who grew up
attending a school started by American missionaries. The US brands offer a quality image “in a
sense they try to lead the way in producing something which is new and something which people
are attracted to” (Trinny).
More respondents associate negative images with US brands. The cow is not very sacred
when Smitha describes US brands McDonalds and Taco Bell, “so it’s their food cycles coming
into the Indian food cycle” described as corn-based junk food. To Ashwin, Coca-Cola’s reentry
into the Indian market exemplifies the rampaging elephant. He blames Coca-Cola for Goli
soda’s demise. When Coca-Cola reentered the market, “they did something very sinister, they
went ahead and bought all the bottles and these people [Goli distributors] didn’t have the
resources to produce them again, so thousands and thousands lost their jobs” (Ashwin). His
concern is the multinational companies focus on the elite middle class and their low prices
“trample and kill the little players” driving up the prices and making subsistence products out of
reach for India’s poor people.
Figures 8-9 here.
Figure 9 shows the United States’ overall network. This graph visually demonstrates
bipolar consumer sentiments about US brands, COO, and country image. The lower left
quadrant includes durable products and brands. Woodland brand shoes and a washing machine
stand out as products that exceed respondents’ expectations. The upper left quadrant connects to
the eagle metaphor. Products such as Levis and Wrangler jeans are viewable as high quality.
Vision allows some brands to curb competitions and maintain leadership positions.
The upper
right quadrant shows a number of brands with strong global reputations combining performance
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and style. Apple and Nike are admired and automobile manufacturers Ford and Chevrolet are
reliable and expensive. As found in Figure 7 (UK), the lower right quadrant shows multinational
companies trampling India’s domestic market. US fast food franchises negatively impact diet.
Large foreign companies destroy local competition. Interestingly, Adidas (Germany) and Tesco
(UK) are identified as US companies suggesting country image influences brand association (cf.
Magnusson et al., 2011).
4.5 Consumer gifts
Next, each respondent received a color brochure containing 22 shopping goods including
clothing and accessories, household items, personal care, decorative, and electronics. Informants
were instructed to assume they could receive one item each month over one year as a gift. Both
the item and country origin (limited to the four previously discussed countries) need to be
chosen. Table 2 shows the aggregate results.
Table 2 here.
The results show a clustering of products by country. Although consumers chose many
different products, low-technology electronic goods and ceramics represent the main goods
chosen. From New Zealand, informants chose wools scarfs, designer purses, and copper wall
art. One consumer even wanted two wool scarfs from New Zealand. The product most desired
is a suitcase from the UK. Clothing accessories from the UK also were chosen frequently.
Finally, US electronics were chosen by many respondents.
Discussion
The study’s findings support all four propositions. For P1, informants demonstrate the
generation of information storage as narratives. News story reports about hooligans attacking
Indian immigrants influences Avinash’s opinion about the UK. Asking him to talk about the UK
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released memories of these events. Avinash became so emotional that he could not relate his
country image to UK brands or products. Smitha explains why a US product manufactured in
China is different than a Chinese product. The supervision for manufacturing foreign products
must be better. Trinny relates New Zealand and the country’s products to Lord of the Rings
movies. Ashwin’s heartbreaking story explains Goli soda’s demise by Coca-Cola’s actions.
Small businesses selling Goli closed and thousands of people lost their jobs. Arguably, these
narratives would be inaccessible to researchers using conventional methodologies asking
respondents to rate products and country images. These results echo Wilson’s (2002) conclusion
that people do not know what they think until they talk.
Does metaphor elicitation unlock unconscious memories? The evidence supports P2.
Following Black’s (1962) interaction theory, the metaphors helped informants unlock a two-way
transfer of information. India and China share a border, but the former knows little about their
northern neighbor. Madhumita interprets China is secretive much like the dragon metaphor. “I
think to date people are not really aware of what’s happening inside China” (Madhumita).
Rajesh follows-up, “See the dragon never existed” and “There’s nothing like, you know, a
Chinese product.” He suggests innovation comes from outside of China and the manufacturing
alone does not make the product Chinese. Impressions of New Zealand support this two-way
interaction. Passive metaphors fit with the soft-sell approach employed by New Zealand
Naturals.
Do human-animal cooperative and symbolic relationships work well for foreign
products? P3 suggest metaphor elicitation and non-verbal images such as animals should
uncover thoughts about foreign products. This process challenged informants because the
animal’s attributes did not easily fit country images at times. For example, Santhosh mentions
21
the panda for China. Relating the panda to Chinese products became problematic because
Santhosh considers the animal to be docile and shy; however, he perceives Chinese products as
very aggressive and widely available. China’s conservation efforts to save the panda influence
Santhosh and support Gaia theory—viewing the world as a large self-regulating organism. This
relationship is stored in his long-term memory. While Western research might find these
opposites difficult to explain, China’s culture is filled with paradoxes (e.g., yin-yang philosophy,
see Faure and Fang, 2008). Generally, animals’ characteristics fit with the country and product
images. Cows, elephants, bears, and yaks are large animals that are only partially controllable
and they relate to big multinational companies from the US and UK. The mystical dragon fits
the image that China is secretive and waking dragons could create serious problems. The passive
kiwi and sheep suggest that New Zealand is not aggressively marketing their products in India.
Finally, does ethnocentrism or consumerism influence product decisions? Rather than
ask people what they plan to buy, the study design asks consumers what gifts they would like to
receive and from which country. Superior foreign products reduce barriers; particularly when
domestic options are limited (see Porter, 1990). P4 posits that aspirations for products may
override consumers’ feelings about individual countries. Even Avinash’s displeasure with Indian
immigrants physical abuse in the UK does not dissuade him from choosing a suitcase, handbag,
and men’s wallet made in the UK. As Samiee (2011) suggests, consumer ethnocentrism may be
filtered down to the product category level in seemingly paradoxical processes and require an
ecological perspective to understand the relationships.
Conclusion
Is COO outdated and irrelevant to the international marketing community? This study
responds to the calls for new research approaches to tests this proposition. Most COO and
22
country image studies tend to focus on forcing respondents to choose from a small number of
predetermined alternatives or rate attitudes on predetermined constructs using five- or sevenpoint rating scales. The study demonstrates the power of designing research to allow data
collection that fits with how people store information. Findings support the premise that rich
data are collected using narratives and metaphors. Findings offer unique insights on consumer
interpretations about foreign products. A paucity of studies examine investigate consumer
behavior in developing countries—even fewer focus on India, the nation with the world’s largest
middle class (e.g., Batra et al., 2000). A deep understanding of Indian consumers may be a
necessary condition for responding successfully to India’s current high-growth opportunity in
today’s global economy.
Does country origin or image really reflect consumer interpretations about all products?
Similar to Kaynak and Kara’s (2000) findings that ethnocentrism vary regionally, the present
study’s findings suggest country image varies by product category (c.f. Magnusson et al., 2011).
A substantial share of Indian consumers may dislike McDonalds and Coca-Cola, but they may
want to buy Nike shoes and Apple telephones. Brand image helps explain this behavior;
however, the evidence suggests a country and industry relationship also influences product
evaluations. For example, many study group members want UK suitcases and New Zealand
wool scarfs; however, these goods are not tied to specific brands. This finding supports Shimp et
al.’s (1993) country equity proposition and Diamantopoulos et al.’s (2011) irradiation
perspective.
On the other hand, a strong brand matters when country-of-manufacture is different (see
Iyer and Kalita, 1997). A strong brand reduces risk and the results confirm that consumer trust
extends to well-known brands manufactured in China. The brand’s roots extend to the country-
23
of-assembly. Even if the product has “made in China” stamped on the product, a positive brand
image serves as a halo effect (Holbrook, 1983).
Chinese brand managers should take a lesson from Sony. If Indian people struggle to
pronounce Chinese brand names, they cannot become top-of-mind. Will Chinese telecom firm
Huawei (pronounced “wah-way”) become top-of-mind in India’s telecommunication’s industry?
Brand equity is difficult to build if people cannot pronounce the brand name. This insight does
not suggest Chinese companies need to Westernize their brand names, instead, they should
consider how the brand name resonates with foreign customers. The purposeful sample
represents better educated and more cosmopolitan Indian consumers. Imagine how the majority
of Indian people must feel!
The findings shed light on consumers’ mostly implicit attitudes when well-known global
brands are not part of their evoked set. Consumers unfamiliar with a country’s brands likely
consider country image and COO to evaluate products (cf. Iyer and Kalita, 1997).
Respondents’ insights demonstrate that country and brand are gestalt images. The findings
support viewing country, product, and brand images ecologically—in specific contexts and time
periods.
While qualitative method’s results are not generalizable to broad populations, data
collected by these methods offer a more holistic understanding of consumer behavior.
Wholesale employment of positivist research methodology threatens the growth of underdeveloped areas. Prior studies tend to focus on brand recognition and not consumer behavior
(e.g., Samiee et al., 2005). To some degree the present study also tests brand recognition as
well; however, respondents also report prior purchases of foreign products. Further, the study’s
second part examines product preference by country.
24
Study results provide evidence that qualitative studies provide new research directions.
Future opportunities include examining country image from a more holistic perspective.
Country and brand image are complex concepts. To better understand these concepts an
ecological approach is necessary. The average attitude does not represent any consumer. A
more interesting line of inquiry is developing a better understanding about what influences
attitude formation. If consumers cannot explain their own behavior using traditional research
methods, more studies need to collect information in forms stored by the test subjects. The
zoomorphic FMET offers a useful tool for uncovering this rich information.
25
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28
Name
Smitha
Ashwin
Trinny
Santhosh
Rajesh
Avinash
Madhumita
Mayook
Age
25
23
25
37
31
45
49
29
Table 1
Study respondents
Gender
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Male
Marital Status
single
single
single
married
married
married
married
single
Table 2
Product choice by country
Product
Product
China
NZ
UK
US
Totals
Wall clock
1
1
1
3
Copper wall art
2
2
Men's wallet
2
5
7
Wool scarf
5
4
9
Designer purse
3
4
7
Suitcase
7
1
8
Pendant necklace
1
1
Hand massager
3
1
4
Foot spa
2
1
1
4
Coffee maker
2
2
2
6
Iron
3
1
4
Dinner set
3
1
2
6
Ceramic jewelry
box
2
1
1
4
Hair dryer
2
1
1
4
MP3 player
1
6
7
DVD player
1
4
5
Mobile phone
1
6
7
iPod docking
1
5
6
Leather key ring
1
1
2
Country totals
24
18
26
28
96
Note. Products not chosen by any respondents are not listed.
Country metaphor triad
0
Demographics
(Un)conscious
Country
Images
Metaphor
Attributes
External
Influences
Figure 1. Research
Country
Brands or
Products
Consumer
Product
Attributes
Animal
Automatic Surfacing
Fiery and
Fierce
Fast
In tandem with
Havoc when
awaken
Powerful,
commanding, and
formidable
Heritag
Hardworking
Mysterious and
secretive
Quality
Docile + shy
Huge
numbers
Darken the
sky
Emic Interpretation
Really good quality+
really bad quality;
like fire and water
aspects of nature
Destroys & takes
over markets
+industries
Product Application
They make
everything!
They provide everything
and anything to
everyone
Hardware; consumer
Goods; MP3; TVs;
TVs; cell phones
Like a Phoenix-- good for
short while, catches fire
and disappears
Everything; all
replications- no
Chinese brands
Overwhelming sense of
take over
Chinese products
are everywhere
Watches, clothes
and other products
but no brands
Dragon never existed—
nothing like a Chinese
brand either
Hardworking to
reduce cost
Whatever you want
but no brands
Cheap imitations; not a
majestic dragon
Electronics +
everything
Flood the market–
good and bad
products
Unknown elements
re-trust
China does not
represent
quality and is
aggressive
Hardware; tiles;
bathroom fittings;
electronics
Need quality criteria—this
is the worry—will
China be ethical with
exports?
Consumer products
marketed aggressively
Overwhelm the
environment
FAKES in all
categories
White goods
Catch you by surprise;
Even larger competitors
need to hide
Figure 2. China
1
2
Figure 3
Respondent’s overall view about China’s country and brand
Animal
Automatic Surfacing
Fast
Tiny
Timid and
docile
National bird
Innocent
Small
Not visible
Mild and
unaggressive
Innocence
Natural and
beautiful
Non-interfering
Emic Interpretation
Product Application
Can fight off anything;
sharp senses; speed
of adaptation
Small country, small
bird
No relationship between the
kiwi and consumer goods
Consequences
3
Glassons; Cheeses;
Woolen items; Jade
Create a sense of warmth
Dairy products; New
Zealand Naturals
Non-aggressive products; good
quality—relates to country’s
quality aspects
Dairy products;
Wool items; Tourism
?
Not that evident in
marketplace
Kathmandu;
Dairy; Wool
Kiwis are not visible; NZ
products need more market
visibility
Honestly doing job
without complaining
Dairy Products;
Wool items;
Education; Meat
Add value to human life;
“untouched” environment;
sustainable country—apart
from unethical
As a country, you can
coexist with them
Dairy products;
Cricket players
Appreciate their existence
Not come across NZ
consumer products
Lord of the Rings;
Weta Workshop
Don’t often see “Made in
NZ”
Eats a lot—like
consumerism
Fish; indigenous
art; rugby; tourism
Reflects country’s beauty
and strength
Friendly
Shy animal; not
often seen
Friendly
Fierce
Figure 4. New Zealand
4
Figure 5
Respondent’s overall view about New Zealand’s country and brand images
Animal
Consequences
Automatic Surfacing
Aware of environment—
it thinks
Powerful
Emic Interpretation
Adapts to suit the
market; sharp;
understands
environment
Small but has ruled the
world—a bold on Europe
Initiative to go
out and search
Aggressive
Aggressively go
out to market
Large and overpowering
Quality and
uniqueness
Attitude is arrogant—
like a grizzly bear
Majestic
Huge; protection from
the cold; slow
Stubborn
Hides during trouble—
”head in the ground”; lays
big eggs but cannot fly
Product Application
Industrial products;
Military hardware; Clothes;
Suits; Alcohol;
beer/whisky; high-end
stationary
Steel; Poetry;
Marks+Spencer;
Mothercare; Body Shop;
Tea
Bentley; Rolls Royce;
High end products
Good quality
products—top of
the pyramid
Majestic; own
identity
Large and powerful
Christies; Dr. Martens
Unique products
that attract
attention
?
Aircraft
Attacking in
native—reflects
youth hooliganism
Cater to the highend segment
Clothing; whisky
Achieve quality;
perform better; be
competitive
Take huge
risks
Figure 6. UK
Coats; alcohol;
running gear
Tesco; Hip Hop;
Pastries, Breads, dried
items; Tea; Clothing
(high end); Rolls
Royce
Quality; majestic
Wise—not trying to
compete with
everyone; warm
Lost ability to
compete; moved
away from the
limelight; no longer
queen of the seas;
the sun has set on
British soil
5
6
Figure 7
Respondent’s overall view about United Kingdom’s country and brand
Animal
Automatic Surfacing
Hugh and steady
Does not move
Emic Interpretation
Corn-based
food cycle
Consumables
Milks the
consumers
Product Application
Taco Bell; McDonalds; Papa
John’s
Food affecting Indian diet 7
Abercrombie; Banana
Republic; Gap
Low prices and image
entice people to buy
more clothes
Consumes a lot
Consequences
Trample and
rampage
Oppressive; damage and
leave; MNC’s destroy
local economy
Walmart; Coca-Cola;
Computers; Dell; IBM; iPod;
Microsoft; Shoes; Adidas;
Reebok; KFC; McDonalds
Hugh and
intimidating
How US companies act
Guns; Fast food; Automobiles
Last a long time under rough
and tough conditions
Washing Machine; Woodland
Coca-Cola; McDonalds;
Apple, Microsoft;
Google; Yahoo
Being individual
Gain market share at
competitor’s expense;
thinking ahead; brilliant
quality
Leadership
Unique; a level above
Apple; Footlocker; Nike;
Chevrolet; Ford
People own or aspire to
own; lead and other
companies try to copy
Kellogg’s; General Motors;
Wrangler; Levis; Apple;
Microsoft
Excellent at hyping-up
the smallest thing;
patent allows company
to feast on consumer
KFC; Papa Joe’s; McDonalds
Levis; Wrangler; military
products; music
Most US consumables
come from Asian
countries; Americans not
quality conscious
Rough; tough;
wild
Cunning; cautious
Focus
Rapid rise; soars
high
Majestic and royal
(not Americans)
Quality image;
quality control
Just
Figure 8. United States
Trample and kill small
competitors; products
too expensive for the
poor
Large, inefficient
automobiles; guns are
intimidating; fast food
circles like a bear
Products need to be
rugged because
customers use products
differently
Identifies customers’ needs
before competitors; waits
for right time to attack
8
Figure 9
Respondent’s overall view about United States’ country and brand images