Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
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July - September 2010
The tiger, leopard and Asiatic lion survived.
Despite British efforts to wipe them out in the
wild, the first two were shy creatures who hid
in the mountains and deep jungles where they
could not be found and where time was running
out for the British efforts to convert forests into
more tea estates. The Asiatic lions survived in
the Gir forest alone because the Nawab of
Junaghad chose to protect them, permitting only
his special guests to kill a lion or two. As a result,
the animal is confined to a small pocket in
Gujarat.
How far does one go to protect
biodiversity? There are 1411 tigers
(minus a few more killed between the
writing and printing of this editorial), 350
Asiatic Lions and 27, 000 elephants. All of them
are threatened as people move into forests,
cutting trees and converting the land for
agriculture, pasture or construction. The larger
mammals are seen and missed. Smaller species
- known and unknown - are forgotten. Once upon
a time, entire clans and communities (e.g.
Maurya, More), and villages (Nemili, Morvi,
Mylapore) were named after the peacock, India’s
National Bird, but as it is hunted for its feathers
and flesh, its numbers are shrinking.
Instead of importing dead species, let us try and
protect our existing wild cats – the tiger, leopard,
Asiatic lion and Snow leopard. When we are
not able to protect the tiger, how are we going to
protect the cheetah? We will stand by and lament
when the animal is killed or stoned to death by
villagers?
I have spent a lot of time in forests and
sanctuaries. Yet, this summer was the first time
I saw a moulding peacock shed a feather
naturally in the forest. If anybody in the peacock
feather business says they all fell down
naturally, it is a lie.
Similarly, if we want the Asiatic Lion to survive,
we have to find a second and third home for it,
if necessary elsewhere in Gujarat itself, if the
state will not let it move out. One outbreak of
foot-and-mouth disease can wipe out this wild
cat forever.
In the midst of shrinking habitats and
disappearing wildlife, there is a proposal to
reintroduce the cheetah, to homogenize the
African variety into an Indian species that once
roamed the forest and plains of Northern India,
home of the Blackbuck and Nilgai which were
hunted by the beautiful cats.
The elephant needs large spaces to live in and
migrate to. But its habitat is shrinking as homes,
agriculture and tea estates encroach into forest
lands with the active connivence of vote - vote
seeking politicians and obliging bureaucrats. Will
the animal see the next century?
The medieval period, ruled by Sultans and
Moguls, was the beginning of the end for the
cheetahs which were hunted to near extinction.
A few survived. The rapacious British offered a
bounty of Rs.25/- per cheetah killed and the
equally rapacious Indians took the money to
wipe out the animal. Their object achieved, the
vast plains of north India – forests and scrub
jungle - were converted by the British into
agricultural land which could be taxed for greater
revenue. The old hunting fields of the cheetah
exist no more: they now grow rice, wheat and
other commercial plant species. Will our farmers
reverse this use of the cheetah’s land?
Protecting wildlife is easier said than done.
Education is the only answer, supported by
sensible relocation and protected areas. Let the
readmission of the cheetah into India not make
us vulnerable to more criticism of our poor record
in wildlife protection.
Nanditha Krishna
Editor
Contents
Should the Cheetah return to India?...........................................................................................................3
The Peacock – Our National Bird .........................................................................................................5
India’s Pride – the Tiger – on the Verge of Extinction..............................................................................8
Our Vanishing Birdlife.........................................................................................................................11
Shola Grasslands – A Fragile Ecosystem.....................................................................................................14
Endangered Medicinal Plants of India.................................................................................................16
Rare, Endangered and Threatened (RET) Plants in the Sacred Groves of Tamil Nadu..............................18
Some Endangered Plants of India........................................................................................................20
Endangered Wildlife : Enriching the Local Curriculum........................................................................23
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
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July - September 2010
Should the Cheetah return to India?
T. Sundaramoorthy
include some cover in the form of bushes,
medium length grasses and small hills.
Cheetahs are social animals and live singly
or in small groups. They like to live in
tropical and warm places like Africa and
some parts of Asia.
Cheetahs are more active during the day
than at night, as they rely on sight for
hunting. The cheetah preys on a variety of
species, from small rabbits to large
antelopes, etc. Its hunting technique is to
stalk the prey as close as possible, burst
into full speed, tripe the prey with the front
paw, and bite it in the throat in a
strangulation hold.
The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus
vernaticus) that once roamed the
grasslands of Central and Western India
is no longer found in our country. The main
reason for the disappearance of this big
cat is hunting by the Maharajas of old. In
many parts of Northern India, the cheetah
disappeared in the beginning of the
twentieth century. The last Asiatic cheetah
was probably shot by the Maharaja of
Surguja in 1947 in Madhya Pradesh. The
last so-called sighting of the cheetah was
in 1967, but later it was declared as an
extinct animal in India. The Asiatic cheetah
is presently found only in Iran and the
population is also very low, about 70 only.
The population of the cheetah in Asia and
Africa is approximately 10,000. The largest
population of wild cheetah is found in
Namibia, where too it is dwindling at a
fast pace. The Indian government tried to
get a few Iranian cheetahs for
reintroduction in the wild; however it failed
due to the non-co-operation of the Iranian
government which had wanted wild Asiatic
lions from India.
The Government of India recently
announced that about 18 African cheetah
(Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) would be
brought to India and reintroduced in three
grasslands in Northern India. The
assessment for the reintroduction of the
cheetah in India was carried out by the
Wildlife Institute of India and the Wildlife
Trust of India. The study was carried out
in ten places, covering seven different
landscapes found in Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and
Chattisgarh. It recommended the
reintroduction of the cheetah into three
protected areas, namely Kuno-Palpur
wildlife sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (6,800
sq.kms.), Shahgarh landscape in
Jaisalmer, Rajasthan (about 4000
sq.kms.) and Nauradehi Wildlife
Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (1,197
sq.kms.). The total extent of the three
reserves is about 12,000 sq.kms. The
scientists estimate that the cheetah
population will grow to 60 from 18 within
20 years. According to the report, the
The cheetah is mostly found in grasslands,
desert plains, savannah and tropical
rainforests. It prefers habitats which
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
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July - September 2010
Idaho during 1995-96; the survival rate
was evaluated during 2005, and in both
areas, the population growth is good and
also increased the biodiversity. Wolves also
controlled the prey population in the
protected areas.
reintroduction of the cheetah would
improve the quality of our grassland
habitats and also the tourism prospects of
the country.
The proposal for the reintroduction of the
cheetah to Indian protected areas has
fueled
several
questions
from
conservationists. In India, the large
carnivore, the tiger is facing a lot of
hardships despite heavy protection. The
reintroduction of the cheetah certainly
would improve the quality of grasslands,
but the question is the protection of the
animal from poachers. The estimation of
the prey base for the cheetah may vary due
to the impact of climate change. Another
problem may be the doubtful co-operation
of the local population who are going to be
relocated from the protected areas.
Scandinavian Wolves
Reintroduction of Scansdinavian wolves
was reported from European countries
during the 1990s. In all the cases, the
success rate is quite good.
Conclusion
Case studies - Reintroduction of animals
The reintroduction of various species will
help in the conservation of endangered
species. This is possible in the case of small
carnivores such as wolves etc. The case of
the reintroduction of the cheetah is highly
challenging. The information on the
education and awareness programmes
during such relocation or reintroduction
is scanty in many cases. In our country,
the role of such components is very
essential before and after reintroduction
programmes.
Mexican Grey Wolves
References
In 1980, critically endangered Mexican
Grey Wolves were introduced to the
Apache-Sitgreves national forest of
Arizona, United States. The population is
self sustaining and the survival rate is
good. The same species was reintroduced
to Yellowstone National Park and Central
1. Website - Cheetah.org
Relocation of carnivores is totally
dependent on the habitat viability,
environmental stability and awareness
among the people of the importance of the
animal in the ecosystem.
2. Ranjitsingh, M.K and Jhala, Y.V. (2010).
Assessing the potential for reintroducing the
Cheetah in India, Wildlife Trust of India,
Noida & Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun.
Eco News is printed and published by Dr. Nanditha Krishna on behalf of
C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre
at The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation, 1, Eldams Road, Alwarpet, Chennai - 600 018.
Editor : Dr. Nanditha Krishna
Production : M. Amirthalingam
Where the details about the writer(s) are not given, it means that he/she works in CPREEC
The views expressed by the writers do not necessarily reflect the views of the
C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
4
July - September 2010
The Peacock – Our National Bird
R. Sabesh
Introduction
Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) are large
and brightly coloured pheasants native
to South Asia and generally found in
dry forests in small groups. The male
Indian peafowl, commonly known as the
peacock, is one of the most beautiful
and recognizable birds in the world.
They are large and brightly coloured,
with a distinctive crest and an
ornamental train. The train (around 1.5
meters long) accounts for more than
60% of their total body length.
Combined with a large wingspan, this
makes the peacock one of the largest
flying birds in the world. The train is
formed by 100 to 150 highly specialized
upper tail-coverts. Each of these
feathers sports an ornamental ocellus
or eye-spot and has long disintegrated
barbs, giving the feathers a loose, fluffy
look. The female lacks the train, with a
greenish lower neck and dull brown
plumage.
areas. Usually they move in small
groups and try to escape on foot
through the undergrowth.
At present, the population of peacocks
is dwindling at an alarming rate due to
illegal poaching and habitat
destruction.
Peacock population in India and
conservation efforts
The peafowl is prominent in the
mythology and folklore of India. The
Hindus consider the bird to be sacred
because it is the vahana of Lord
Karthikeya.
The peacock is widely distributed in the
Indian sub-continent, from the south
and east of the Indus River, Jammu and
Kashmir, east Assam, south Mizoram
and the whole of the Indian peninsula.
Ornithologists believe that the
population of peacocks is more than
100,000.
WWF
and
other
environmental groups estimate that the
population has gone down by almost
50 percent when compared to the
population at the time of independence.
Peafowl are found mainly on the
ground, in open forest or near cultivated
areas where they forage on berries and
grains; they also prey on snakes,
lizards, and small rodents. Their loud
calls make them easy to detect in forest
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
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July - September 2010
However, it is difficult to determine how
many peacocks have been lost over the
years because of the non-availability of
data as a nation wide census of the bird
has not been done. While the young
ones are mainly trapped for flesh, male
peacocks are killed for their feathers.
Previously, the law permitted the
collection of shed feathers, but once the
feathers have been used in crafts it is
difficult to say whether they are shed
or harvested ones. Export, import and
internal trade of the peacock has been
banned under the Wildlife Protection
Act. Only shed feathers are allowed to
be used for the small scale industry.
Another problem in detecting violators
is that most peacocks are killed outside
protected areas, hence several poaching
cases go unnoticed or unreported.
In captivity, peacocks have been known
to live for an average of 23 years, but it
is estimated that they live for only about
15 years in the wild. Poaching of
peacocks for their meat and feathers,
and accidental poisoning by pesticide treated seeds are major threats to our
national bird.
Some facts
❖ Peacocks are omnivores, eating plant
parts, flower petals, seed heads, insects
and other arthropods, reptiles and
amphibians.
❖ The Peacock is the National Bird of
India.
❖ Peacocks are polygamous by nature.
In the wild, male peacocks generally
mate with 2 to 5 females.
A cause for concern is that most of the
peacocks, according to wildlife experts,
are killed during the mating season.
Wildlife experts opine that it is easy to
kill a male peacock during the mating
season, when it dances in an open area
and can be easily targeted. We can well
imagine how threatened the peacock
species would be when the male birds
are killed just before mating. It is also
easier to hunt peacocks because they
roost in the same tree every night.
❖ Only the male has a colourful train.
❖ The main use of the beautiful train
(tail) of the peacock is to attract the
attention of the peahen and persuade
her to mate with him.
❖ The train of a peacock makes up more
than 60 percent of its total length.
❖ It is believed that a peahen chooses
its mate according to the size, colour,
and quality of the train.
❖ Keeping in mind the combined length
of a peacock’s train and its large
wingspan, it is one of the largest flying
birds.
It is shocking that some of the hunters
do not want the feathers to be smeared
with blood; hence they first trap the
bird, break its legs, harvest its tail
feathers and then kill it.
Adult peacocks living near human
habitations are sometimes hunted by
domestic dogs or by humans for folk
remedies involving the use of “peacock
oil”.
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
❖ Every portion of a peacock’s train
changes colour when it is struck by
different angles of light.
❖ The chick can walk, eat and drink on
its own, even when it is hardly a day
old.
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July - September 2010
❖ Peafowl fly into trees to protect
themselves from predators as well as
to rest from holding their trains off the
ground.
naturally shed. Following the
amendment, section 43(3)(a) and
section 44 will no longer exempt those
possessing a certificate of ownership for
peacocks from transferring or selling
the tail feather and articles or trophies
made from them. Let us hope that the
proposed amendment will prevent the
illegal trapping and killing of the
national bird for its beautiful tail
feathers.
❖ A family of peafowl is called a bevy,
while a group of peafowl is known as a
party.
❖ At night, peafowl prefer to roost in
trees or other high places.
Conclusion
References
In 1963, the peacock was declared as
the National Bird of India. As per one
survey, we had already lost more than
half of the peacock population. It is a
warning alarm. Recently, Union
Environment Minister Shri. Jairam
Ramesh announced a proposal to ban
the trade of peacock feathers to protect
the national bird from illegal poaching
and killing. The Environment and
Forests Minister said that this was in
response to numerous requests from
various stakeholders. The Ministry of
Environment and Forests is under the
process of banning trade in peacock
feathers. It has been brought to the
Ministry’s attention that the demand for
the tail feathers is more than the
supply, thus leading to the rampant
poaching and killing of the birds for the
purpose of obtaining their feathers.
Hence the Ministry proposes to amend
Sections 43(3)(a) and 44 of the Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972 which deals with
the transfer and sale of the tail feathers
of peacocks. Currently, the Act
prohibits the killing of peacocks as well
as the export of tail feathers or articles
made from them. But, the Act allows
domestic trade in feathers or articles
under the assumption that these are
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
1. Yasmin, Shahla and H.S.A. Yahya,
2000, “Group size and vigilance in
Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus (Linn.),
Family: Phasianidae”, J. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 97 (3): 425–428.
2. Ali, S. and S.D.Ripley, 1980,
Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan, 2 (2 ed.), Oxford University
Press, pp. 123–126
3. Johnsingh, A.J.T. and S.Murali,
1978, “The ecology and behaviour of the
Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus Linn. ) of
Injar”, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 75 (4):
1069–1079.
4. Takahashi, M., Arita, H., HiraiwaHasegawa, M. and T. Hasegawa, 2008,
“Peahens do not prefer peacocks with
more elaborate trains”, Animal
Behaviour, 75 (4): 1209–1219.
5. Stokes, A.W. and H.Warrington
Williams, 1971, “Courtship Feeding in
Gallinaceous Birds”, The Auk, Vol. 88
(3): 543–559.
6. Vyas, R., 1994, “Unusual breeding
site of Indian peafowl”, Newsletter for
Birdwatchers, Vol. 34 (6): 139.
7. Johnsingh, A.J.T., 1976, “Peacocks
and cobra”. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,
73 (1): 214.
7
July - September 2010
India’s Pride – the Tiger – on the Verge of
Extinction......
Shashikala Iyer
The tiger, the national animal of India is
among the most recognizable and popular
of the world’s charismatic mega fauna.
Unfortunately, the population of the tiger
is dwindling fast due to many factors such
as hunting, poaching and habitat
destruction, thereby classifying it as an
endangered species as per the IUCN red
list. According to the National Tiger
Conservation Authority of India, the total
population of tigers in the country is 1,411.
The tiger population of India is classified
into four zones: Shivali-Gangetic plain (297
tigers), Central India and Eastern Ghats
(601 tigers), Western Ghats (402 tigers) and
North Eastern regions and Brahmaputra
plains (100 tigers).
2. The Indochinese tiger (Panthera tigris
corbetti) otherwise known as Corbett’s tiger,
is found in Cambodia, China, Laos, Burma,
Thailand, and Vietnam.
3. The Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris
jacksoni) is found exclusively in the
southern part of the Malay Peninsula.
The tiger is an apex predator, an obligate
carnivore and solitary in habitat. Tigers
have a lifespan of 10–15 years in the wild,
but can live longer than 20 years in
captivity. There are nine subspecies of tiger
reported around the world, of which three
are already extinct. The remaining six are
classified as endangered and some are in
the critically endangered category.
Presently, the Bengal Tiger is the only
subspecies of tiger found in the forests of
India. The following are the surviving
subspecies of tiger around the world:
4. The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris
sumatrae) is found only in the Indonesian
island of Sumatra, and is a critically
endangered species. It is the smallest of
all living tiger subspecies.
5. The Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris
altaica) is also known as the Amur,
Manchurian, Altaic, Korean or North China
tiger, which is the largest subspecies of
Panthera. It is confined to the Amur-Ussuri
region in far Eastern Siberia, where it is
now protected.
1. The Bengal Tiger or the Royal Bengal
tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is the most
common subspecies and is found primarily
in India and Bangladesh. It lives in varied
habitats such as grasslands, subtropical
and tropical rainforests, scrub forests, wet
and dry deciduous forests, and mangroves.
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
6. The South China Tiger (Panthera tigris
amoyensis), also known as the Amoy or
Xiamen tiger, is the most critically
endangered subspecies of tiger. It is also
listed as one of the 10 most endangered
animals in the world.
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July - September 2010
There are three subspecies of tigers which
are already extinct. The Bali Tiger
(Panthera tigris balica), became extinct due
to rigorous hunting; the Javan Tiger
(Panthera tigris sondaica) became extinct
in the 1980s because of habitat
destruction and hunting; and the Caspian
Tiger (Panthera tigris virgata), also known
as the Persian tiger or Turanian tiger,
became extinct in the late 1950s due to
excessive hunting.
including China, the largest market for
tiger products. Some other countries like
Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam,
Hong Kong, United States and Great
Britain are also involved in the illegal tiger
trade. Tibet has the highest demand for
tiger skin, while bones are in demand in
the Eastern provinces. In China, Thailand
and some other countries, tiger farms are
legal, although there is a domestic trade
ban on tiger products (1993). China has
nearly 12 tiger farms, breeding more than
6,500 tigers. These farms breed tigers in
very unhygienic conditions and sell tigers
to illegal traders.
In ancient times, the tiger was worshipped
as a deity in many parts of the world. In
India, this practice continues even now.
Historically, tigers have existed from
Mesopotamia and the Caucasus
throughout most of South and East Asia.
During the 19th century, tigers completely
vanished from Western Asia and became
restricted to isolated pockets in the
remaining parts of their habitat.
Reasons for the Tiger’s extinction
Hunting
During the 19th and 20th centuries, tigers
were hunted by Maharajas and Britishers
as a sport. Hunting the tiger became a
status symbol for landlords and zamindars
in India and other countries.
Even though all surviving species are
under formal protection, poaching, habitat
destruction and inbreeding continue to
threaten the tigers. The demand for tiger
skin and various parts of the tiger has
increased. Tiger bones and other parts are
used in traditional Chinese medicine to
treat arthritis, male vitality, increased
intelligence, pain, various infections and
rheumatism, and the skin is used as
clothing for certain ceremonies and even
as decorative objects such as rugs and wall
hangings. According to Chinese myth, the
tiger’s skull prevents nightmares and
hanging the skull on the door wards off
evil. The meat, penis and other parts are
used to prepare exotic dishes in Chinese
restaurants. Further selling of the parts
and products of tigers will accelerate the
steep decline of Asia’s remaining wild tiger
population.
In the mid-20 th century, the Chinese
started using tiger parts in their medicines
and tiger skin as clothing. In China, even
now, they are hunted and imported from
other countries (such as India) for their
skin and bone parts which are used for
preparing medicines, wines and food
delicacies. Trade in tiger skin continues,
but demand for tiger bones, used in
traditional Chinese medicine and as an
ingredient in tonics, is clearly the driving
force behind increased poaching since the
late 1980s.
Habitat destruction
Due
to
increasing
population,
developmental
activities
and
modernization, forests are turning into
concrete jungles. Man started invading
animal territory. It has become difficult
The tiger trade is prohibited internationally
and is banned in many countries,
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
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July - September 2010
In India, under the Wildlife Protection Act
(1972), most recently amended in 2006,
the penalties faced by tiger skin traders
are three to seven years imprisonment and
a fine upto Rs.50,000.
for the tiger to survive in the changed
scenario.
Inbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression is reduced fitness
in a given population as a result of
inbreeding of related individuals. It is often
the outcome of a population bottleneck.
Further, it leads to gene mutation and
deleterious genes in offspring, making
them unfit for survival.
“Project Tiger”, “Tigers forever” and “Save
the Tiger” campaigns are some of the
species-specific projects undertaken by the
Government of India to save the dwindling
tiger population and to ensure a viable
population of tigers for scientific,
economic, aesthetic, cultural and
ecological purposes and to preserve areas
of biological importance as natural sites
for the benefit, education and enjoyment
of the people. There are 66 protected areas
in India of which 20 fall under the umbrella
of Project Tiger.
Lack of awareness
Lack of awareness is one of the major
reasons for the tiger’s extinction. Tigers
occupy the pinnacle of the food chain and
a healthy tiger population is an indicator
of the well-being of the whole forest.
Species at the top of the food chain are
generally larger and require more space
than other animals, particularly if they are
territorial. Conserving such species in the
wild protects the habitat of many other
animals as well as safeguards the essential
ecological processes such as the water and
nutrient cycle. Thus, the tiger acts as the
guardian of many other species. It becomes
our responsibility to save our national
animal from extinction, so that future
generations enjoy the benefits of our mega
biodiversity.
India is home to the world’s largest
population of tigers in the wild. According
to the World Wildlife Fund for Nature,
India, of the 3,500 tigers around the world,
over 1,411 are found in India alone. The
international studbook (1994) listed the
global captive population of Bengal tigers
at 333: of these, 289 have the typical
orange colouration and the remaining 44
are white colour morphic. According to the
recent survey by the Central Zoo Authority
of India, there are 358 captive tigers in
India, which include Bengal tigers,
Siberian tigers and white tigers. Only 11
percent of the original Indian tiger habitat
remains, and it is becoming significantly
fragmented and often degraded.
References
1. World Wildlife Fund for nature website
2. IUCN red list of threatened species
3. Nair, S.M., Endangered Animals of India
and their Conservation, National Book
Trust, India, 1992.
4. Sankhala, Kailash, The Story of Indian
Tiger, Lustre Press, Roli Books, 1997.
5. WPSI website (www.wpsi-india.org)
6. Environmental Investigation Agency
(www.Eia-international.org)
7. Singapore Reuters - (ABC news)
8. Central Zoo Authority of India
9. www.frontiernet.net
It was discovered in 2005 that the Sariska
Tiger Reserve had lost all its tigers to
poaching. Other reserves were also in very
bad shape due to poor wildlife protection,
ineffective enforcement and an easy
smuggling route via Nepal. This was a wake
up call for the nation, and the Government
of India started strict enforcement of laws,
and a species-specific conservation
program was initiated.
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
10
July - September 2010
Our Vanishing Birdlife
Lalitha Ramadurai
Most of us are slowly waking up to the
inconvenient truth that India is in the
midst of a grave environmental crisis. Our
cities top global pollution charts. Our
rivers, including the holy Ganga and
Yamuna flow as open drains and are
almost dead. Many wild species are
struggling hard for existence, among them
about 78 species of birds that are listed as
being threatened in the 2010 IUCNBirdlife’s Red List. (http://www.birdlife.
org/datazone/species/index.html)
only a small and fragmented population of
the florican survives in our country.
India is incredibly rich in birdlife. Over
1,200 of the world’s 8650 species of birds
are found in our country, besides the large
number of migratory species (Grewal, B.,
1993). This abundance is due to the variety
of habitats and climate. But, thanks to the
unplanned development of bird habitats,
indiscriminate hunting and over-use of
pesticides, many of these species are being
pushed to extinction.
Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti)
The bird is found in the forests of Central
India. It is a small, stocky bird with heavily
banded wings. The bird was earlier
recorded as ‘extinct’ (with only 7 dead
specimens collected in India from 1872 to
1884), until its rediscovery in 1997 by
Pamela Rasmussen, an American
ornithologist. Extensive surveys in recent
times have revealed that under 100 of
these birds live today across the deciduous
forests of the Satpura landscape. The
This article looks at ten of India’s highly
endangered avian species.
Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis
bengalensis)
The Bengal Florican belongs to the Bustard
Family and is one of its rarest members. It
is mostly black in colour with white wings.
The species has two disjunct populations,
one in the Indian subcontinent and the
other in South-east Asia. In India, the bird
occurs in Uttar Pradesh, Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh. The florican is a
ground-nesting bird, and usually inhabits
moist grasslands interspersed with scrub
forests. Due to widespread agricultural
expansion and overgrazing in its habitats,
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
11
July - September 2010
gravest threat the bird faces is the clearing
of its habitat for agricultural and other
developmental activities. For instance, the
proposed Upper Tapi Irrigation Project
threatens 244 hectares of the prime habitat
of the owlet. Illegal logging, overgrazing and
forest fires have also put immense
pressure on its habitat. The owlet is also
hunted by the local people.
wetlands. Wetlands have become degraded
as a result of pollution, rapid growth of
aquatic vegetation, and the overexploitation of resources. Natural forest
fires also destroy nests.
Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis
nigriceps)
The Bustard is a
large ground
bird,
easily
identified by its
brown-white
body with a
black crown and
wing markings.
The bird inhabits arid and semi-arid
grasslands, with scattered low scrub and
bushes. Once widely spread across
western and southern India, the Bustard
today is principally confined to Rajasthan
with a count of about 500 birds. With
vanishing grasslands, the bird has lost
much of its original habitat. The other
threat is poaching. The Bustard has been
hunted indiscriminately over the years for
food and sport. The Bustards are also slow
breeders, laying only one egg at a time.
Nesting failures can thus deplete a
population. The Government of India
launched ‘Project Bustard’ along the lines
of ‘Project Tiger’ for conservation of the bird
and its habitats.
Jerdon’s Courser (Rhinoptilus
bitorquatus)
Jerdon’s Courser is a bird native to India,
found in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra
Pradesh and extreme southern Madhya
Pradesh. The bird is a compact courser
with two brown breast-bands. It has a
short, black-tipped yellow bill and an
orange throat patch. A ground-nesting,
insectivorous bird, it inhabits sparse
scrub-forests and bushes, interspersed
with patches of bare ground. The habitat
of the bird has become scarce and
fragmented in recent times due to
clearance for agriculture, quarrying,
livestock grazing, etc. It is believed that
currently only 50 to 249 birds exist, with
the majority of them being confined to the
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary in
Andhra Pradesh.
White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis)
The White bellied Heron is a very large,
long necked heron. The bird inhabits
inland lakes or small or large rivers with
sand and gravel bars, often adjacent to
tropical or sub-tropical forests. It is mostly
dark grayish in colour, with a contrasting
white throat, belly and vent. It is generally
solitary but may aggregate in small flocks
and family groups during winter and and
tends to frequent inaccessible and
undisturbed areas. The White-bellied
Heron is mainly found in North-east India
and Myanmar. It has an extremely small
and rapidly declining population of less
than 250 birds. The main threats are
presumed to be widespread loss,
degradation and disturbance of forests and
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius)
The Greater Adjutant
is a large wading bird
belonging to the stork
family. The bird has a
pinkish naked head,
white neck-ruff, thick
bill and pendulous
neck pouch. The birds
are named for the stiff
‘military’ gait while
walking
on
the
ground. The bird was
previously widespread across much of the
South and continental South-east Asia but
12
July - September 2010
declined drastically during the first half of
the 20 th century. Today, the breeding
population of the bird is restricted to
Assam, Bihar and Cambodia. No more than
1000 birds survive presently as the birds
are increasingly threatened by the loss of
feeding and nesting sites and polluted and
degraded wetlands.
It is a resident of fairly open mixed forest.
The female is sealed into a nest-cavity
during the period of egg-laying and chickrearing. At this time, the female is
incapable of flight as she sheds all her
flight feathers. Each pair generally raise
two young. The threats to the birds include
habitat loss and overgrazing of natural
vegetation by domestic animals. Hunting
for food also results in an estimated annual
loss of 25 to 40 birds. The current
population of the bird is estimated to be
between 50 and 249.
White-winged Wood Duck (Cairina
scutulata)
The Whitewinged Wood
Duck is a
large duck
with a dark
body
and
contrasting
whitish head
and upper neck. The bird inhabits stagnant
or slow-flowing natural and artificial
wetlands, within or adjacent to evergreen,
deciduous or swamp forests, on which it
depends for roosting and nesting, usually
in tree-holes. It was previously widely
distributed in North-east India and
Bangladesh, through South-east Asia to
Java and Sumatra, and in Indonesia. It has
undergone a dramatic decline so that its
population is now estimated to be between
250 and 999. In India, the duck has the
distinction of being the most endangered
duck. Less that 400 of these remain in the
swamps and shallow wetlands near the
evergreen forests of the Arunachal
Pradesh-Assam border. Its decline is
largely attributable to the destruction,
degradation and disturbance of riverine
habitats, including the loss of riparian
forest corridors. It is believed to be
particularly susceptible to the loss of large
trees with nesting holes.
Nilgiri Blue Robin (Myiomela major)
The Nilgiri Blue Robin is a small bird with
a uniform dark slaty-blue head, breast and
upperside. It is restricted to the Nilgiri
Hills, the South Wayanad Hills, Kerala, and
to three peaks in south-west Karnataka.
This sedentary species can be found in the
under-growth of sheltered woods. It breeds
in April and May, laying a clutch of two to
three eggs. It is secretive and shy, creeping
through vegetation and around fallen
timber, presumably foraging for small
insects. As reported for other species in
the Western Ghats, increasing human
encroachment into forests, livestock
grazing, logging and extraction of other
forest resources are likely to have a
negative influence on this species. The
exact population of this bird species is not
known.
Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indicus)
The Lesser Florican is a small, slender bird
with long legs and bill. The male has a
black head, neck and underparts. The
head bears spatulate-tipped head plumes.
The female is sand-coloured. The Lesser
Florican is native to dry grasslands and
productive lowland, with scattered bushes
and scrub. It has also been recorded in
cotton and millet crops. In India, it breeds
in Gujarat, South-east Rajasthan, Northwest Maharashtra and Western Madhya
Pradesh, with some dispersal into Southeast India in the non-breeding season.
Narcondam Hornbill (Aceros
narcondami)
The Narcondam Hornbill is a species of
hornbill native to the Indian island of
Narcondam in the Andamans. It is a small,
dark coloured bird with an all-white tail.
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
13
July - September 2010
F o r m e r l y
widespread and
common, it has
been
declining
since 1870s. From
1982 to 1989, its
p o p u l a t i o n
declined by nearly
60%. Currently,
there are about
2,000 birds in India and Pakistan. Severe
hunting pressures, particularly of males
for sport and also for food led to the decline
of the bird. More recently, rapid reductions
in the area of grassland owing to
conversion for agriculture and overgrazing
have also added to the pressure. In
addition, the rapid spread of the non-native
Prosopis threatens habitat quality. Over the
last two decades, unreliable monsoon rains
have caused significant population
fluctuations.
References
1. Grewal, B., S.Monga and G.Wright,
‘Birds of India’, Gulmohar Press Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1993
2. Reddy, S., ‘The Saga is Dodoesque’,
Outlook India, p.60-64, June 16, 2008.
3. http://www.birdlife.org
4.http://www.tehelka.com/story_
main44.asp?filename=hub130310
extinction.asp
5. Picture source: Wikipedia
Shola Grasslands – A Fragile Ecosystem
M. Kumaravelu
Sholas, the tropical wet evergreen forest
found above 1500 mts MSL are not only
enchanting but also play a vital role in
managing the hydrology along the slopes.
The distribution of tropical wet evergreen
forests is found mainly in Central and
South America, Tropical Africa and Asia.
In India, the Western Ghats are the home
of the shola forests. The major distribution
of shola forests are found in the Ghat
section of the Nilgiri Hills, Palani Hills and
Anamalai Hills. In the Nilgiris region,
Kotagiri, Coonoor, Udhagamandalam,
Mukkurthi and Pykara areas account for
a good growth of sholas. Kundha,
Avalanchi and Parson’s valley are the
places known for twin eco-systems: sholas
and grasslands.
A study revealed the distribution of sholagrassland ecosystem in 90 sq.km. area in
Tamil Nadu and about 70 sq.km. in Kerala
which neighbours Tamilnadu to the west.
Apart from this, a small portion of shola
could be seen in the Bramhagiri Mountains
in Karnataka.
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
Ecological Importance
Helping to stabilize the hydrology of the
region, Shola forests are distributed all over
the Western Ghats, which stretches over
1800 mts (Champion and Seth, 1968).
However there are two denotions: there are
sholas distributed at a high attitude along
with grasslands; and sub-tropical hill
forests which lie in between the mid
elevation from 800 mts and 1800 mts.
Generally, they are found at the hill folds
where there is a micro catchment area with
good drainage and sufficient moisture,
which accounts for the healthy shola
forests. The soil moisture and drainage
helps the shola to regenerate. The shola
trees are shallow rooted and help the soil
hold the water like sponge, releasing the
water to the grasslands and nearby
streams. Moreover, the shola forests have
more biological wealth, providing an interrelationship between the ecology and
people.
14
July - September 2010
activities are closely related to the many
plants that are found in the sholas and
grasslands. Even for construction of their
residential and temple huts, which are ecocentric, raw material like cane and grass
are used. Plants like Berberis aristata
(oosikla),
Mohonia
leschencultii
(manjakadambu) are used during their
rituals. Further, many cultural events of
the Toda community are performed in the
grasslands where the sholas are found.
They worship the meadows as a holy place,
believing that their ancestral sprits dwell
there.
A shola consists of varied floral diversity,
including ferns, mosses and fungi at the
ground level. While all woods in the shola
are evergreen in nature, the average height
of the tree is markedly low, hardly 20
metres. The fall in height is conditioned
by exposure to wind velocity in the upper
reaches.
In providing a helping hand to the faunal
varieties which need a thick wood cover to
perfect their habitation, some of the fruitbearing species like Eleocarpus oblangus
(vikki), Syzygium cumini (naval), Ficus
carica (seemai atti), Michelia nilagirica
(champak) support avian dwellers. It is
interesting to note that the tree species like
Rhododendron are fire resistant. The bark
of this tree has multi layers (3 to 4 layers)
and its water-holding capacity is high.
None of these shola species have
commercial value. However, the ecological
value is tremendous.
Destruction and threats
Intensive destruction of the Nilgiri Forests
started when the British came to the hills.
Dr T. Sekar points out that …. shooting
went on all around the year and everything
in the shape of game, whether winged or
four footed, was ruthlessly eliminated
without regard for age, sex or season.
Plantation crops such as tea, coffee, rubber
and cinchona replaced the grassland and
sholas in a big way. The introduction of
these crops in the 19 th century in the
pristine hills has adversely affected the
shola-grassland eco-system to a large
extent, which resulted in the reduction of
the sholas from 8600 ha. (in 1849) to 4225
ha. (in 1992) and grassland from 29,875
ha (in 1849) to 4700 ha (in 1992) (Kumar,
1997).
It is interesting to note that many a faunal
species is endemic to sholas and
grasslands. Slender loris, Giant squirrel,
Nilgiri marten, Mouse deer, leopard, Indian
gaur, etc., and endemic birds like
Hornbills, Nilgiri woodpigeons, Fly
catchers, Black bulbul, Laughing thrush,
etc., and varieties of endemic butterflies,
balsam species, and medicinal herbs are
found in their natural abode in the sholagrassland eco-systems.
In addition to cash crops, Wattle and Blue
gum were introduced in 1832 and 1856
respectively taking their toll of the
grassland and making them vulnerable to
wind and fire. Moreover, the wattle, which
has its own way of propagation, started
engulfing large portions of the grassland,
thus playing havoc with its profile and
character. The Scotch broom, an exotic
shrub, also encroached the grasslands of
the Upper Plateau. Hydro electric projects
also paved the way for the distruction of a
considerable portion of this unique ecosystem. Though hydro electric projects do
not pollute, they submerges several acres
of sholas and grasslands.
Aesthetic and cultural value
Eye-catching and cool in nature, sholas
attract nature lovers all over the world. The
kurinji (Stobilanthus Kunthianus) flowering
in the high altitude grasslands attracts
people. Many flowering tree species, with
their umbrella like canopy, add aesthetic
value to the shola forests. Indigenous
communities, like the Todas and Kotas,
have a kind of eco-relation with the sholas
and grassland eco-system. The pastoral
Toda tribal community needs vast
stretches of grassland for their buffaloes
to graze. Their livelihood and cultural
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
15
July - September 2010
All these destructive measures degrades
the sholas and grasslands. Shola patches
became fragmented and lost their virginity.
Many floral and faunal species lost their
roots. Tree frogs and burrowing snakes
have become endangered.
Regenerating tropical rain forests is a
herculean job. Raising a few shola tree
species and planting them in open areas
will not serve the purpose. Instead, the
existing shola patches should be protected.
A separate plan of action declaring sholas
and grasslands as an Ecologically Sensitive
Area (ESA) is more appropriate and will go
along way in conserving this endangered
eco-system.
Exploiting medicinal herbs from sholas
such as Wintergreen (Gualtheria
fragrantissima) also caused considerable
damage to the density of sholas.
Deforestation and fragmentation of forests
and non-forest activities changed the micro
climate. This change affected the
habitation drastically for tiny plants like
Drosera burmannii, Utricularia species and
other species like Mouse deer and barking
deer.
Reference
1. “Compendium of lead papers”, Workshop
on Sholas and Swamps in the Nilgiri
District, Central Soil & Water Conservation
Research
&
Training
Institute,
Udhagamandalam, 2008.
Conclusion
2. Sekar, T., 2004, “Forest History of the
Nilgiris”, Tamil Nadu Forest Department,
Coimbatore.
Providing adequate information about the
importance of sholas to local people is
absolutely necessary. The policy makers
should concentrate and involve the people
living near the sholas in their management.
3. “Gazetteers of India”, 1995, The Nilgiri
District, Commissioner of Archives &
Historical Research, Madras.
Endangered Medicinal Plants of India
P. Sudhakar
India is blessed with a richness of natural
resources, and floral and faunal
biodiversity. Civilisation started using
these resources for their survival. Later,
people started using these resources
indiscriminately in the name of
modernisation and development, which led
to mass depletion of forest reserves and
natural resources.
India, of which nearly half are found in
tropical rain forests. These plants are rich
in secondary metabolites which protect us
from various ailments. More than 125
prescribed drugs are obtained from the
plants of the rainforests.
People in the ancient days used plants and
plant products for their daily use, to treat
their ailments. The practice of healing
ailments through plants is still followed all
over India.
At least 20 % of the plant species available
in India are either threatened or
endangered. The plants became
endangered due to commercial harvesting,
over exploitation and low reproduction
rates. A few of the endangered medicinal
plants are listed below.
Nearly 2,50,000 plants which are known
for their medicinal value are available in
Talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera) is
found mainly in agricultural and open
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
16
July - September 2010
fields. These trees grow to a height of 10
to 12 metres; and blooms only once in their
life time of 50 to 60 years. The plant
pacifies burning sensation, hemorrhoids
and gastritis. After the flowering, the tree
starts dying slowly. The open fields and
agricultural lands are now converted into
housing plots because of which the plant
has become endangered.
due to over exploitation and clearing of its
habitat.
Magali kilangu or Swallow root (Decalepis
hamiltonii) is a woody climber shrub that
grows in the deciduous forests of
Peninsular India. The plant contains
alkaloids and glycosides that are used in
medicines and pesticides. The plants are
harvested in great numbers for their high
content of alkaloids and glycosides; as a
result the species has now become
endangered.
Some of the other endangered medicinal
plant species that are listed in the IUCN
Red Data book are Berberis aristata,
Podophyllum hexandrum and Gentiana
kurroo which are found in the higher
elevations of the Himalayas. Withania
coagulans, Leptadenia reticulata and
Mitragyna parvifolia are the most
endangered medicinal plants that are seen
in the deserts of Rajasthan. All these plant
species have either become endangered or
rare because these plants are harvested
for their medicinal properties by the local
people for some pharmaceutical
companies.
Jamun (Syzygium travancoricum)is a
medium sized tree endemic to Kerala; this
tree has become critically endangered due
to the draining of its normal habitat of
swampy wetlands which were converted
into agricultural land for paddy cultivation.
Malabar mahogany (Kingiodendron
pinnatum) is a large tree which grows up
to 35 m tall and is endemic to the Western
Ghats. The root of the plant is used to treat
bronchial asthma. The trees are cut
indiscriminately for their high quality
timber; the habitat is destroyed to make
way for cash crops; moreover, this species
has a low reproduction rate; all these
conditions have made this plant
endangered.
Conclusion
It is necessary to stop the exploitation of
the forests in the name of development.
The plants which have become endangered
are the ones which actually save our lives
and have medicinal value. A sincere effort
has to be made to save the pristine forests
and to combat the loss of medicinal plants
through the establishment of herbal
gardens.
Goa butter (Madhuca diplostemon) is a
small tree endemic to the Deccan
Peninsula. The Plant is used to heal
rheumatism. It is endangered due to
habitat destruction caused by agriculture,
tree felling and human habitation.
References
1. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/
redlist/details/
2 .http://www.ehow.com/
about_5438947_information-endangeredplants
3. http://www.gardenguides.com/87327endangered-plant-species
4. http://envis.frlht.org.in/
Red sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) is a
medium-sized tree which grows up to 9 m
tall and is seen mostly in the dry deciduous
forests of the Eastern Ghats, especially in
Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. The tree
is used for its high quality timber. The
heartwood of the plant is used to treat skin
diseases. The tree has become endangered
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
17
July - September 2010
Rare, Endangered and Threatened (RET)Plants
in the Sacred Groves of Tamil Nadu
M. Amirthalingam
Conservation of biodiversity
Kanyakumari district protect many of the
rare endemic plants of the Western Ghats
such as Antiaris toxicaria, Diospyros
malabarica, Diospyros ebenum, Feronia
elephantum, Butea frondosa, Garcinia
cambogia, Sterculia foetida, Gnetum ula and
Cycas circinalis (Sukumaran and Raj,
1999). The climax vegetation species in the
sacred groves in the drier regions of the
plains are predominantly Memecylon
umbulatum, Chloroxylon swietenia, Albizzia
amara, Glycosmis cochinchinensis,
Capparis divaricatat, Gmelina asiatica,
Atlantia monophylla, Terminalia catappa,
Terminalia arjuna, Hardwickia binata,
Santalum album and Aerva tomentosa.
Sacred groves protect several plant and
animal species valuable for food, medicinal
and other uses (Ramakrishnan, 1998).
Despite increasing pressures, sacred
groves shelter many plant and animal
species which might have vanished
elsewhere
in
the
surrounding
environment, often including wild crop
relatives and endemic and endangered
species (Swamy, 1997). Meher-Homji
(1986) first reported a grove in Puthupet
near Pondicherry. The Puthupet grove is
full of green vegetation spreading over 20
hectares and is a relic of a forest housing
104 plant species belonging to 44 families.
It is also a refuge of rare species like a rare
cucurbit Stychnos lentiecellata, the
insectivorous plant Drosera burmanii and
a rare bone setting plant Ormocarpum
cochinchinensis.
Sacred Groves Threatened due to
Human Activities
Human activities such as dead wood
collection, biomass gathering, lopping of
tender branches and green leaves for goats,
creation of footpaths, cattle grazing, mining
of sand and clay, brick-making and
collection of wild fruits, vegetables and
collection of plant parts for Ayurvedic, Folk,
Tibetan, Unani and Siddha medicine are
affecting the ecology of many of our sacred
groves. In fact, the main reason for RET
status of the plant species is due to overexploitation of the specific plant species.
A grove in the Kanchipuram district
protects rare species like Amorphophallus
sylvaticus, Kedrostis foetidissima and also
a huge 200 hundred year old banyan tree
which provides a shady atmosphere
(Maheswaran, et.al., 1995). The sacred
groves in Perambalur district protect many
rare endemic plants such as Manilkara
hexandra, Aloe vera, Gloriosa superba,
Cissus quadrangularis, Capparis deciduas,
Gmelina asiatica, Chloroxylon swietenia,
Commiphora caudate, Ficus microcarpa and
Strychnos nux-vomica.
In addition, the invasion of exotic weeds
has become a serious problem in the
ecology of some sacred groves; the
domination of alien species such as
Eupatorium odoratum, Lantana camara,
Prosopis juliflora and Hyptis suaveolens
often threatens and depletes the local
species. Conflicts among the sacred grove
managers have also resulted in the loss of
Similarly, the Kandanur sacred grove in
Sivagangai district supports a rare rattan
species (Calamus sp.) which might
otherwise have vanished from the local
landscape. The sacred groves in
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
18
July - September 2010
Distribution of Rare, Threatened, Vulnerable and Endangered plant
species found in the sacred groves of South and
North Eastern Region of India
S.No.
Name of the Plant
Status
State /
Region
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Aerva lanata
Buchanania lanceolata
Cinnamomum quilonensis
Dalbergia Benthami
Desmodium giganteum
Flacourtia cataphracta
Kunsteleria Keralensis
Phoebe hainsiana
Plumbago rosea
Pterospermum reticulatum
Rauvolfia serpentina
Rhus hookeri
Syzygium travancoricum
Drymycarpus racemosus
Echnocarpus dasycarpus
Elaeocarpus lanceofolius
Engelhardtia spicata
Syzygium cumini
Santalam album
Ravolfia serpentine
En
T
R
En
En
En
R
Vu
En
T
En
En
T
R
R
R
R
R
En
En
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Meghalaya
Meghalaya
Meghalaya
Meghalaya
Meghalaya
Pondicherry
S.W.G.
21.
22.
Amorphophallus sylvaticus
Derris ovalifolia
R
R
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
23.
Drosera Burmanni
En
Tamil Nadu
24. Terminalia chebula
25. Alpinia galangal
26. Gloriosa superba
R
Tamil Nadu
T, En Tamilnadu
En
W.G
27.
R, T
Justicia beddemi
W.G.
Reference
Sasikumar,1995
Balasubramaniam, 1999
Unnikrishnan,1995
Nair, 1985
Sasikumar, 1995
Nair,1985
Mohanan and Nair (1981)
Balasubramaniam (1997)
Sasikumar (1998)
Balasubramaniam (2000)
Sasikumar (1995)
Nair (1985)
Balasubramaniam (2001)
Haridasan and Rao, 1988
Haridasan and Rao,1987
Haridasan and Rao,1989
Haridasan and Rao, 1985
Haridasan and Rao (1986)
Kadamban (1998)
Nayar and Sastry,
1989-1990, Nayar, 1996,
Subbarayalu &
Velmurugan, 1999
Maheswaran et al. 1995
Ramanujam and
Kadamban, 2001
Kadamban & Ramanujam,
2001
Kadamban (1998)
Amalraj et al, 1991
Amalraj et al, 1991;
Amirthalingam, 1998
Henry, et.al., 1978;
Nayar, 1996
R - Rare; T - Threatened, Vu - Vulnerable, En - Endangered, W.G. - Western Ghats,
S.W.G. - Southern Western Ghats
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
19
July - September 2010
3. Meher-Homji., V.M., 1986, “Puttupet: A
Sacred Termite-Mount Protects a Forest”,
Blackbuck, Vol. II, No.4, Pp. 1- 4.
biodiversity in several sacred groves. In
order to conserve the biological resources,
the sacred groves should be declared as
an ecological heritage site to protect their
genetic resources.
4. Maheswaran, B., Dayanandan, P., and
Narasimha, D., 1995, “Miniature sacred
groves near Vedanthangal bird sanctuary”,
In: Abstracts of 2nd Congress on Traditional
Science and Technology of India.Bio.3.
Pp. 26-31, Madras.
References
1. Ramakrishnan, P.S., 1998, “Conserving
the sacred for biodiversity: the conceptual
framework”, Pp. 3-15. In: P.S.
Ramakrishnan, K.G. Saxena and U.M.
Chandrashekara (eds), Conserving the
Sacred for Biodiversity Management,
Oxford and IBH, New Delhi.
5. Sukumaran, S., and Raj, A.D.S., 1999,
“Sacred groves as a symbol of sustainable
environment – a case study”, Pp. 67 – 74.
In: Sukumaran, N. (eds.) Sustainable
Tamilnadu.
6. Krishnan, V., 2004, “Plant Biodiversity
and Biocultural perspectives of sacred
groves in Pondicherry and its environs”,
Unpublished Ph.D., thesis submitted to the
Pondicherry
Central
University,
Pondicherry.
2. Swamy, P.S., 1997, “Eclogical and
sociological relevance of conservation of
sacred groves in Tamil Nadu”, Final
Technical Report submitted to UNESCO,
New Delhi, India.
Some Endangered Plants of India
R. Sridevi
India is rich in flora, with a varied
vegetation and a wide range of climatic
conditions from the torrid to the
Himalayan. According to the available data
base of plant diversity, India stands first
in the world and fourth in Asia. From the
survey of 70% of the geographical area,
47,000 species of plants have been
described by the Botanical Survey of India
(BSI), Kolkata. Among these, 35% are
endemic and have not been reported
anywhere in the world (BSI). About 1,336
plant species are considered vulnerable
and endangered. Several Indian plants are
facing a greater threat and are on the verge
of extinction due to over-exploitation of
natural resources for developmental and
agricultural activities. The Botanical
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
Survey of India has also enlisted the list of
endangered plants in the Red data bank.
Some are discussed below.
Scientific Name: Cycas bedommei
Family: Cycadaceae
Cycas bedommei is a shrub which is native
to India, where it is confined to the Kadapa
district of Andhra Pradesh. It possesses
male and female cone. The plant grows in
dry areas. The plant is fairly fire resistant,
except the seeds and seedlings. The male
cones of the plant are used by local
herbalists as a cure for rheumatoid
arthritis and muscle pains. Cycas is in high
demand for medicinal purposes.
20
July - September 2010
IUCN status - Critically endangered.
tribes to cure stomach and gynecological
problems.
Reasons
❖ The plants have almost become nonexistent in their natural habitat in
Meghalaya due to human interference and
by natural disasters.
❖ Cycas beddomei has been exploited for
its medicinal value.
❖ Due to over-exploitation and destruction
of natural habitat by deforestation, the
species has declined.
Legal status
❖ It is included in the list of rare and
threatened taxa of India (Jain & Rao,
1983).
❖ In some cases, collectors selectively
remove female plants because the cones
are more attractive and have a higher price;
and this upsets the male to female plant
ratio.
❖ It is also included in the Appendix I of
CITES which restricts its export.
Legal status
Scientific Name: Rauvolfia serpentina
Family: Apocyanaceae
According to IUCN, the plant species is
listed on the Appendix of CITES. Cycas
bedommei also occurs in the Sri
Venkateswara National Park (http://
www.iucnredlist.org)
Rauvolfia is an evergreen tree which is
commonly known as snakeroot or
sarpagandha. It contains an alkaloid
reserpine which is used as an
antihypertensive drug. The alkaloids
reduce the blood pressure and depress the
activity of the central nervous system.
Scientific Name: Nepenthes khasiana
Family: Nepenthaceae
Nepenthes Khasiana is a tropical pitcher
plant which is native to India. The species
has a much localised distribution and is
rare in the wild. Isolated populations are
known to occur in the Jaintia Hills and
Garo Hills adjacent to the Meghalaya
region. The Khasi people call the plant tiewrakot, which means demon flower or
devouring plant. The plant prefers acidic
and nitrogen-deficient soil. It needs high
rainfall and a warm climate. The pitcher
traps insects to compensate for nitrogen
deficiency in the soil.
IUCN status - Endangered
Reason
❖ The plant is collected indiscriminately
due to the medicinal properties of its roots.
Legal status
❖ It is included in the Appendix II of CITES
(Convention on International Trade of
endangered species of wild Fauna and
Flora) which restricts its export.
IUCN status - Critically Endangered and
Endemic.
Reasons
Scientific Name: Saussurea costus
Family: Asteraceae
❖ The plant is exploited for its ethnobotanical value by the Khasi and Garo
Saussurea costus is the annual herb which
is found in the sub-alpine Himalayas, on
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
21
July - September 2010
open hill slopes. It is distributed
throughout the western Himalayas,
Jammu and Kashmir, and the eastern
Himalayas, having purple florets and a
fragrant root that yields a volatile oil used
in perfumes and for preserving furs. The
fragrant roots of the plant are exported
from India to China and are used for
burning as incense.
Scientific Name: Vanda coerulea
Family: Orchidaceae
IUCN Status - Critically endangered.
Reason
Reasons
❖ Vanda coerulea has become endangered
because of habitat destruction.
❖ The plant has become critically
endangered due to habitat destruction.
Legal status
Vanda (Vanda coerulea) is an epiphytic
orchid with blue flowers which are much
valued for producing interspecific and
intrageneric hybrids.
IUCN Status - Endangered.
❖ It is included in the Appendix I of CITES
which restricts its export
❖ The plant has been collected
indiscriminately for its root that contains
an alkaloid called saussarine, which is
medicinally important.
❖ Endangered in Red Data Book of Indian
Plants (Vol. 3, pp 202) by Nayar and Sastry
(2000, Repr. ed.) of Botanical Survey of
India.
Legal status
❖ It is included in the Red Data Book (Vol.
2; pp 69) of Indian Plants by Nayar and
Sastry (2000, Repr. ed.) of Botanical Survey
of India.
References
❖ The plant has been included in the
Appendix I of CITES.
2.http://www.bsienvis.nic.in/
citesplant.htm
1. Subbarayalu, S and Velmurugan, S,
“Endangered Plants of India”, 1999.
ECONEWS welcomes articles and news items from its readers.
Please send them to
The Editor
C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre
1, Eldams Road, Alwarpet, Chennai – 600 018, India.
Phone : 91- 44- 24337023 / 24346526
Fax : 91-44-24320756
www.cpreec.org / www.cpreecenvis.nic.in
Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
22
July - September 2010
Endangered Wildlife : Enriching the Local
Curriculum
U. Thirunavukkarasu
The formal school system integrates many
social aspirations in the curriculum to
educate the young ones. The importance
and urgency of the present endangered
condition of wildlife is not understood by
the education system. Even the curriculum
is not prepared for integrating the
conservation principles per se; instead, a
broader framework for environmental
education is laid out in the formal
education system. But it may not be
sufficient to address the gravity of the
situation of endangered wildlife.
Curriculum Focus Model : Resource
Unit Integration
educational input, the status of wildlife is
decided at the higher level; contiguous
ecosystems, country, trans-boundaries
and so on.
A special focus has to be thrown on the
issue. An attempt may be made to intensify
the efforts of educating the students on
the threatened wildlife of India. An attempt
is made here as a differential focus model.
When the causal agents are varied and the
status of wildlife in an ecosystem are in
different gradations of endangered
conditions, there has to be a concerted
effort to orient the young learning group
with various educational inputs and
resources. Since most of the education
boards follow a ‘prescriptive syllabus based
learner support materials’, it is useful to
have special inputs about endangered
wildlife in the form of ‘Resource Units’, as
a plug-in in the curriculum matrix. It can
be tried at the school or regional level.
Most of the threatened conditions of
wildlife (plants and animals) are due to
anthropogenic pressures. The people
residing close to the protected areas may
not be the immediate reason; whereas a
remotely residing group may be the
stronger cause for pushing the wildlife to
threatened conditions.
As the broader framework of curriculum
in the formal education system is drawn
from the National Curriculum Framework
and every State Board of Education follows
its recommendations in letter and spirit,
the curriculum per se follows a uniform
pattern at the state level. There is ample
scope for the local curriculum to be
adapted at the school level. Contrary to the
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
Resource units
Resource units are a reservoir of teachinglearning resources from which the teacher
in cooperation with learners derives
23
July - September 2010
additional
input-experience
in
comprehending the concepts, issues and
interactions, leading to the formation of
‘learning units’ in a learning situation.
materials and other resources have to be
ascertained.
The resource unit fills the gap in the
curriculum interactions and supports the
teacher in enrichment activities. It also
bridges the divide between traditional and
modern teaching methods. It is a
systematic organization of facts, concepts
in order, analysis of issues, interpretations
and further source of learning on any
social, scientific and behavioral issues.
The availability of community resources for
the learning activity has to be ensured
before designing resource intensive wildlife
education. In conditions and status,
wildlife has close interconnection with the
community around its habitat. Without the
help of community living around the ecosystems, conservation initiatives may not
take effective root.
Resource units may be developed by a
group of teachers in collaboration with
other experts for a specific learning
purpose (classroom teaching) or for a group
of learners to spread over in an area
(village, town, state etc.), supporting the
teaching-learning activity. Development
and organization of resource units involve
several steps viz, philosophy and purpose,
objectives, scope, increasing complexity of
content, source for further reading and
activities related to concepts. However,
there are various shades of organization
of the content and development process
followed by different institutions.
In our efforts to educate the young
children, community resources have to be
taken into confidence for fruitful
dissemination of educational initiatives.
Availability of local elected bodies,
community-based organizations, parent
teacher associations, service clubs, social
agencies and traditional wisdom through
local records or folk tales will play a greater
role in resource-intensive curriculum
enrichment.
2. Community resources
3. External resources
The curriculum enrichment activity has to
locate the external resource availability for
better shaping of resource inputs into the
curriculum. A common platform for the
wildlife enthusiast, wildlife educators,
scientists, government officials and law
enforcing authorities to meet must be
created for deriving the optimum level of
scientific and technological inputs.
Resource units on endangered wildlife
The best way to address the issue of
endangered wild life conditions is at the
school level. The curriculum enrichment
committee and the teachers have to
approach it in a methodical way to draw
the curriculum matrix on endangered
wildlife.
Preparation of resource unit
The preparation of the resource unit for
integration into the local curriculum
enrichment has to undergo a need
assessment at the learner level and an
input requirement study on the scientific
side of wildlife status. The human
habitation pockets near the core habitat
zone of threatened wildlife needs an entire
1. Survey of the available resources in
school
The curriculum in-charge of the school has
to do a complete inventory of the resources
available for the enrichment activity.
Availability of teacher support materials,
classroom equipment, learner support
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
24
July - September 2010
set of resource inputs in the form of skills
training, alternative income generation
techniques, protecting traditional practices
and ensuring the livelihood of local
communities. The curriculum enrichment
activity has to focus on these requirements
and design a science-based rationalistic
resource input.
wildlife education, stressing the
importance of wetland birds may not serve
the purpose. The children in the above
mentioned habitations need an exclusive
resource-intensive curriculum enrichment
activity at the local level.
The resource input may be in the form of
small booklets, audio-visual materials,
communication packages, resource kits,
folk art , skills training, gene pool and
action-oriented programmes.
The other zones of human habitation may
require different shades of wildlife
education. Remotely located human
communities which are primarily
responsible for wildlife depletion have to
be pinpointed and given extensive deeducation and re-education.
Resource Units – the C.P.R.
Environmental Education Centre
Experience
Differential resource input
C.P.R.Environmental Education Centre
has many exclusive resource input units
through activities spanning several states
and languages. Some of the resource unit
input is in the form of booklets on exclusive
titles. The CPREEC has publications on
Biodiversity, Wetlands, Tiger, Mangroves
and many more.
The issue of differential resource input as
a curriculum enrichment activity for
different human groups based on their role
in depletion or conservation may well be
understood, with the example of bird
sanctuaries.
The core of the bird sanctuary contains
villages with irrigation tanks. The farmers
in most places understand the role of birds
in enriching the manure input into the
agricultural system and do not harm the
birds. Their local body bans hunting and
forgoes an additional crop to ensure water
availability to the migrating birds.However,
the poachers from outside exploit the birds
when they are in nearby areas. The birds
poached are sold in nearby towns. The
“bird eaters” in nearby towns create a
demand for hunting birds by their food
preference.
The skills-based approach has also been
tried through the programmes of CPREEC.
The tribes of the Nilgiris are trained in
traditional art forms to augment their
income and to revive dying art traditions,
like the Kurumba tribes. A gene pool of
medicinal plants was also set-up to
conserve the local traditional varieties of
medical plants and to encourage the local
population to grow them.
Threatened wildlife at zoos
A child may not have the opportunity to
see and experience the threatened wildlife,
its habitat, behaviour, food habits,
breeding behavior and its role in ecology
unlike children close to core zones and
natural habitats may have the privilege of
witnessing and experiencing wild-life. If the
child or the learner is away from those
Another human settlement nearby may
indulge in extensive use of pesticides in
their agricultural fields. These three groups
of human population have three different
wildlife-related issues and have a bearing
on bird conservation. A uniform pattern of
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
25
July - September 2010
in comparatively smaller moated
structures. Like elephants, many animals
show stressed-out behavior like head
bobbing, pacing back and forth, biting
themselves, inactive and other abnormal
repetitive behavior of typical captive
animals. The child visiting the zoo may not
learn the original behavior of the animal.
Still worse, the child may reinforce a feeling
of human superiority over other animal
species, by riding the elephants, offering
them food and watching them in captivity.
This
indirectly
emphasizes
an
anthropocentric ethical standpoint which
is detrimental to conservation initiatives.
Animals in zoos are reduced to the level of
performing animals. They start displaying
symptoms of abnormal behaviour. The
child may not love them anymore.
areas, the probable popularly conceived
alternative is to visit Zoological Gardens.
Modern zoos project themselves as centres
of conservation and education.In tune
with the popular “pro-nature” movement
of the 1970’s, 3000 were rebranded from
the old exhibition of animals to the modern
“centres of species conservation and public
education”. There are studies and surveys
suggesting the pros and cons of the impact
of zoos on visitor attitudes. Interestingly,
Project Tiger in India was started almost
when the zoos started re-branding
themselves. A glance at the status of the
tiger population in India indicates that the
zoos have not taught any things positive
about the Tigers. This goes for any
endangered animal species in India. We
may attribute various factors for the
conditions of threatened animals, but the
learning for the child from zoos remains
poor. Studies the world over suggest
visitors to the zoos spend less time looking
at animals, which remain an object of
entertainment rather than of appreciation
and love. The prevailing conservation
scenario also points towards that.
If zoos have to function as conservation
centres, the captive breeding programmes
and animal rescue activities have to be
highlighted with proper interpretation and
interface with the public.
The alternative is to watch the wildlife in
their original habitat. If it is not possible,
it is better to read descriptive literature,
books, magazines, activity books and
watch documentaries. Age-appropriate
resource units come in handy in recreating
the imagination of the child to have a
mental idea about the wildlife.
The major problem with zoos is that the
animals are away from their natural
habitats and put into artificial enclosures.
The animals do not live in a natural way.
The predators do not hunt, the prey does
not run away from the predators. The
conditions are almost like a hospital:
sickly, modified, artificially fed, cared-for
and in enclosures. The enclosure may
mimic the original habitat, but remains a
poor replacement for the original.
References
1.Sharma, S.R. (1999), Issues in curriculum
administrations, Pearl Publishing House,
New Delhi.
2. Dhyani, S.N. (1994), Wildlife
Management, Rawat Publications, New
Delhi.
3. Bruce Joyce, Marsha Weil & Beverly
Showers (1992), Models of Teaching,
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New
Delhi.
4. www.veganpeace.com
5. www.captiveanimals.org
The animals in the enclosures are found
to exhibit either neurotic or completely
bored behavior. The elephants in
enclosures exhibit signs of stress and
boredom. They usually engage in repetitive
movements. Elephants are social animals
and live in herds, traveling several miles a
day. In zoos, elephants are kept in pairs
Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
26
July - September 2010
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C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre is a Centre of Excellence of the Ministry of
Environment & Forests, Government of India, established jointly by the Ministry and the
C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation.
The Centre has been set up to increase consciousness and knowledge about the environment
and the major environmental problems facing the country today. It has been conducting a
variety of programmes to spread awareness and interest among the public, including, teachers,
students, voluntary workers, educators, farmers, women and youth, on all aspects of the
environment and ecology, with the purpose of promoting conservation of nature and natural
resources.
Eco News is printed and published by Dr. Nanditha Krishna on behalf of
C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre
at The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation, 1, Eldams Road, Alwarpet, Chennai - 600 018.
Editor : Dr. Nanditha Krishna
Production : M. Amirthalingam
Where the details about the writer(s) are not given, it means that he/she works in CPREEC
The views expressed by the writers do not necessarily reflect the views of either
C.P.R. Environmental Education
Centre or the Editor
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Eco News, Vol. 16, No. 2
July - September 2010