NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGIST, Vol. 30(2) 195-217, 2009
RIKER-TODD: A SALVAGED OHIO
HOPEWELL MOUND*
KENNETH B. TANKERSLEY
PATRICIA A. TENCH
University of Cincinnati, Ohio
ABSTRACT
Riker-Todd was a Middle Woodland Hopewell Mound located on a glaciated
upland in Union Township, Butler County, Ohio. Radiocarbon dating and
anthropogenic stratigraphy indicate that there were at least three different
mound building episodes between ca. 5 B.C. to A.D. 631. Stylistically distinctive artifacts and mtDNA from Riker-Todd Mound fall within the range
of other Middle Woodland Hopewell sites in North America and most closely
resemble those from Mound 25 of the Hopewell Mound Group, including
a large corner-notched, flaked-stone biface manufactured from Knife River
flint. Although maize was part of the Hopewell diet, stable carbon obtained
from human bone collagen failed to find an isotopic signature.
INTRODUCTION
Riker-Todd mound was located near Pisgah in Union Township, Butler County,
Ohio (Figure 1). It was constructed on a glaciated upland overlooking a substantial
*This study was made possible with funding from the Court Family Foundation and the Charles
Phelps Taft Foundation.
195
Ó 2009, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.
doi: 10.2190/NA.30.2.e
http://baywood.com
196 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
Figure 1. Geographic setting of the Riker-Todd Mound.
stretch of the Mill Creek Valley, a tributary of the Ohio River. The mound was
situated among rolling hills of dissected loess, unconsolidated glacial drift, and
Upper Ordovician fossiliferous limestone and shale.
Early archaeological surveys of the area were conducted in 1832 by James
McBride and in 1836 with the assistance of John W. Erwin (MacLean, 1879:174;
Squier and Davis, 1848:85, 88, 90-92). MacLean (1879:175) first named the
mound Riker after then land owner John Riker. He described it as the finest and
most conspicuous of eight mounds in the township. At the time of MacLean’s
survey, the mound rose abruptly 8 feet (2.7 meters) with a diameter of 80 feet
(26.7 meters) at its base. It is possible that the mound was related, culturally and
temporally, to the nearby Union Township Earthworks I and II (33Bu46 and
33Bu47), which included a large rectangular enclosure, an elongated enclosure,
RIKER-TODD / 197
and two circular enclosures adjacent to the headwater tributaries of Sharon
Creek (MacLean, 1879:171-174).
By 1970, many of the earthworks and mounds described by MacLean were
obliterated by cultivation and construction. Koleszar’s (1970) survey of the area
identified a mound with a diameter comparable to that described by MacLean
(1879:175), but noted that the vertical dimension was greatly reduced. Riker
Mound was assigned site number 33Bu111. In 1977, the mound was relocated,
but because it had been wrongly plotted on the 33Bu111 site form, it was not
recognized as Riker. Consequently, a new number was assigned, 33Bu205, and
the site was renamed Todd Mound after then land owner Carlos Todd.
In June 1977, at least two adult burials and two features (i.e., concentrations of
wood charcoal and heat altered soil) were exposed when the northeast edge of the
mound was disturbed during road construction for a new subdivision. Additional
human remains, heat altered limestone, clumps of heat altered soil, and wood
charcoal were found scattered about the surface. Salvage excavations were subsequently organized by Elmer Bannan (Central Ohio Valley Archaeological
Society), Ralph Dury (Cincinnati Museum of Natural History), Elizabeth Schurer
(Miami Purchase Association), and Kent Vickery (University of Cincinnati).
Fieldwork began in September and continued through November of that year
with Bryan Featherstone (University of Cincinnati) as the field supervisor.
At the time of excavation, the mound was approximately 1.5 meters high and
30.0 meters in diameter. Initially, a northeast to southwest trench, perpendicular to
the bulldozed truncation, was excavated to expose the base of the plowzone and
define anthropogenic stratigraphy and features such as burials, cremations, log tombs,
and hearths (Figure 2). The site was then subdivided into four quadrants (northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest) with a three-meter excavation grid.
BURIAL COMPLEXES
During the 1977 salvage excavation, a variety of Hopewell funerary features
were identified, excavated, and labeled in the field as burial complexes
(Tables 1, 2, and 3).
Complex 1
Burial Complex 1, located in southeastern quadrant of the mound, was partially
destroyed by road construction. The complex included two side-by-side extended
burials, a sub-adult of unknown sex, less than 18 years old, and a mature adult
female, more than 50 years. A single posthole, approximately 15 cm × 10 cm,
was found beneath the legs of the older individual. The bodies were lying
directly on the clay mound floor, and covered with a porous, highly mixed, and
variegated loam. An elongated grave-shaped hearth was found on the right side
of the paired burials.
198 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
Figure 2. Plan map and stratigraphic cross section
of the Riker-Todd Mound.
Complex 2
Burial Complex 2, located in the northeastern quadrant, was damaged by
road construction. It included a single extended adult female burial, more than
35 years of age, and a cremation within a tomb. The tomb was a log and clay
structure, which extended beneath the floor of the mound. Details of the tomb
RIKER-TODD / 199
structure were obfuscated by construction activities. Fragments of disintegrated
copper and at least two partially melted copper beads were found with the
cremation. One of the beads was adhering to a burned human bone fragment.
Complex 3
Burial Complex 3, located in the southeast quadrant, included a single extended
adult female burial, between 45 and 50 years of age, within a sub-mound floor
log and clay tomb. The thoracic vertebrae were bent suggesting the body was
buried subsequent to rigor mortis. The burial was lying on a layer of carbonized
bark, wood charcoal, and a reduced gray and oxidized ochre-colored silty clay
loam and completely surrounded by tomb logs.
The undersurface of the logs along the axis of the body was charred and the
adhering clay was fire hardened. It is important to note that the logs were neither
burned at the ends nor was burning concentrated in a particular area. Rather,
charring was uneven across the logs. Wood charcoal, burned bone, and heat
altered soil were abundant about the body. Next to the left leg, there was a pile
of heat damaged debris that appears to have fallen into the tomb. The partially
collapsed tomb also contained two pit features composed of abundant wood
charcoal, heat altered limestone, and fire-hardened soil suggesting in-situ burning
of two separate cremations.
A plummet shaped object, manufactured from a high specific gravity mineral
(7.4 to 7.6), was found next to the left shoulder of the skeleton. X-ray diffraction
analysis (XRD) identified the mineral as a lead ore composed of cerrusite (PbO3)
and galena (PbS). While lead minerals from Woodland sites have been geochemically traced to heavy mineral districts in the Great Lakes, Upper Mississippi
Valley, and New York (cf. Farquhar and Fletcher, 1984; Walthall et al., 1980), a
local source for the artifact is more likely. Indeed, lead minerals such as galena
commonly occur in Ohio as crystals and granular aggregates in cavities and
fractures of dolostones along the crest and flanks of the Findlay Arch, especially
in the Greenfield and Lockport dolomites (Carlson, 1991:108).
Complexes 4, 5, 6, and 7
Burial Complexes 4, 5, 6, and 7 were severely impacted by cultivation and
road construction. Complexes 4, 5, and 7 were located in the northeast quadrant
and Complex 6 was found in the plowzone at the crest of the mound. Disturbed
sediments from Complexes 4, 5, 6, and 7 included two small slabs of heataltered Upper Ordovician limestone, a white-tailed deer astragalus (Odocoileus
virginianus), two flaked-stone drills, a drill bit fragment, and three broken flakedstone bifaces manufactured from local glacial chert.
Complex 4 included two extended adult female burials, between 45 and
50 years old, and a cremation. The eastern most burial had a number of non-human
bone objects associated with it including a large bird bone bead next to the
200 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
Table 1. Riker-Todd Mound Features
Complex
Provenience
Feature
Composition
1
Southeast Quad,
Eastern Section, North Half
Extended human
burial
Sub-adult,
unknown sex
1
Southeast Quad,
Eastern Section, North Half
Extended human
burial
Adult, female
1
Southeast Quad,
Eastern Section, North Half,
Right Side of Burials
Body Length
Hearth
Wood charcoal
1
Southeast Quad,
Eastern Section, North Half,
Beneath Sub-adult Burial
Large posthole
(10 cm × 15 cm)
Dark loam
2
Northeast Quad,
Southwest Corner
Tomb
Wood and clay
2
Northeast Quad,
Southwest Corner
Extended burial
Adult, female
2
Northeast Quad,
Southwest Corner
Cremations
Burned human bone
3
Southeast Quad,
Western Center
Tomb
Wood, wood charcoal,
clay, red ochre
3
Southeast Quad,
Western Center
Posthole 1
Dark stained loam
3
Southeast Quad,
Western Center
Posthole 2
Dark stained loam
3
Southeast Quad,
Western Center
Posthole 3
Dark stained loam
3
Southeast Quad,
Western Center, Tomb
Extended burial
Adult, female
3
Southeast Quad,
Western Center
Cremation 1
Burned human bone,
wood charcoal, clay
3
Southeast Quad,
Western Center
Cremation 2
Burned human bone,
wood charcoal, clay
4
Northeast Quad
Extended burial
Adult, female
4
Northeast Quad
Extended burial
Adult, female
4
Northeast Quad
Cremation
Burned human bone
RIKER-TODD / 201
Table 1. (Cont’d.)
Complex
Provenience
Feature
Composition
5
Northeast Quad,
Eastern Center (Bulldozed)
Extended burial
Unknown age and sex
6
Center (Plowzone)
Extended burial
Unknown age and sex
7
Northeast Quad
Extended burial
Adult, male
7
Northeast Quad
Cremation
Burned human bone,
wood charcoal
7
Northeast Quad,
Below Cremation
Hearth
Wood charcoal
8
Northeast Quad
Tomb
Wood, wood charcoal
8
Northeast Quad, Tomb
Extended burial
Adult, female
8
Northeast Quad, Tomb
Extended burial
Adult, male
cranium, an antler tine haft, and turtle carapace fragment at the right side of
the body.
Complexes 5 and 6 included single extended burials whose age and sex determinations could not be made because of the fragmentary nature of the skeletal
remains. Complex 7 included a single extended adult male burial approximately
30 years old, a cremation, and a hearth. If additional funerary features or artifacts were present, they were completely destroyed by cultivation and road
construction activities.
Complex 8
Burial Complex 8, located in the northeastern quadrant of the mound, included
two side-by-side extended burials, an adult male between 25 and 35 years old
and a young adult female between 19 and 24 years old, within a log and clay tomb.
The highest concentration of artifacts was found in direct association with the
male skeleton. With the exception of the right arm, which was under the pelvis,
the skeleton was completely extended and covered in beads.
Almost 80 drilled ground-shell beads were found across the length of the
male skeleton—15 about the cranium, 6 in the left shoulder and scapula area,
17 in the rib and body area, 30 about the pelvis, 7 on the left wrist, one on the
right wrist, and two near the right foot (Figure 3). All of the beads were manufactured from marine gastropod shells from the Atlantic Coast (e.g., Busycon sp.,
202 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
Table 2. Riker-Todd Mound, Complex 8, Burial 1, Artifact Attribute List
Metrics (cm)a
Artifact
Association
Raw material
Length
Width Thickness
Corner-notched biface
Body
Knife River flint
15.66
6.35
1.06
Earspool
Left cranium
Copper
4.53
4.53
1.30
Earspool
Right cranium Copper
—
—
1.35
Drilled bear canine
Left pelvis
Ursus americanus
6.46
1.64
0.70
Drilled bear canine
Left pelvis
Ursus americanus
4.88
1.41
0.60
Drilled bear canine
Left pelvis
Ursus americanus
6.10
1.67
0.60
Drilled bear canine
Left pelvis
Ursus americanus
5.80
1.70
0.47
Drilled bear canine
Left pelvis
Ursus americanus
4.08
2.03
0.56
Drilled bear canine
Center pelvis
Ursus americanus
6.10
2.10
0.60
Drilled bear canine
Center pelvis
Ursus americanus
7.76
2.23
0.70
Drilled bear canine
Right foot
Ursus americanus
6.13
2.04
0.50
Drilled bear canine
Right pelvis
Ursus americanus
3.50
2.20
0.60
Drilled bear canine
Body
Ursus americanus
7.23
2.35
0.60
Bead
Left pelvis
Shell
1.40
0.80
0.80
Bead
Left pelvis
Shell
1.02
0.74
0.74
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.14
0.92
0.92
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.10
0.90
0.90
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.23
1.00
1.00
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.23
0.86
0.86
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.30
0.95
0.95
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.60
1.10
1.10
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.40
0.96
0.96
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.28
0.92
0.92
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.20
0.80
0.80
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.20
0.80
0.80
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.00
0.77
0.77
Bead
Center pelvis
Shell
1.11
0.90
0.90
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.28
1.07
1.07
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.22
0.84
0.84
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.25
1.10
1.10
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.17
0.96
0.96
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.47
0.98
0.98
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.60
1.05
1.05
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.94
1.22
1.22
RIKER-TODD / 203
Table 2. (Cont’d.)
Metrics (cm)a
Artifact
Association
Raw material
Length
Width Thickness
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.30
0.96
0.96
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.50
1.00
1.00
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.40
0.90
0.90
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.20
0.80
0.80
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.92
1.12
1.12
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.14
1.17
1.17
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.28
1.20
1.20
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.40
0.96
0.96
Bead
Right pelvis
Shell
1.32
0.96
0.96
Bead
Scapula area Shell
2.10
0.85
0.85
Bead
Scapula area Shell
1.10
0.67
0.67
Bead
Scapula area Shell
2.54
0.90
0.90
Bead
Right ribs
Shell
1.66
0.72
0.72
Bead
Right ribs
Shell
1.30
0.60
0.60
Bead
Right ribs
Shell
1.55
0.60
0.60
Bead
Ribs
Shell
0.70
0.60
0.60
Bead
Ribs
Shell
0.94
0.80
0.80
Bead
Ribs
Shell
1.37
0.80
0.80
Bead
Left ribs
Shell
1.43
0.75
0.75
Bead
Left wrist
Shell
1.28
0.80
0.80
Bead
Left wrist
Shell
1.22
0.83
0.83
Bead
Left wrist
Shell
1.00
0.80
0.80
Bead
Left wrist
Shell
1.40
0.80
0.80
Bead
Left wrist
Shell
1.56
0.76
0.76
Bead
Left wrist
Shell
1.50
1.00
1.00
Bead
Left wrist
Shell
1.00
0.80
0.80
Bead
Right wrist
Shell
2.56
1.30
1.30
Bead
Left shoulder
Shell
1.15
0.85
0.85
Bead
Left shoulder
Shell
1.54
0.85
0.85
Bead
Left shoulder
Shell
1.40
0.60
0.60
Bead
Left cranium
Shell
1.77
1.04
1.04
Bead
Left cranium
Shell
1.00
0.56
0.56
Bead
Left cranium
Shell
1.30
0.66
0.66
Bead
Right cranium Shell
2.30
0.80
0.80
204 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
Table 2. (Cont’d.)
Metrics (cm)a
Artifact
Association
Raw material
Length
Width Thickness
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.85
1.20
1.20
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.50
1.00
1.00
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.95
1.04
1.04
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.05
0.68
0.68
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.17
0.66
0.66
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.17
0.65
0.65
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.10
0.55
0.55
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.10
0.70
0.70
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.20
0.65
0.65
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.46
0.60
0.60
Bead
Cranium
Shell
1.70
0.63
0.63
Bead
Body
Shell
1.10
0.55
0.55
Bead
Body
Shell
1.50
0.80
0.80
Bead
Body
Shell
1.44
1.06
1.06
Bead
Body
Shell
1.66
1.10
1.10
Bead
Body
Shell
1.60
0.94
0.94
Bead
Body
Shell
1.50
1.00
1.00
Bead
Body
Shell
1.40
0.90
0.90
Bead
Body
Shell
1.54
1.04
1.04
Bead
Body
Shell
1.27
0.98
0.98
Bead
Body
Shell
1.10
0.80
0.80
Bead
Right foot
Shell
1.26
1.00
1.00
Bead
Right foot
Shell
1.48
0.70
0.70
aMaximum.
Strombus sp.). Ten ground and multiple-drilled black bear (Ursus americanus)
canines were also found in lower half of the skeleton—five next to the left
pelvis, two in the center of the pelvis, one on the right side of the pelvis, one next
to the right foot, and one from the body area (Figure 4).
Copper ear spools were found on either side of the cranium next to the external
auditory meati (Figure 5). Both sides of the cranium were stained green from the
decomposition of the copper. While it is possible that the copper was obtained
through long distance trade or direct procurement from a source in the Great
Lakes region, a local source for the artifacts is more likely. Significant amounts
RIKER-TODD / 205
Table 3. Riker-Todd Mound, Burial Complexes 3 and 4,
and Mound Fill, Artifact Attribute List
Metrics (cm)a
Artifact
Association
Raw material
Length
Width Thickness
Bead
Complex 2
Copper
0.45
0.25
0.25
Bead
Complex 2
Copper
—
0.25
0.25
Plummet-shaped
object
Complex 3
Burial,
left shoulder
Cerrusite-Galena
4.80
3.30
3.30
Antler tine haft
Complex 4
Burial 1,
right side
White-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus)
5.74
1.60
1.60
Burned bone
Complex 4
Burial 1,
cranium
Unidentified large bird
5.50
1.00
1.00
Unknown
Complex 4
Burial 1,
cranium
Turtle carapace
5.40
3.40
0.15
Broken biface
N8E4
Unidentified chert
3.82
2.63
0.70
Stemmed biface
Mound fill
Unidentified chert
2.30
2.60
0.90
Broken biface
Mound fill
Unidentified chert
2.80
2.80
1.05
Drill
Mound fill
Unidentified chert
2.85
1.53
0.70
Drill
Mound fill
Unidentified chert
1.80
1.3
0.95
Drill fragment
Mound fill
Unidentified chert
1.30
1.10
0.80
Astragalus
Mound fill
White-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus)
4.30
2.60
2.40
aMaximum.
of copper are present in local sand and gravel deposits, naturally transported by
Pleistocene glaciers and outwash (Tankersley, 2007).
The single most exotic artifact, a large corner-notched biface manufactured
from Knife River flint, was found above the sternum, lying across the upper ribs
and clavicle, near the thoracic vertebrae, and under the first rib (Figure 6).
Knife River flint is an Eocene age silicified lignite, which occurs in Dunn and
206 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
Figure 3. Examples of marine shell beads associated with an
adult male skeleton in burial Complex 8.
Mercer counties, North Dakota, more than 2,000 kilometers from the Riker-Todd
Mound. Because varieties of more local Flint Ridge chert (i.e., Pennsylvanian
age, Vanport Formation) have a similar color and texture to the naked eye,
the biface was examined petrographically under high-magnification microscopy
(400x) with a filtered mercury tube transmitting long-wavelength radiation at
precisely 360 nm. The microscopic texture of the biface is consistent with Eocene
age silicified lignite and not a diagenetic Pennsylvanian age chert, and surface
patinas display a green to orange fluorescence characteristic of Knife River
flint, and not found in Flint Ridge chert.
The right shoulder and pelvis of the young adult female were hunched, and the
vertebrae were twisted. The left arm was parallel to the body and the right arm was
lying across the body with the wrist at the pelvis. Three shell beads were found
next to the right external auditory meatus and a single large bead was found on the
right wrist. A single row of local Upper Ordovician fossiliferous limestone was
placed above and the length of the skeleton. Two of farthest stones were situated
on top of a log, and a large rock was found directly north, also on top of a log.
Large Hearth Feature
In addition to log and clay tombs, there was large (approximately 2 × 5 m) bright
red hearth in the northern quadrant composed of an ashy oxidized silt loam
with scattered wood charcoal on the floor of the secondary mound (see Figure 2).
RIKER-TODD / 207
Figure 4. Drilled black bear canine beads associated with
an adult male skeleton in burial Complex 8.
The size and intensity of the oxidized surface are indicative of prolonged and
high-temperature fires and similar to those described from other Hopewell
funerary sites (Byers, 2004). The complete absence of human and non-human
bone, pottery, ground-stone, and flaked-stone artifacts suggests that the area
may have been intentionally swept.
BIOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
Approximately ten extended burials and seven cremations were identified.
The exact number of burials and cremations originally buried in the mound is
unknown because of disturbances from more than a century of cultivation and road
208 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
Figure 5. Copper ear spools associated with an adult male
skeleton in burial Complex 8.
construction. Detailed analysis of the human skeletal remains salvaged from the
mound, including anthroposcopic and anthropometric data, were summarized
by Perzigian et al. (1984) and Tench (1983).
DNA
In September 2007, Tankersley discovered skin tissue adhering to a fragment of cremated cervical vertebra providing an opportunity to extract ancient
Hopewell DNA. Because of the samples’ remarkable state of preservation, two
separate extractions were made.
Three Y-chromosome and two X-chromosome specific tests were run on
the DNA-extractions. No Y-chromosome signals in the electrophoresis were
RIKER-TODD / 209
Figure 6. A flaked stone biface manufactured from
Knife River Flint associated with an adult male
skeleton in burial Complex 8.
210 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
recorded, which suggests that the individual was female. The mtDNA was
extracted four times, but the sequences could not be analyzed completely because
of the degraded nature of the mtDNA likely related to the high temperatures
in the cremation and the presence of carbon in the sample. Sooty particles can
inhibit the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the DNA-copying process.
The short and fragmentary sequences were blasted (i.e., compared) to a
reference sequence. The 222 bp HVI sequence represents nucleotides 16217
through 16445 of the Cambridge Reference Sequence (Anderson et al., 1981).
Table 4 illustrates the sequence aligned with the revised Cambridge Reference
Sequence (CRS), showing only those positions where they differ. When aligned in
the “standard” direction and with the reference sequence, 11 differences are
illustrated (at nucleotide positions 16233, 16243, 16289, 16290, 16319, 16325,
16342, 16362, 16368, 16396, 16397). The other “mutations” in the sequence are
unusual not only for Native American sequences, but for human mitochondrial
sequences in general (e.g., the 16396 and 16397 bases), and most likely represent
PCR/sequencing errors.
Nucleotide positions, 16319, 16325, and 16362, are typical of mitochondrial
haplogroup A mutations, one of the five haplogroups found among Native
Americans (i.e., A, B, C, D, X). Haplogroup A has been found in high frequency
(i.e., > 50%) among Algonquian, Iroquoian, Muskogean, and Siouan speaking
people (Bolnick and Smith, 2003:339; Schultz-Shook, 1998). There has been a
Table 4. Riker-Todd Mound mtDNA Sequence
Cambridge Reference
Sequence (CRS)a
Riker-Todd Mound
A
T
16243
T
C
16289
A
T
16290
C
T
16319
G
A
16325
T
C
16342
T
C
16362
T
C
16368
T
C
16396
T
C
16397
T
C
Nucleotide position
16233
aAnderson et al., 1981.
RIKER-TODD / 211
large amount of gene flow between Siouan and Algonquian-speaking groups,
which is likely related to an Algonquian intrusion into the Northeast (Malhi
et al., 2001:17). Interestingly, Haplogroup A is also the most frequent mitochondrial haplogroup (41%, N = 34) identified in specimens from Hopewell
Mound Group (Bolnick and Smith, 2007:636; Mills, 2003).
Stable Carbon Isotopes
Stable carbon isotope values were obtained on human bone collagen from nine
of the burials (Table 5). The d13C ‰ ranged from –19.85 to –20.99 (VPDB).
These values are within the range (–19.00 to –24.10) previously described from
Middle Woodland sites in Ohio, Ontario, Illinois, Tennessee, West Virginia, and
Wisconsin, and they overlap with those obtained from Late Woodland burials
(–20.90 to –12.60) and with the lowest ratio from Cahokia (–20.00) (Bender
et al., 1981:350-352; Schurr, 1992:302). While maize was likely part of the diet
of the people interred in the Riker-Todd mound, it clearly was not consumed
in sufficient quantities to leave an isotopic signature.
GEOCHRONOLOGY
Dating of the Riker-Todd Mound was performed using stratigraphic and radiocarbon dating techniques.
Stratigraphy
The anthropogenic stratigraphy suggests that Riker-Todd Mound was built
in multiple episodes (see Figure 2). Differences in the color and texture of the
Table 5. Stable Carbon Isotope Data for Burials
in the Riker-Todd Mound
Burial
Lab number
d13C ‰ (VPDB)
1
Adult female
UCT 648
–20.85
2
Adult female
UCT 649
–20.99
3
Adult female
UCT 650
–19.85
4
Adult female
UCT 651
–20.93
4
Adult female
UCT 652
–20.92
6
Unknown
UCT 656
–20.81
7
Adult male
UCT 653
–20.79
8
Adult male
UCT 654
–20.97
8
Adult female
UCT 655
–20.94
Complex
212 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
strata clearly indicate three mound structures—a primary central conical-shaped
structure composed of a yellow to gray silty clay loam; a secondary structure
composed of a tan to brown silty clay loam; and a tertiary structure of brown
silty clay loam. All three of these structures were underlain by a sharply defined,
fire-hardened silty clay loam with abundant wood charcoal and ash, which
occurred directly on top of a silty loam A horizon.
Radiocarbon Dating
Five conventional b-decay radiocarbon measurements were made, four on
wood charcoal samples from different contexts and one on human bone collagen
(Table 6). The measured 14C ages at one standard deviation were 1910 ± 60 RC
yr B.P. (UGa 2150) to 1555 ± 60 RC yr B.P. (UGa 2151). The radiocarbon
ages for Riker-Todd Mound fall within 475 14C years (636 calibrated calendar
years at two-sigma), ca. 5 B.C. to A.D. 631. This age range overlaps at two
standard deviations with 14C dates obtained from the nearby Tuner Village and
Twin Mounds sites, Hamilton County, Ohio and the Jennison Guard Village
site, Dearborn County, Indiana (Table 7).
Three of the Riker-Todd Mound 14C dates overlap at one standard deviation,
1825 ± 60 RC yr B.P. (UGa 2147), 1735 ± 60 RC yr B.P. (UGa 2148), and 1835 ±
60 RC yr B.P. (UGa 2149), as does 1910 ± 60 RC yr B.P. (UGa 2150) with 1835 ±
60 RC yr B.P. (UGa 2149) and 1825 ± 60 RC yr B.P. (UGa 2147). All four of
these 14C dates overlap at two standard deviations, as does 1555 ± 60 RC yr B.P.
(UGa 2151) with 1735 ± 60 RC yr B.P. (UGa 2148).
Table 6. Radiocarbon Data from the Riker-Todd Mound
Radiocarbon
date years
14
Lab number
C BP
Calibrated date
(2 Sigma)a
Context
Composition
Complex 3,
SW Quad
Wood charcoal
UGa 2147
1825 ± 60 A.D. 59 to A.D. 346
Complex 8
Wood charcoal
UGa 2148
1735 ± 60 A.D. 136 to A.D. 419
Hearth,
NE Quad
Wood charcoal
UGa 2149
1835 ± 60 A.D. 53 to A.D. 340
Hearth
Wood charcoal
UGa 2150
1910 ± 60 B.C. 5 to A.D. 236
Complex 7
Human bone
collagen
UGa 2151
1555 ± 60 A.D. 392 to A.D. 631
aAfter Stuiver and Reimer (1993) and Reimer et al. (2004).
RIKER-TODD / 213
Table 7. Chronometric Data for Hopewell Sites in the Riker-Todd Mound Vicinity
Calibrated date
Calendar
years, A.D.
(2 Sigma)a
Site name/
Location
Radiocarbon dates
Years 14C B.P.
Turner
Hamilton Co., OH
1850 ± 50 (Beta 145866)
1790 ± 50 (Beta 133996)
1780 ± 50 (Beta 145867)
1740 ± 50 (Beta 133998)
1710 ± 50 (Beta 133995)
1650 ± 50 (Beta 133997)
1820 ± 40 (Beta 237345)
53-259
125-381
128-384
208-412
211-433
319-537
290-537
Greber, 2003
Jennison Guard
Dearborn Co., IN
1810 ± 70 (Wis 1746)
1800 ± 70 (Wis 1744)
1660 ± 70 (Wis 1745)
1660 ± 70 (Beta 67622)
66-388
72-392
232-557
232-557
Blosser, 1996
Twin Mounds
Hamilton Co., OH
1680 ± 130 (Mi 1869)
77-617
References
Tankersley, 2007
Hawkins, 1992,
1996;
Vickery, 1996
aAfter Stuiver and Reimer (1993) and Reimer et al. (2004).
Statistically, the overlapping 14C dates demonstrate that Riker-Todd Mound
was built in at least three stages—a primary mound was built sometime between
ca. 5 B.C. to A.D. 346; a secondary mound built sometime between ca. A.D. 53
and A.D. 419; and a tertiary mound built ca. A.D. 136 to A.D. 631.
DISCUSSION
Chronometric and relative dating, distinctive log and clay tomb features,
cremations, stylistically distinctive artifacts, and exotic materials thousands of
kilometers from their source areas demonstrate that Riker-Todd was a Middle
Woodland, Hopewell mound. The location, structure, and composition of the
funerary features were similar to those documented at other Ohio Valley Hopewell
sites (Greber and Ruhl, 1989).
Approximately 60% (N = 10) of the salvaged funerary features were extended
burials and about 40% (N = 7) cremations. Carr (2004:289) has argued that
inhumations were more prestigious than cremated individuals, that is, body
treatment reflects the vertical social position of the deceased. Alternatively,
Byers’ (2004:419) “Laying-In Crypt Model” views funerary features such as
those found at Riker-Todd related to an incremental mourning process, from
214 / TANKERSLEY AND TENCH
spirit release to world renewal. In this scenario, burials in log and clay tombs
may have been the first stage in a more complex and ritualized mortuary process.
It is equally possible that the exact nature of funerary features was related to
the cause, location, and season of an individual’s death.
Riker-Todd Mound included incomplete or partial cremations, in place
cremations, and ground secondary cremations. The presence of disintegrated
copper residues on burned bone and melted copper beads in the Complex 2
cremation indicate a temperature exceeding 1083°C, the melting point of
copper. Given that the heat of wood fires is typically less than 1,000°C, an
accelerant, such as pine root pitch, was likely used during the cremation. Alternatively, a fuel oxidizer system, which combined coal and wood charcoal, could
also have been used to achieve temperatures exceeding 1900°C. Greber and
Ruhl (1989) suggested comparable cremation activities occurred at Mound 25
of the Hopewell Mound Group.
Although the sample was degraded and woefully small, mtDNA from
Riker-Todd Mound most closely resembles the dominant haplogroup (i.e., A)
found at the Hopewell Mound Group. Six AMS radiocarbon measurements were
made from two different contexts (Altar 1 and Burial 260/261) at Hopewell
Mound 25 (Greber, 2003:102-103). The measured 14C ages at one standard
deviation were 2270 ± 50 RC yr B.P. (Beta 115620) to 1960 ± 50 RC yr B.P.
(Beta 115625). The radiocarbon ages for Mound 25 fall within 310 14C years
(469 calibrated calendar years at two-sigma), ca. 331 B.C. to A.D. 138. This age
range overlaps at two standard deviations with 14C dates obtained from burial
Complex 8 and the primary building stage of the Riker-Todd Mound.
Carr (2004:278-279) suggests that prestige was associated with the size of the
burial mound and association with the number and kinds of artifacts. Approximately 14% (N = 1) of the Riker-Todd cremations had artifacts associated with
them (e.g., copper) and 40% (N = 4) of the extended burials (e.g., bone, antler,
local chert, copper, cerrusite/galena, marine shell, and Knife River flint).
Hopewell Mound 25 is the only other Middle Woodland site in the Ohio
Valley known to contain a corner-notched biface manufactured from Knife River
flint, and it is stylistically identical to the Riker-Todd Mound artifact. Such
associations may represent mortuary-based alliance activities between communities, perhaps connected to social, political, or economic power relations
between the people interred in the Riker-Todd Mound and Mound 25 of the
Hopewell Mound Group (Carr, 2004:307).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Department of Anthropology, University
of Cincinnati, and the Central Ohio Valley Archaeological Society (COVAS)
for their invaluable help in the field and in the laboratory. We are especially
indebted to Elmer Bannan, Bryan Featherstone, Robert Genheimer, J. S.
RIKER-TODD / 215
Neupauer, Elizabeth Schurer, Sandy Stine, and Kent Vickery. Nikolaas J. Van de
Merwe provided stable carbon isotope data for the Todd Mound Burials. N’omi
Greber’s comments on the site, Frederika Kaestle’s comments on the mtDNA
results, and Mark Schurr’s comments on the stable carbon isotope data were
most helpful. Artifact illustrations were drawn by Leeanne Suggs.
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Note: The preceding article was subjected to formal peer review prior to being
accepted for publication.
Direct reprint requests to:
Kenneth B. Tankersley
Department of Anthropology
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati OH 45221
e-mail: [email protected]