INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY
STUDIES IN AFRICAN FIELD
ARCHAEOLOGY
ARCL 2040
½ Unit 2015
Year 2/3 option
Uganda, 10th – 25th February
Co-ordinated by: Andrew Reid – [email protected]
Room 111. Telephone 02076791531
Turnitin Class ID: 783219
Turnitin Password IoA1415
Studies in African Field Archaeology
ARCL 2040
Aims and Objectives
The course aims to provide students with a practical understanding of research conditions and
archaeological environments encountered on the African continent. It does this by providing students
with direct experience of a range of archaeological contexts. The course operates by visiting one
African country for a two week period and examining a selection of issues and themes by visiting
archaeological sites, environmental locations and museums.
Through this course students will gain an understanding of the practicalities of archaeological
research, the nature of debate and the material it is based upon, and the problems faced in managing
heritage resources in African settings. Clearly not every pertinent issue can be addressed, but the
intention is to examine a representative spectrum of archaeology within a single African country.
Essential in the process is the need to think outside the narrow confines of the archaeological record.
This is important from an academic perspective so that we appreciate the ways in which
contemporary physical and cultural environments can be used to construct analogies for past
behaviour. Equally, archaeologists need to think about the other interested parties in heritage
management, such as government (national and local), ownership and possession of resources,
development agendas and the role of the past in the emerging nation.
The course will examine the archaeological record and how it has historically been constructed but
it also questions the nature, and varied definitions, of heritage and the past by considering a wide
range of social groups.
In 2015, the course will make its fourth visit to Uganda, which has proven to be very different to
previous visits to Kenya. Kenya is in many ways an easy country to visit because it has an
extensive archaeological sequence, from early hominids to the present, it has a lengthy history of
these investigations, it has a wide range of different environments in which humans have been
living and it has an active Museums service and conservation policy. Uganda has a completely
different emphasis on the past, not rooted in centralized institutions or in official infrastructure.
Whilst this presents more of a challenge, our presence enables fundamental debates on the
appropriate manner for the setting up of operational systems at national and local levels that might
work for a country like Uganda. Students will gain an appreciation of the contested significance of
archaeological materials and interpretations and the potential relevance of these to the social,
political and religious concerns of people today. They will also get a basic grounding in the nature
of research agendas and the construction of the archaeological record.
Students will become aware of some of the ethical considerations of undertaking archaeological or
curatorial work in a very different part of the world and will be knowledgeable of the need to consider
diverse interest groups in advance of any research or archaeological intervention. Students will
learn to give careful consideration to a range of divergent and deeply held beliefs, they will develop
their ability to evaluate information and ideals reported by other people and, where appropriate, to
develop clearly expressed opinions of their own.
COURSE PRESENTATION
The course consists of half hour lecture sessions discussing general issues and introducing
concepts prior to physical visits. A series of discussions will also be instigated to help students
explore the issues. These lectures are punctuated by a series of visits to archaeological sites,
museums and to locations which provide important points of reference for the living conditions
and resources used on archaeological sites. To help students engage with these locations each
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student has been asked to prepare an introductory statement about one of the sites (or an aspect of
one of the sites).
PREREQUISITES
There are no prerequisites for this course.
WORKLOAD
The course comprises 16 lecture sessions. In addition there will be visits to at least 16
archaeological sites and museums and two different national parks/reserves. Students will be able
to read around the course whilst in Uganda by using the basic library resources that have been
made available there. You will need to read and think about the issues as we move through the
country. You will also need some 40 hours to research and write the assessed essays.
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
This course is examined by means of two 2375-2625 word essays.
If students are unclear about the nature of an assignment, they should discuss this with the Course
Co-ordinator.
The Course Co-ordinator is willing to discuss an outline of the student's approach to the
assignment, provided this is planned suitably in advance of the submission date.
Word-length
The following should not be included in the word-count: title page, contents pages, lists of figure
and tables, abstract, preface, acknowledgements, bibliography, lists of references, captions and
contents of tables and figures, appendices. Penalties will only be imposed if you exceed the upper
figure in the range. There is no penalty for using fewer words than the lower figure in the range:
the lower figure is simply for your guidance to indicate the sort of length that is expected.
TEACHING SCHEDULE
The course will take place in Uganda between the 10th and 25th February.
SESSION SUMMARIES
The following is an outline for the course as a whole, and identifies essential and supplementary
readings relevant to each session. Information is provided as to where in the UCL library system
individual readings are available; their location and Teaching Collection (TC) number, and status
(whether out on loan) can also be accessed on the eUCLid computer catalogue system. Readings
marked with an * are considered essential to keep up with the topics covered in the course. Copies
of individual articles and chapters identified as essential reading are in the Teaching Collection in
the Institute Library (where permitted by copyright) or are available online.
CORE TEXTS
There are no core texts as such for this course.
1. Introduction: history of research
This lecture will introduce the course by exploring the history of research in Uganda. Contrary to two wellestablished colonial models in Africa (typified by Great Zimbabwe and Kenya’s fixation with earliest
contexts) Uganda’s status as a protectorate and its emphasis on indirect rule focused historical spotlights
firmly on the largely uncontested pasts of the kingdoms. Whilst archaeological research in the 1960s had
begun to drift away from such a focus and Uganda had a workable heritage infrastructure by the end of that
decade, decline in the moral standards of the state had already set in, the kingdoms were abolished in 1967
under Obote, Amin assumed power in 1971 and the nascent state crumbled. The increasingly harsh
conditions Uganda found itself in through Amin’s collapse into the anarchy of the second Obote regime did
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not facilitate good conditions for research and heritage. Antiquities officials were barred from visiting Bigo
bya Mugenyi, despite it being a gazetted monument which they were legally required to protect. Since
1986 and the coming to power of Yoweri Museveni, Uganda’s fortunes have steadily improved but there
has been little or no development within heritage institutions. Frequently Antiquities and the Museum fell
under the ministerial control of Brigadier Moses Ali, who despite being a former minister in Amin’s time,
was an important symbolic member of government being from the north west of the country. He was not
however granted any real ministerial authority and antiquities suffered accordingly. In the 1990s several of
the kingdoms were restored, serving to bolster the accepted court histories and discouraging alternative
forms of examination. Archaeological research has picked up but Uganda has laboured in the absence of a
trained or effective infrastructure. Nevertheless the past clearly has power as revealed by the number of
cults which occupy archaeological sites. Equally instructive is the resilience of the Kasubi tombs
throughout the dark years of the 1970s and 1980s. Its destruction in 2010, probably by accident, serves to
emphasise that it was unharmed during some very bad times.
Andah, B.W. 1995. European Encumbrances to the Development of Relevant Theory in African
Archaeology. in P.Ucko (ed.)Theory in Archaeology: a world perspective.pp. 96-109. London:
Routledge.
Cole S. 1954. The Prehistory of East Africa. London: Pelican.
Connah G. 2001. African Civilisations: an archaeological perspective. CUP.
Fagan B.M. and L. Lofgren. 1966. Archaeological Reconnaissance on the Sese Islands. Uganda
Journal 30: 81-86.
Lanning E.C. 1953. Ancient earthworks in western Uganda. Uganda Journal 17: 51-62
Mathew G. 1953. Recent discoveries in East African Archaeology. Antiquity 28: 212-218.
O’Brien T.P. 1939. The Prehistory of the Uganda Protectorate. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
O’Connor D. and A. Reid 2003. Introduction - locating Ancient Egypt in Africa: modern theories,
past realities. In D. O’Connor and A. Reid (eds) Ancient Egypt in Africa: 1-22. London: UCL
press.
Posnansky M. 1961. Bantu genesis. Uganda Journal 25: 86-93.
Posnansky M. 1967. Wayland as an archaeologist. Uganda Journal 31: 9-12.
Posnansky M. 2009. Africa and Archaeology: empowering an expatriate life. London: Radcliffe.
Reid A. 2001. Cattle, identity and genocide in Rwanda. Archaeology International 4: 35-38.
Robertshaw P.T. 1990. The development of archaeology in East Africa. In P.T. Robertshaw (ed) A
History of African Archaeology: 78-94. London: James Currey.
Wainaina B. 2005. How to write about Africa. Granta 92: 91-95.
Walz J. 2010. An Interview with Merrick Posnansky. African Archaeological Review 27:177210.
Wayland E.J. 1934. Rifts, rivers, rains and early man in Uganda. Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute 64: 333-52.
Wayland E.J. 1934. Notes on the Biggo bya Mugenyi: some ancient earthworks in northern
Buddu. Uganda Journal 2: 21-32.
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2. The historical kingdoms of Uganda
The historical kingdoms of Uganda have dominated views of the past as indeed they have tended
to feature in post-colonial politics. We will be looking at the emergence of these polities later, but
at the beginning of the consideration of the archaeology of the country it is necessary to discuss
their influence and to consider their impact on investigations of the past. Undoubtedly, the
prominence given to these polities has contributed to the enmity with which they are regarded by
some. For instance, what do people whose heritage does not relate to these major polities focus
on: are they in some way culturally inferior. Has archaeological research provided equal coverage
to all areas of the country? Almost certainly it has not.
Kigongo R. and A. Reid 2007. Local communities, politics and the management of the Kasubi
tombs. World Archaeology 39: 371-384.
Kiwanuka S. 1971. A History of Buganda. London: Longman.
Oliver R. 1959. Ancient capital sites of Ankole. Uganda Journal 23: 51-63.
Posnansky M. 1966. Kingship, archaeology and historical myth. Uganda Journal 30:1-12.
Posnansky M. 1968. The excavation of an Ankole capital site at Bweyorere. Uganda Journal 32:
165-182.
Ranger T. 1983. The invention of tradition in colonial Africa. In E.J. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger
(eds.) The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: CUP.
Ray B.C. 1991. Myth, Ritual and Kingship in Buganda. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Reid A. 2004. Recent research on the Archaeology of Buganda. In P. Mitchell, A. Haour and J.
Hobart (eds) Researching Africa's Past: new contributions fromBritish archaeologists: 110-117.
Oxford: Oxbow.
Reid R. 1999. War and militarism in precolonial Buganda. Azania 34: 45-60.
Reid R. 2002. Political Power in Pre-Colonial Buganda. Oxford: James Currey.
Robertshaw P.T. 2000. Sibling rivalry? The intersection of archaeology and history. History in
Africa 27: 261-286.
Roscoe J. 1911. The Baganda. Cambridge University Press.
Roscoe J. 1922. The Banyoro. Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt P.R., 1990. Oral traditions, archaeology and history: a short reflective history, in A
History of African Archaeology, edited by P.T. Robertshaw, London: James Currey.
Stanley H.M. 1878. Through the Dark Continent (Volume I). London: Sampson Low.
Van Noten F. 1983. Histoire archaeologique du Rwanda. Tervuren: Musee Royale de l’Afrique
Centrale.
Willis J. 1996. Two lives of Mpamizo: understanding dissonance in oral history. History in
Africa 23: 319-332.
Wrigley C.C. 1958. Some thoughts on the Bacwezi. Uganda Journal 22: 11-17.
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3. Managing heritage in Uganda (at Uganda Museum)
The kingdoms notwithstanding, heritage management in Uganda has not been a major historical
focus of attention. Locations that we would consider to have been of heritage interest, were either
protected because they continued to function, or alternatively were almost entirely ignored. Add
to that the disruptions of the 70s and 80s and the situation becomes still worse with no appropriate
historical model to structure such activities. Clearly, there has to be a carefully worked out and
restricted strategy for successful management of resources and promotion of heritage themes.
Such strategies also need to recognize intangible forms of heritage which may have considerable
popular resonance.
Abungu G. and L. Abungu. 1998. Saving the past in Kenya: Urban and monument conservation.
African Archaeological Review 15:221-224.
Kibunjia M. 1997. The management of archaeological collections and resources in Africa. African
Archaeological Review 14:137-142.
Kigongo R. and A. Reid 2007. Local communities, politics and the management of the Kasubi
tombs. World Archaeology 39: 371-384.
Mabulla A.Z.P. 2000. Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) in Africa: a case study.
African Archaeological Review 17: 211-233.
Musiba C. and A. Mabulla 2003. Politics, cattle and conservation: Ngorongoro Crater at a
crossroads. In Kusimba C.M. and S.B. Kusimba (eds) East African Archaeology: foragers,
potters, smiths and traders: 133-148. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of
Archaeology and Anthropology.
Pwiti G. 1997. Taking African Cultural Heritage Management into the 21st century: Zimbabwe’s
masterplan for Cultural Heritage Management. African Archaeological Review 14:81-84.
Pwiti G. and W. Ndoro 1999 The legacy of Colonialism: Perceptions of the Cultural Heritage in
Southern Africa, with special reference to Zimbabwe. African Archaeological Review 16(3)
143-153.
Reid A. 2002. Recent archaeological discoveries in Buganda and their implications for
Archaeological Heritage Management. Uganda Journal 48: 87-103.
4. Museums and education in Uganda (at Uganda Museum)
Following on from previous lectures, there is a real need to rationalize the activities of museums,
and in particular the Uganda Museum. Set up originally as an essentially colonial institution,
defining and in some sense possessing Uganda’s people, its role needs careful revision to assist
with, advise and coordinate heritage activities within the country. The museum’s relationship with
Ugandans has changed significantly, but its displays largely date from the 50s and 60s. Are new
displays not a top priority or would they be an unnecessary expense, which the low level of
practical training at the museum would find it difficult to achieve? Despite these problems of
development, the Uganda Museum remains one of the most visited institutions by Uganda’s school
children, which offers scope for future developments.
Abungu L. 2005. Museums and communities in Africa: facing the new challenges. Public
Archaeology 4: 151-154.
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Drewal H.J. 1996. Past as prologues: empowering Africa’s cultural institutions. In P.R. Schmidt
and R.J. MacIntosh (eds.) Plundering Africa’s Past:110-124. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press.
Esterhuysen A.M. 2000. The birth of educational archaeology in South Africa. Antiquity 74:159164.
Karega-Munene 1992. Dissemination of archaeological information: the East African experience.
In P. Reilly and S. Rahtz (eds.) Archaeology in the Information Age: 41-46. London: Routledge.
Kusimba C.M. 1996. Archaeology in Africa’s museums. African Archaeological Review 13:165170.
5. Iron working and society
Investigations of iron production in Africa have developed significantly since the 1970s with the
recognition of the residual knowledge of an extremely varied and essentially African practice.
Whilst the basics of bloomery smelting are essentially the same there is a huge degree of variation
in the basic forms of furnace and smelting that take place across the continent. Uganda has
featured in some more recent work on iron smelting, most notably the ethnographic account made
by Terry Childs on Toro smelters. There have however been no formal ethnoarchaeological
studies. Instead work in Buganda has begun a new strand of research amongst historical
communities for which the memories of smelting have essentially been lost. The work in Buganda
demonstrates the complexity that will be needed in order to make worthwhile studies of African
iron working.
Childs S.T. 1991. Style, technology and iron-smelting furnaces in Bantu-speaking Africa.
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 10:332-59.
Childs S.T. 2000. Traditional Iron working: a narrated ethnoarchaeological example. In M.S.
Bisson, S.T. Childs, P de Barros and A.F.C. Holl Ancient African Metallurgy: the socio-cultural
context: 199-253. Walnut Creek CA: AltaMira.
Childs S.T. and D. Killick. 1993. Indigenous African metallurgy: nature and culture. Annual
Review of Anthropology 22:317-37.
Collett D.P. 1993. Metaphors and representations associated with precolonial iron-smelting in
eastern and southern Africa. In T. Shaw, P.J.J. Sinclair, B. Andah and A. Okpoko (eds.) The
Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns: 499-511. One World Archaeology 20. London:
Routledge.
Humphris J. and L.E. Iles 2013. Precolonial iron production in Great Lakes Africa: recent research
at UCL Institute of Archaeology. In J. Humphris and T. Rehren (eds) The World of Iron: 56-65.
London: Archetype.
Humphris J., M. Martinon-Torres, T. Rehren and A. Reid 2009. Variability in single smelting
episodes – a pilot study using iron slag from Uganda. Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 359369.
Iles L.E. 2009. Impressions of banana pseudostem in iron slag from eastern Africa. Ethnobotany
Research and Applications 7: 283-91.
Iles L.E. 2013. Applying ethnographic presents to archaeological pasts: preliminary thoughts on
memories of iron production from western Uganda. In J. Humphris and T. Rehren (eds) The World
of Iron: 281-7. London: Archetype.
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Iles, L. 2013. “The use of plants in iron production: insights from smelting remains from
Buganda”, in J. Humphris and T. Rehren (eds), The World of Iron, pp. 56-65, London: Archetype.
Maret P. de 1985. The smith’s myth and the origin of leadership in Central Africa. In R. Haaland
and P. Shinnie (eds.) African Iron Working: 73-87. Bergen: Norwegian University Press.
Schmidt P.R. 1997. Iron Technology in East Africa: symbolism, science and archaeology.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Schmidt, P.R. and S.T. Childs. 1985. Innovation and industry during the Early Iron Age in East
Africa: the KM2 and KM3 sites of northwest Tanzania, African Archaeological Review 3: 53-94.
Schmidt, P.R. and S.T. Childs 1995. Ancient African Iron Production. American Scientist 83:
524-533.
Van Noten F. 1979. The Early Iron Age in the Interlacustrine region: the diffusion of iron
technology. Azania 14: 61-80.
Woodhouse J. 1998. Iron in Africa: metal from nowhere. In G.E. Connah (ed.) Transformations in
Africa: 160-185. London: Leicester University Press.
Young R. and G. Thompson 1999. Fuels for the furnace. Recent and prehistoric ironworking in
Uganda and beyond. In M. Van Der Veen (ed) The exploitation of plant resources in ancient
Africa: 221-239. New York: Kluwer.
6. Agriculture
African agriculture consists of a complex mosaic of different crops, some of African origin, others
from beyond the continent but all of which have become typically African. No better example of
this exists than bananas which must have been introduced from SE Asia, possibly as early as 4000
years ago. However from around AD 800 bananas became adapted and suited to plantation
cultivation and it was this development that made possible the growth of influence of the Buganda
kingdom. Subsequently, some 120 different cultivars were established within Buganda alone,
adapted for distinct conditions and functions. Whilst we need to develop methods for recognizing
crops such as bananas and yams in the archaeological past, there are already some means for
identifying the presence of crops such as sorghum and finger millet. At sites such as Ntusi these
have proven to be of major significance, demonstrating how research has in the past overlooked
cultivation in favour of more glamorous issues such as pastoralism.
Boivin N., A. Crowther, R. Helm and D. Fuller 2013. East Africa and Madagascar in the Indian
Ocean World. Journal of World Prehistory 26: 213-281.
Carswell G. 2000. History of land use change in Kigezi, SW Uganda. Azania 35: 220-223.
Giblin, J.D. and D.Q. Fuller (2011). “First and second millennium AD agriculture in Rwanda:
archaeobotanical finds and radiocarbon dates from seven sites”, Vegetation History and
Archaeobotany, 20, pp. 253-65.
Gifford-Gonzalez D.P. 1993. Gaps in the zooarchaeological analyses of butchery: is gender an
issue. In J. Hudson (ed) From Bones to Behaviour: ethnoarchaeological and experimental
contributions to the interpretation of faunal remains: 181-191. Carbondale: Southern Illinois
University.
Lejju B.J., P.T. Robertshaw and D. Taylor 2003. Vegetation history and archaeology at Munsa,
western Uganda. Azania 38: 155-65.
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Lejju B.J., P.T. Robertshaw and D. Taylor 2006. Africa’s earliest bananas? Journal of
Archaeological Science 33: 102-113.
MacLean R. 1994. Late Stone Age and Early Iron Age settlement in the Interlacustrine region: a
district case study. Azania 29/30: 296-302.
Maclean R. 1998. Gendered technologies and gendered activities in the Interlacustrine Early Iron
Age. In In S. Kent (ed.) Gender in African Prehistory: 163-178. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.
Marchant R. and D. Taylor 1998. Dynamics of montane forest in central Africa during the late
Holocene: a pollen based record from western Uganda. The Holocene 8: 375-381.
Moore, H. 1982. The interpretation of spatial patterning in settlement residues. In I. Hodder (ed.)
Symbolic and Structural Archaeology: 74-79. CUP.
Reid D.A.M. 1994/5. Early social organisation and settlement in the Interlacustrine region. Azania
29/30: 303-313.
Reid A. and C. Ashley 2014. Islands of Agriculture on Lake Victoria. In C.J. Stevens, S. Nixon,
M.A. Murray and D.Q. Fuller (eds) Archaeology of African Plant Use: 179-188. Walnut Creek:
West Coast Press.
Reid A. and R. Young 2000. Pottery abrasion and the preparation of African grains. Antiquity 74:
101-111.
Schoenbrun D.L. 1993. Cattle herds and banana gardens: the historical geography of the Western
Great Lakes Region c. AD 800-1500. African Archaeological Review 11: 39-72.
Taylor D. and R. Marchant 1994/5. Human impact in the Interlacustrine region: long-term pollen
records from the Rukiga highlands. Azania 29/30: 283-295.
Wrigley C.C. 1989. Bananas in Buganda. Azania 24: 64-70.
Young R. and G. Thompson 1999. Missing plant foods? Where is the archaeobotanical evidence
for sorghum and finger millet in East Africa? In M. Van Der Veen (ed) The exploitation of plant
resources in ancient Africa: 63-72. New York: Kluwer.
7. Pastoralism
Pastoralism has a much vaunted status on the African continent amongst researchers. Typically
such studies have focused on “traditional” pastoralist populations such as the Maasai. Whilst
Uganda does have similar populations, principally the Karamajong in the NE of the country, a
much more unique form of pastoralism lies in examining the Bahima in the south. Bahima and
Tutsi pastoralists in neighbouring Rwanda, were closely associated with the development of states.
Furthermore, we can see the development of Bahima pastoralism in the archaeology of Ntusi. The
development of this pastoralist culture is obviously manifest in the striking Ankole cattle
themselves. Over time pastoralist aesthetics clearly increased.
Ambrose S.H. and DeNiro M.J. 1986. Reconstruction of African human diet using bone collagen
carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios. Nature 319:321-324.
Anderson D. 1993. Cow power: livestock and the pastoralist in Africa. African Affairs 92: 12133.
Gifford-Gonzalez D. 1998. Gender and early pastoralists in East Africa. In S. Kent (ed.) Gender
in African Prehistory: 115-138. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.
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Gifford-Gonzalez D. 2000. Animal disease challenges to the emergence of pastoralism in subSaharan Africa. African Archaeological Review 17: 95-139.
Hanotte O, Tawah CL, Bradley DG, Okomo M, Verjee Y, Ochieng J, Rege JE. 2000 Geographic
distribution and frequency of a taurine Bos taurus and an indicine Bos indicus Y specific allele
amongst sub-saharan African cattle breeds. Molecular Ecology. 2000 Apr;9(4):387-96.
Marshall F. 1990. Origins of specialised pastoral production in East Africa. American
Anthropologist 92: 873-894.
Reid A. 1996. Cattle herds and the redistribution of cattle resources. World Archaeology 28 (1):
43-57.
Reid A. 2001. Cattle, identity and genocide in Rwanda. Archaeology International 4: 35-38.
Robertshaw P.T. 1990. Early Pastoralists of South-Western Kenya. Nairobi: British Institute in
Eastern Africa.
Schoenbrun D.L. 1993. Cattle herds and banana gardens: the historical geography of the Western
Great Lakes Region c. AD 800-1500. African Archaeological Review 11: 39-72.
Willis J. 1997. Clan and history in western Uganda: a new perspective on the origins of pastoral
dominance. International Journal of African Historical Studies 30: 583-600.
8. Ethnoarchaeology and meaning
A major problem in archaeology generally but in African archaeology in particular lies in how
archaeologists infer meaning and significance to the elements they recover. Early
ethnoarchaeological studies focused on the African continent because of its rich ethnographic
record but subsequently the relevance of such examples for global generalizations has been
debated. Nevertheless, ethnoarchaeological studies can still play an important role in enlivening
the African past. More recently, actualistic studies, based on observations of animal behaviour
have helped develop more effective understandings of early hominid behaviour and the broader
ecological place of hominids within animal communities.
Beattie J.H.M. 1961. Nyoro Mortuary Rites. Uganda Journal 25: 171-183.
Cunningham J.F. 1905. Uganda and its Peoples. London: Hutchinson.
Foley R. 1981. Off-site archaeology and human adaptation in eastern Africa. Oxford: BAR Int.
Series 97.
Hodder, I. 1982. Symbols in Action. CUP.
Iles L.E. 2013. Applying ethnographic presents to archaeological pasts: preliminary thoughts on
memories of iron production from western Uganda. In J. Humphris and T. Rehren (eds) The World
of Iron: 281-7. London: Archetype.
Mbae B.N. 1990. The ethnoarchaeology of Maasai settlements and refuse disposal patterns in the
Lemek area. In P.T. Robertshaw (ed.) Early Pastoralists of South-Western Kenya: 272-292.
Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.
Reid A. and R. Young 2000. Pottery abrasion and the preparation of African grains. Antiquity 74:
101-111.
Roscoe J. 1911. The Baganda. London: Macmillan.
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Western D. and T. Dunne 1979. Environmental aspects of settlement site decisions among
pastoral Maasai. Human Ecology 7: 75-98.
9. The archaeology of early hominids and other Stone Age research
Uganda, like many African countries has long been known for its early archaeological remains,
now known to be the earliest in the world. Early work was characterized by pre-occupations with
typology. Yet many of Uganda’s earliest sites, rich though they may be in lithics, are of little
significance in the broader continent wide understanding of these earliest tools and their makers.
Many of these sites are clearly secondary if not tertiary episodes of deposition and so the
association of materials is questionable. More importantly they lack animal bone remains with
which to contextualize the activities on sites. Also these sites are situated in contexts entirely
lacking in volcanic activity and the all-important volcanic ash layers that can be dated. Yet such
deposits do exist in the western rift, particularly at the southern end of lake Albert. In the case of
Uganda it is perhaps the absence of persistence amongst early researchers which has failed to
make the most of such sites rather than that such sites are lacking potential.
Bishop W.W. and M. Posnansky 1960. Pleistocene Environments and Early Man in Uganda.
Uganda Journal 24: 44-61.
Pearce S. and M. Posnansky 1963. The re-excavation of Nsongezi rock shelter. Uganda Journal
27: 85-94.
Cole G.H. 1967. The later Acheulian and Sangoan of southern Uganda. In W.W. Bishop and J.D.
Clark (eds) Background to Evolution in Africa: 481-528. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cole S. 1954. The Prehistory of East Africa. London: Pelican.
Gautier A. 1967. New observations on the later tertiary and early quarternary in the western Rift:
the stratigraphic and palaeontological evidence. In W.W. Bishop and J.D. Clark (eds) Background
to Evolution in Africa: 73-. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Isaac G.Ll. 1977. Olorgesailie: archeological studies of a middle Pleistocene lake basin in Kenya.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
O’Brien T.P. 1939. The Prehistory of the Uganda Protectorate. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Pickford, M., Senut, B. & Hadoto, D. 1993. Geology and Paleobiology of the Albertine Rift Valley
Uganda-Zaire. Volume I: Geology. Paris: CIFEG.
Pickford, M., Senut, B., Roche, H., Mein, P., Ndaati, G., Obwona, P. & Tuhumwire, J. 1989.
Uganda Palaeontology Expedition: résultats de la dexième mission (1987) dans la région de
Kisegi-Nyabusosi (bassin du lac Albert, Ouganda). C.R. Acad. Sc. Paris 308, 1751-1758.
Potts R., A.K. Behrensmeyer, and P. Ditchfield, 1999. Paleolandscape variation and Early
Pleistocene hominid activities: Members 1 and 7, Olorgesailie Formation, Kenya, Journal of
Human Evolution 37:747-788.
McBrearty S. 1990. Consider the humble termite: termites as agents of post-depositional
disturbance at African archaeological sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 17: 111-143.
Nenquin J. 1971. Archaeological prospections on the islands of Buvuma and Bugaia, Lake
Victoria Nyanza (Uganda). Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 37: 381-418.
11
Robbins L.H., S.A. MacFarlin, J.L. Brower and A.E. Hoffman 1977. Rangi: a late Stone Age site
in Karamoja District, Uganda. Azania 12: 209-33.
Shipman, P., 1986. Scavenging or hunting in early hominids: Theoretical framework and tests.
American Anthropologist 88:27-43.
Texier, P.-J. 1995. The Oldowan assemblage from NY 18 site at Nyabusosi (Toro-Uganda). C.R.
Acad. Sc. Paris 320, 647-653.
Van Riet Lowe C. 1952. The Pleisticene Geology and Prehistory of Uganda. Part II: Prehistory.
Colchester: Geological Survey of Uganda.
Wayland E.J. 1929. African pluvial periods. Nature 123: 31-3.
Wayland E.J. 1934. Rifts, rivers, rains and early man in Uganda. Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute 64: 333-52.
10. Ceramics, material culture and identity
Like lithics, ceramics have also been an area in which archaeologists have become weighed down
by the seeming need to define typologies. This is typified by the notion that “pots equal people”.
This has most obviously been demonstrated in the association of the spread of Bantu speakers with
certain indicator ceramics. A different approach has recently been taken in the examination of
ceramics on the northern shores of Lake Victoria, in both Uganda and Kenya. Particularly in
western Kenya ceramics which are imitative, yet markedly inferior, have been recorded associated
with delayed return hunter gatherer communities. As a result the notion of interactive cultural
frontiers has been developed. Similar processes of transformation can be seen on the Ugandan
shores of the lake suggesting a transformative process rather than the rigid dichotomy that was
once focused on between Urewe and roulette decorated ceramics.
Ashley C. 2010. Towards a socialized archaeology of ceramics in Great Lakes Africa. African
Archaeological Review 27: 135-163.
Chapman S. 1967. Kantsyore Island. Azania 2: 165-191.
Collett, D. and P.T. Robertshaw. 1980. Early Iron Age and Kansyore Pottery: finds from Gogo
Falls, South Nyanza, Azania 15: 133-145.
Desmedt, C., 1991. Poteries anciennes décorées à la roulette dans la Région des Grands Lacs.
African Archaeological Review 9: 161-196.
Eggert M.K.H. 1992. The Central African rain forest: historical speculation and archaeological
facts. World Archaeology 24 (1):1-24.
Herbich I. 1987. Learning patterns, potter interaction and ceramic style among the Luo of Kenya.
African Archaeological Review 5: 193-204.
Giblin J. and R. Kigongo. 2012. The social and symbolic context of the royal potters of Buganda.
Azania 47: 64-80.
Karega-Munene 1996. The East African Neolithic: an alternative view. African Archaeological
Review 13: 247-254.
Karega-Munene 2002. Holocene Foragers, Fishers and Herders of Western Kenya. Bar Int series
1037. Oxford: BAR.
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Karega-Munene 2003. The East African Neolithic: a historical perspective. In C.M. Kusimba and
S.B. Kusimba (eds) East African Archaeology: foragers, potters, smiths and traders: 17-32.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
Lane P.J., C. Ashley, O. Seitsonen, P. Harvey, S. Mire and F. Odede 2007. The transition to
farming in eastern Africa: new faunal and dating evidence from Wadh Lang’o and Usenge, Kenya.
Antiquity 81: 62-81.
Leakey M.D., W.E. Owen and L.S.B. Leakey 1948. Dimple-based pottery from Central
Kavirondo, Kenya Colony. Coryndon Memorial Museum Occasional Papers 2. Nairobi.
Lwanga_Lunyiigo S. 1976. The Bantu problem reconsidered. Current Anthropology 17: 282-6.
MacLean R. 1994/5. Late Stone Age and Early Iron Age settlement in the Interlacustrine region: a
district case study. Azania 29/30: 296-302.
Nelson C.M. and M. Posnansky 1970. The stone tools from the re-excavation of Nsongezi rock
shelter. Azania 5: 119-172.
Nenquin J. 1967. Notes on the protohistoric pottery cultures in the Congo-Rwanda-Burundi
region. In W.W. Bishop and J.D. Clark (eds) Background to Evolution in Africa: 651-658.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Pearce S. and M. Posnansky 1963. The re-excavation of Nsongezi rock shelter, Ankole. Uganda
Journal 27: 85-94.
Posnansky M. 1961. Bantu Genesis. Uganda Journal 25: 86-93.
Posnansky, M. 1961 Pottery Types from Archaeological Sites in East Africa. Journal of African
History, 2 (2): 177-198
Posnansky M. 1967. The iron age in East Africa. In W.W. Bishop and J.D. Clark (eds)
Background to Evolution in Africa: 629-649.
Posnansky, M. 1968 Bantu Genesis – Archaeological Reflexions. Journal of African History, 9
(1): 1-11
Roberstshaw P.R. 1994. Archaeological survey, ceramic analysis and state formation on western
Uganda. African Archaeological Review 12: 105-31.
Soper R. 1971. Iron Age archaeological sites in the Chobi Sector of Murchison Falls National
Park, Uganda. Azania 6: 53-87.
Soper, R. 1982. Bantu expansion into Eastern Africa: linguistic evidence, in The Archaeological
and Linguistic reconstruction of African history, edited by C. Ehret and M. Posnansky: 223-238.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Soper, R., 1985. Roulette Decoration on African Pottery: technical considerations, dating and
distributions. African Archaeological Review 3: 29-51.
Stewart, K.A., 1993. Iron Age Ceramic Studies in Great Lakes eastern Africa: a critical and
historiographical review. African Archaeological review 11: 21-37.
Vansina J. 1995. New linguistic evidence and ‘the Bantu Expansion’. Journal of African History
36(2):173-195.
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11. State formation and economic specialization
Having seen a range of different sites in Uganda, particularly relating to the last millennium, it is
important to consider an overview of the processes of transformation which ultimately led to the
states encountered by Europeans in the 19th century. From around AD 800 there are a series of
economic specializations that develop across the region exploiting increasingly more marginal
locations. Bananas, cattle, iron and salt are all key elements which contribute to the regional
economy. These have varying signatures in the archaeological record that can in some cases be
traced. This view encourages the idea that despite the diversity the region developed essentially as
a single unit with polities feeding off one another and borrowing symbolic items and beliefs so as
to retain their comparable status.
Ashley C. and A. Reid 2008. A reconsideration of the figures from Luzira. Azania 43: 95-123.
Hanson H. 2009. Mapping conflict: heterarchy and accountability in the ancient capital of
Buganda. Journal of African History 50: 179-202.
Kodesh N. 2008. Networks of knowledge: Clanship and collective well-being in Buganda.
Journal of African History 49: 197-216.
Lanning E.C. 1953. Ancient earthworks in western Uganda. Uganda Journal 17: 51-62.
Lanning E.C. 1955. The Munsa Earthworks. Uganda Journal 19: 171-182
Lanning E.C. 1957. The cairns of Koki, Buganda. Uganda Journal 21: 176-183.
Lanning E.C. 1970. Ntusi: an ancient capital site in western Uganda. Azania 5: 39-55.
Posnansky M., 1969. Bigo bya Mugenyi. Uganda Journal 33: 125-150.
Reid A. 1994/5. Early settlement and social organisation in the Interlacustrine region. Azania
29/30: 303-313.
Reid A. 1996. Ntusi and the development of social complexity in southern Uganda. In Aspects of
African Archaeology, Papers from the 10th Congress of the PanAfrican Association for Prehistory
and Related Studies (eds. G. Pwiti and R. Soper):621-628. Harare:University of Zimbabwe Press.
Reid A. 1997. Lacustrine States. In Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa (ed. J.O. Vogel): 501-507.
Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.
Reid A. 2013. The emergence of states in Great Lakes Africa. In P. Mitchell and P. Lane (eds)
Handbook of African Archaeology: 883-95.
Robertshaw P.T. 1994. Archaeological survey, ceramic analysis and state formation in western
Uganda. African Archaeological Review 12: 105-131.
Robertshaw P.T. 1997. Munsa earthworks: a preliminary report on recent excavations. Azania 32:
1-20.
Robertshaw P.T., 1999. “Seeking and keeping power in Bunyoro-Kitara, Uganda”, in Beyond
Chiefdoms: Pathways to Complexity in Africa, edited by S.K. McIntosh, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Robertshaw P.T. 1999. Women, labour and state formation in western Uganda. In E. Bacus and
L. Lucero (eds.) Complex Polities in the Ancient Tropical World: 51-65. Archaeological Papers of
the American Anthropological Association 9.
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Robertshaw P.T. 2010. Beyond the segmentary state: creative and instrumental power in western
Uganda. Journal of World Prehistory 23: 255-69.
Robertshaw P.T., E.R. Kamuhangire, A. Reid, R. Young, S.T. Childs and N. Pearson. 1997.
Archaeological research in Bunyoro-Kitara: preliminary results. Nyame Akuma 48: 70-77.
Robertshaw P.T. and D. Taylor 2000. Climate change and the rise of political complexity in
western Uganda. Journal of African History 41: 1-28.
Schmidt P.R. and J. Walz 2007. Re-representing African pasts through historical archaeology.
American Antiquity 72: 53-70.
Schoenbrun D.L. A Green Place, A Good Place. Agrarian Change, Gender, and Social Identity in
the Great Lakes Region to the 15th Century, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann and Oxford: James
Currey, 1998.
Schoenbrun D.L. 1999. The (in)visible roots of Bunyoro-Kitara and Buganda in the lakes region:
AD 800-1300. In Beyond Chiefdoms: Pathways to Complexity in Africa, edited by S.K. McIntosh,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schoenbrun D.L. 2013. A mask of calm: emotion and founding the kingdom of Bunyoro in the
sixteenth century. Comparative Studies in Society and History 55: 634-64.
Shinnie P.L. 1960. Excavations at Bigo, 1957. Uganda Journal 24: 16-28.
Sutton J.E.G. 1985. Ntusi and the Dams. Azania 20: 172-175.
Sutton J.E.G. 1993. The antecedents of the Interlacustrine kingdoms. Journal of African History
34: 33-64.
Sutton J.E.G. 1998. Farmers, cattle herders and rulers in western Uganda, AD 1000 – 1500. Azania
33: 39-72.
Turyahikayo-Rugyema B. 1976. Markets in Precolonial East Africa: the case of the Bakiga.
Current Anthropology 17: 286-290.
12. Resource selection, minerals exploitation and mining
Resources and minerals have long been identified and made use of in the African past. We can
make inferences about likely hominid resource utilization through identifying the kinds of animal
protein that are likely to be present in savanna environments. In more recent times selection of
clays has been important for ceramics. In Uganda, kaolinite has seen widespread use and a
number of locations have been identified where the mineral was mined. Methods of extraction
were in places similar to that seen for iron ore. Finally Uganda has a number of locations at which
salt was being produced.
Connah G.E. 1991. The salt of Bunyoro: seeking the origins of an African kingdom. Antiquity 65:
479-94.
Connah G.E. 1996. Kibiro: the salt of Bunyoro, past and present. London: BIEA
Connah G.E, 1997. The cultural and chronological context of Kibiro, Uganda. African
Archaeological Review 14: 25-67.
Connah G.E, E. Kamuhangire and A. Piper 1990. Salt Production at Kibiro. Azania 25: 27-39.
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Lanning E.C. 1954. Notes on certain shafts in Buganda and Toro. Uganda Journal 18: 187-190.
Lanning E.C. 1956. Shafts in Buganda and Toro. Uganda Journal 20: 216-7.
Lanning E.C. 1958. Shafts in Buganda and Toro. Uganda Journal 22: 188-9.
Lanning E.C. 1962. Caves and rock shelters of western Uganda. Uganda Journal 26: 183-193.
Lanning E.C. 1979. Cylindrical pits in Uganda. Azania 14: 143-147.
Lejju J.B., P. Robertshaw and D. Taylor 2003. Vegetation history and archaeology at Munsa,
western Uganda. Azania 38: 155-165.
Nelson C.M. and M. Posnansky 1970. The stone tools from the re-excavation of Nsongezi rock
shelter. Azania 5: 119-172.
Merrick H.V. and F.H. Brown. 1984. Obsidian sources and patterns of source utilisation in Kenya
and northern Tanzania. African Archaeological Review 2:129-152.
13. The past and the future (discussion with Dismas Ongwen)
It is all very well identifying problems in the archaeology of Uganda from the past or in its
management and conservation in the present, but what should its future be. In the context of a
developing country with basic services still in need of creation in a sustainable form, how can
archaeology be justified. On the other hand, what are the consequences if archaeology continues
to be marginalized.
Andah B. 1995. Studying African societies in cultural context. In P.R. Schmidt and T.C.
Patterson (eds.) Making Alternative Histories: 149-181. Santa Fe: School of American Research
Press.
Ellison J., P.T. Robertshaw, D. Gifford-Gonzalez, R.J. MacIntosh, A.B. Stahl, C.R. DeCorse, L.H.
Robbins, S. Kent, A. Nagaba-Waye, M. Sahnouni and A.K. Segobye 1996. The future of African
Archaeology. African Archaeological Review 13:5-34.
Hassan F. A. 1999. African Archaeology: the call of the future. African Affairs 98: 393-406.
Holl A.F.C. 1995. African history: past, present and future. The unending quest for alternatives.
In P.R. Schmidt and T.C. Patterson (eds.) Making Alternative Histories: The Practice of
Archaeology and History in Non-Western Settings: 183-211. Santa Fe: School of American
Research Press.
Mapunda B. and P.J. Lane 2004. Archaeology for whose interest – archaeologists or the locals. In
N. Merriman (ed) Public Archaeology: 211-223. London: Routledge.
Parker Pearson M. and Ramilisonina 2004. Public archaeology and indigenous communities. In
N. Merriman (ed.) Public Archaeology: 224-239. London: Routledge.
Posnansky M. 1982. African archaeology comes of age. World Archaeology 13(3): 345-358.
Reid A. 2014. Commentary: some reflections on ethical developments in African Archaeology.
Azania 49: 255-60.
Shaw T. 1989. African archaeology: looking back and looking forward. African Archaeological
Review 7:3-31.
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14. Religion
Archaeology is notorious for the problem it has in dealing with religion, other than established
world religions. Precolonial religion in Uganda was clearly very important with numerous shrines
devoted to spirits and ancestors. Manifestations of these religious practices are still evident at
places like Kasubi and Mubende hill today. They are also echoed in the new “traditional”
religions growing up at places like Bigo bya Mugenyi or Tanda. These modern manifestations
make it difficult to establish exactly what was taking place in the past. Equally, religious
experience seems to have differed little in practical detail, and indeed religion could be said to be
present in all aspects of life rather than separated and distinct.
Insoll T. 1997. Ngandu and Ngambezi. Azania 32: 109-112
Kigongo R. and A. Reid 2007. Local communities, politics and the management of the Kasubi
tombs. World Archaeology 39: 371-384.
Lanning E.C. 1954. Masaka Hill – an ancient centre of worship. Uganda Journal 18: 24-30.
Lanning E.C. 1966. Excavation at Mubende Hill. Uganda Journal 30: 153-163.
Oliver R. 1959. The royal tombs of Buganda. Uganda Journal 23: 124-33.
Robertshaw P.T., “Seeking and keeping power in Bunyoro-Kitara, Uganda”, in Beyond
Chiefdoms: Pathways to Complexity in Africa, edited by S.K. McIntosh, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1999.
15. The lake and its impact on the past
All too often Lake Victoria has been considered to be a barrier to cultural activity and contact,
largely because it was marginalized in the colonial world. Recent research has however
demonstrated that it is far more likely that the lake facilitated contact and exchange far more than
its forested shores could have done. Indeed these activities may well have been crucial to regional
transformations of societies. Palaeoenvironmental data further demonstrate how important the
lake has been in the more distant past radically transforming the regional landscape.
Ashley C. and A. Reid 2008. A reconsideration of the figures from Luzira. Azania 43: 95-123.
Brachi R.M. 1960. Excavation of a rock shelter at Hippo Bay, Entebbe. Uganda Journal 24: 6271.
Hassan F.A. 1981. Historical Nile floods and their implications for climatic change. Science 212:
1142-1145.
Hoppe K.A. 1997. Lords of the Fly: colonial visions and revisions of African Sleeping Sickness
environments on Ugandan Lake Victoria, 1906-61. Africa 67: 86-105.
Kendall R.C. 1969. An ecological history of the lake Victoria basin. Ecological Monographs 38:
121-176.
Kenny M.G. 1977. The powers of Lake Victoria. Anthropos 72: 717-733.
Kenny M.G. 1978 Pre-colonial trade in Eastern Lake Victoria. Azania 14: 97-107.
Kenny M.G. 1982. The stranger from the lake: a theme in the history of the Lake Victoria
shorelands. Azania 17: 1-26.
Marshall K. 1954. The prehistory of the Entebbe peninsula. Uganda Journal 18: 44-57.
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Nicholson S.E. 1998. Historical fluctuations of Lake Victoria and other lakes in the northern rift
valley of east Africa. In J.T. Lehman (ed.) Environmental change and response in East African
Lakes: 7-35. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Posnansky M., A. Reid and C. Ashley 2005. Archaeology on Lolui Island, Uganda 1964-5. Azania
40: 73-100.
Reid A. and C. Ashley 2014. Islands of Agriculture on Lake Victoria. In C.J. Stevens, S. Nixon,
M.A. Murray and D.Q. Fuller (eds) Archaeology of African Plant Use: 179-188. Walnut Creek:
West Coast Press.
Russell J.M, D. Verschuren and H. Eggermont 2007. Spatial complexity of “Little Ice Age”
climate in East Africa: sedimentary records from two crater lake basins in western Uganda. The
Holocene 17: 183-93.
Stager J.C., P.A. Mayewski and L. D. Meeker 2002. Cooling cycles, Heinrich event 1 and the
dessication of Lake Victoria. Paleogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 183: 169-178.
Ssemmanda I., D.B. Ryves, O. Bennike and P.G. Appleby 2005. Vegetation history in western
Uganda during the last 1200 years: a sediment based reconstruction from two crater lakes. The
Holocene 15: 119-32.
16. Art in precolonial Uganda
Precolonial art in Uganda has not received much coverage, but rather can be seen as a number of
lost opportunities. Its rock painting traditions, manifest at Nyero and Lolui are small in number
and extremely vague in their likely meaning. There is neither the volume nor the quality to
warrant much attention. Equally rock engravings, other than the emyeso boards, are extremely
vague and seem to be associated with herding. Two other elements have passed largely unnoticed.
The first is the Luzira head, or more correctly the Luzira figures. The second is the Entebbe
figurine. Both were the result of construction work and not formal excavation and both fail to be
considered in regional conspectuses of artistic traditions. Yet both can now be seen as being
related to the lake based transformations that took place from AD 800 onwards and may relate to
new forms of political power.
Ashley C. and A. Reid 2008. A reconsideration of the figures from Luzira. Azania 43: 95-123.
Chaplin J.H. 1974. The prehistoric rock art of the Lake Victoria region. Azania 9: 1-50.
Chaplin J.H. and M. MacFarlane 1967. The Moniko Petroglyphs. Uganda Journal 31: 207-9.
Lanning E.C. 1956. Rock cut Mweso boards. Uganda Journal 20: 97-98.
Lugira A.M. 1970. Ganda Art. Kampala: Obasa.
Namono C. 2011. Pongo symbolism in the geometric rock art of Uganda. Antiquity 85: 1209-1224.
Namono C. 2012. Dumbbells and circles: symbolism of pygmy rock art of Uganda. Journal of
Social Archaeology 12: 404-25.
Posnansky M. 1995. Luzira Head. In T. Phillips (ed.) Africa: the Art of a Continent: 140.
London: Royal Academy of Arts.
Posnansky M. and J.H. Chaplin 1968. Terracotta figures from Entebbe, Uganda. Man (ns) 3: 644650.
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Posnansky M. and C.M. Nelson 1968. Rock paintings and excavations at Nyero, Uganda. Azania
3: 147-166.
Reid A. and C. Ashley 2008. A context for the Luzira Head. Antiquity 82: 99-112.
Robbins L.H. 1982. Bao games from northern Kenya and Uganda. Azania 17: 163-5.
Sassoon H. 1983. Kings, cattle and blacksmiths: royal insignia and religious symbolism in the
Interlacustrine states. Azania 18: 93-106.
Townshend P. 1979. African Mankala in anthropological perspective. Current Anthropology 20:
794-796
Wayland E.J., M.C. Burkitt and H.J. Braunholtz 1933. Archaeological discoveries at Luzira. Man
33: 29-47.
Libraries and other resources
In addition to the Library of the Institute of Archaeology, other libraries in UCL with holdings of
particular relevance to this degree are the Geography and Anthropology sections of the Science
Library. SOAS also has an outstanding African collection
Dyslexia
If you have dyslexia or any other disability, please make your lecturer aware of this. Please
discuss with your lecturers whether there is any way in which they can help you. Students with
dyslexia are reminded to indicate this on each piece of coursework.
Health and safety
The Institute has a Health and Safety policy and code of practice which provides guidance on
fieldwork. This is revised annually and the new edition will be issued in due course. All work
undertaken by the Institute is governed by these guidelines and students have a duty to be aware of
them and to adhere to them at all times. This is particularly important in the context of the visit to
Uganda which will be undertaken as part of this course. There are plenty of potential health and
safety problems which have been identified in the Risk Assessment for this course. Whilst we
make every effort to ensure your health and safety, students must take the initiative in reporting
any health issues or other problems that they may be suffering from so that we can ensure
appropriate and swift attention to the problem
INSTITUTE OF ARCHAELOGY COURSEWORK PROCEDURES
General policies and procedures concerning courses and coursework, including submission
procedures, assessment criteria, and general resources, are available in your Degree Handbook and
on the following website: http://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/archadmin. It is essential that you read and
comply with these. Note that some of the policies and procedures will be different depending on
your status (e.g. undergraduate, postgraduate taught, affiliate, graduate diploma, intercollegiate,
interdepartmental). If in doubt, please consult your course co-ordinator.
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Assessment
Course assessment will consist of two essays, each 2375-2625 words in length.
Essay 1 (due Friday 6th March)
Choosing one site from Uganda, discuss the academic debates and issues that have occurred as the
result of investigations at this site and suggest future research initiatives at the site and what these
initiatives might achieve.
Essay 2 (due Monday 27th April)
Choose one of the following options:
1. What are the principal factors which shaped the development of archaeology and of
archaeological research in Uganda?
2. Can observations of contemporary animal behavior and natural environments, such as those
you have seen in Uganda, help our understanding of the subsistence strategies likely to have been
practiced at Early Stone Age sites?
3. Why has the study of the “Stone Age” in Uganda concentrated so heavily on stone tool
typologies? What other directions could profitably be followed?
4. What has preoccupied the study of archaeological ceramics in the Great Lakes region and do
you think there are other ways these ceramics could be explored?
5. Critically assess the work in Uganda of one of the following pioneers of Uganda’s archaeology
and how they influenced the development of the discipline: E.J. Wayland; E.C. Lanning; Merrick
Posnansky.
6. What have studies of iron smelting in the Great Lakes (past and present) revealed about the
organization of iron production systems?
7. What were the principal factors that led to the emergence of states in the Great Lakes region?
8. What is the place of museums in Uganda and how could this be improved in the future?
9. Evaluate the means which have been used to reconstruct past environmental conditions in
Uganda and suggest which hold the best potential for future development.
10. What evidence is there for precolonial religious practice in Uganda and how were these
practices related to social formations?
11. Compare and contrast the evidence for the extraction of minerals such as salt, iron ore and
kaolinite. What was the significance of such activities to broader society?
12. Critically assess current understanding of EITHER rock art OR the Luzira and related figures
and suggest future priorities for investigation.
13. How has Lake Victoria impacted the archaeology of the surrounding region?
14. Choosing one cultivated plant, discuss the evidence for its presence in precolonial Great Lakes
Africa and suggest future directions of archaeological investigations into its use.
15. What is the future for archaeology in Uganda?
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