Journal of Scientilic & Industri al Res earch
Vol. G2, January-February 2003 , pp 90-96
Biofuels as Blending Components for Motor Gasoline and Diesel Fuels
R K Malhotra and L M Das
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 11 0 OIG, Indi a
. The paper reviews the pote J1li al for usc of vari ous biofu els in India and isslIes related to their application in gasoli ne
~
and (li esel vehi cles :111d the associated environmental benefit s.
Introduction
The single larges t source of energy in India after
coa l is petrol eum, abou t two- third of which is
imported . The petroleum derived fuels , i.e., mo to r
gasoline and diesel are being used almost by the
entire road transport ve hi c les. The di esel fuel is also
being L1sed in agriculture operati ons. The hi gh
dependence on imported outside source of energy is
an issue related to energy security of th e country. In
th e recent times the combustion of these fossi I fu e ls
has been recognized as a major cause of air pollution
in Indian cities. Although CNG and LPG are being
promoted as cl eaner alternatives but both of them are
in short supply and we will have to depend on
imports to meet increased req uirements of th ese fu els.
We th erefore need to look for cleaner alternatives,
whi ch, could not onl y red uce polluti on but also
red uce our dependence on imports . Amon gs t various
altern ati ves, bi o-fuels like eth anol and trans-es terifi ed
fatty oil esters, commonly known as bi o-diesel match
the fea tures of oil at relative ly low pri ce. The typi cal
properti es of gaso line, di esel, ethan ol and bio-diesel
are given in Tabl e I (refs 1-3). These fu els can be
produ ced from hos t of bio-source and ca n easily be
used as bl endin g co mponents of both gaso line and
di ese l III eX lstlll g engines without any maj or
mod ifica tions . Unlike CNG and LPG, th ey would not
require any signifi cant investments for crea ti on of
new infrastructure for suppl y and distributi on of the
fu el. Further, these fu els producti on wi II help use
surplus agriculture produce and also he lp in rural
deve lopment. Whil e ethan ol finds application more in
gaso line and to some ex tent in di ese l engines, the bi odi ese l finds ap pli cati on in di ese l engines . The eth anol
and biodiesel adds oxygen to the motor gaso line or
di esel fu el, whi ch helps in improving th e co mbu sti on
effici ency and redu cing the harmful ex haust
emissions . This paper revi ews the potential for use of
such biofuels in India and the iss ues related ( 0 its
application in gaso line and diesel vehicl es and the
associated environmental benefits .
Production Of Bio-fuels
Elhal/ol
India produces nea rly 1.3 bL of et hanol util siing
less than half of its total installed capacity. There are
295 alcohol di still eri es in the count ry with an
installed produ cti on capac ity of 3 198 mL. Et hanol is
co nventi onall y produced through fermentation
processes from grains or oth er sugar bea rin g material s
like sugar cane jui ce or molasses. Brazil produces
mos t of its I I bL of ethan ol from sugarca ne. The US
produces ethan ol mos tl y from co rn starch. In Indi a,
molasses from suga r fa ctori es is th e main source of
ethan ol produ ction . Ethanol ca n be produced from
abundant source of biomass, including agriculture and
fores try residu es, municipal solid wastes ; rotten
grains, etc . With th e advances in th e field of
biotechnology the producti on of eth anol from va riety
of bi osources is now feasible and also beco min g
eco nomi ca ll y viable to04.
Following are the bas ic steps in co nvertin bG
.
b lomass to ethanol:
• Bi omass prod ucti on, which res ults in th e fixin g of
atmospheric carbon diox ide into orga nic CaJ·bO~l.
• Fermenting th e bi omass with help of biocatal ys ts .
• Di stillati on of the fermented biomass to yield
ethan ol
• Byproducts can produce other fue ls, chemi ca ls.
heat, and electri city.
91
MALHOTRA & DAS: BIOFUELS
Table 1- Properties of fuel s
Gaso line
Diese l
Ethanol
Bi odiesel
Mi xture of
hydrocarbons
Mixture of
hydrocarbons
C 2 H, OH
R I COOR
R2 COOR
R3COOR
0.72-0.75 *
0.82
0.79
0.g8
Boiling point
"F
"C
85-437
30-225
360-350
190-280
173
78. 3
182 -338
Net Heating value (Mass)
BTU/lh
mJ/kg
18,700
43.5
18,500
43
11,600
27
16.000
Net Heating value (Volume )
BTUlib
kJ/kg
117,000
32
126 ,000
35.3
76 ,000
21.3
120,910
Characteri sti cs
Chemi stry
Speci fic gra vit y
@
60 F
Heat of Vaporization
BTU/lb
KJ/kg
Vapor pressu re @ 100 F
psi
kpa
170
400
250
600
390
900
9- 13
62-90
0.05
0.34
2.5
17
Octane number
Research
Motor
91-100
82-91
Not
Applicable
III
92
47-52 (A KI )
Cetane number
Below 15
40-55
Below 15
48-60
14.6
14.6
9
13.8
0.6-8
0.6-6 .5
3.5- 15
Vapor tox icity
Co lorl ess to light
amber co lor
Colorless to li ght
amber color
Colorl ess
Co lorless to light
amber color
Vapor toxi cit y
Moderate irritant
Moderate irritant
Tox ic in only large
doses
<Di ese l
Stoich.
Air/Fuel ratio
Vapo r Ilammahilit y Limits
Biodiesel
Another approach for use of biofue ls which is
be ing considered by various agencies in India is by
converti ng the noned ible oi ls into es te rs through the
process of tran s-este rification. Variou s edib le and
non edibl e o ils , like rice bra n oil, coco nut o il , Jatropha
curcas, castor oi l, cotton seed oil , mahua , karo nj ia,
etc ., which are e ither surp lus or are of nonedib le type
can be used for preparat io n of suc h este rs by using
met hano l or etha no l. Accordi ng to an economic
survey conduc ted by Governme nt of Ind ia the
cul tivabl e land area of about 175 mha has been
classified as waste or degraded land wh ich is suitab le
for cu ltivat ion of some of the p lants, li ke Jatropha
curcas. Even if 100 mha of such waste land is brought
unde r cu ltivation , 150 mt of seeds can be produced
whic h can yield up to 37 .5 mt of o il which is almost
an equivalent amount of the di ese l be ing consumed in
the country at present. Even if o ne perso n is
emp loyed per hectare of land , 100 m additional jobs
wi ll be created for cu ltivati o n a lone and , in additi o n,
there will be jobs in the ex traction units for c ru sh in g
the seeds and product ion of biodiese l. Bes ides the
biodiese l, the re wi ll be g lycero l avai lab le as a
byproduct.
The process in vo lves reacting a vegetabl e oil
and a lcoho l in the presence of a cata lyst to produ ce
glycero l and fatty acid esters. Th e g lycero l is dra ined
from bottom of th e reactor. T he es ter fu e l th e n
requ ires was hin g process to purify it.
The mate rial s used in the process and products
from the tran seste rification process are shown bel ow:
92
J SCIIND RES VOL 62 JAN UARY-FEBRUARY 2003
Vegetable Oil
Alcohol (Methanol/ethanol)
Catalyst (NaoH / KOH)
.
----1:~
... Reactor for
- - - - t..~ Transesterification
...
Bas ica lly , any vegetable oil can be used for
producing biodi ese l. The main inte rest in Europe has
bee n in the rapeseed oil. In US various oils like soya
bean , canola, sunflower, and pea nut have bee n used .
In India , we can conside r o il s like mahua , karanji a,
neem, ri ce bran, and j atro pha curcu s. It may be
des irabl e to use non-edib le o il s, parti cul arl y th ose
which can be grown on non-fe rtil e or waste land s
unfit for g rowing food c rops. Thi s will he lp in not
onl y use o f waste land but al so c reate jobs for rura l
poor. Both ethan o l and methanol can be used duri ng
es terifi cati o n. Worldover, met hanol is preferred
purel y on economic cons id erati o n . However, in Indi a,
de pendin g on et hano l availability we can consider
using it durin g th e process o f tran seste rifi cation.
Ethanol as Fu el for
Ie Engin es
E th ano l has been used as fuel sin ce the early
days of th e inte rnal combusti o n e ng in e deve lopment.
Countri es like Brazil and th e US have been
promotin g th e eth ano l fu e l produc ti o n . While main
co nside rati o n for Brazi l ha s been to reduce
de pend ence o n o il impo rts, the US has bee n
promotin g e than o l to pro mote agri culture and a lso
fro m e nviro nme nta l conside ratio n.
Ethan ol os Fuel /or Gasolin e Ellg in es
E th ano l has hi g h octane number, w hi c h makes it
an exce ll e nt gaso line bl e ndin g compo ne nt . This
ea rli e r he lped in remova l of lead and can now he lp
reduce be nze ne or re move MTB E fro m moto r
gaso lin e. Blending of e th anol in gasolin e ra ises th e
va pour pressure of the fu e i, which leads to in c reased
vo latility of e th ano l-gaso line bl e nd s. This could lead
to hot startab ilit y problems under ex tre me hot
weathe r and the evapo rative e mi ss io ns ma y a lso
inc rease. The volatility of base gaso line may need to
be adju sted by re mo va l o f more vo latil e co mpon ents
to ta ke care of th ese probl e ms . On account of
increased oxygen conte nt in the fuel , th e oxidation
stability of th e bl e nd ed fu e l could be sli g htl y poorer
whi c h may require use of highe r dosage of additive to
kee p the e ng ines c lea n .
T he increased ox ides of nitrogen (NO,)
emi ssio ns from fo ur-stroke gaso line e ngines is
~
Biodiesel (Ester)
--1~"Glycerin
another issue of co ncern as most o f the studi es
indicate redu ced CO and HC but increased NO x with
ethanol blends. In the case of two stro ke e ng ines,
which do not e mit NO" the use of ethanol gaso line
blends can result in substantial e nvironme ntal
be nefits . Th e two strok e eng in es in Ind ia fro m year
2000 a re also fitted with ox id ati o n cata lysts. In the
tests conducted at 10C, R&D o n scoote rs and mopeds
it has been seen that cata ly st effic ie ncy improves with
use of suc h bl e nd s, thus givin g bonus of substantial
reduction of hydrocarbon s and carbo n mon ox ide
e mi ss io ns f rom such vehicl es). T ypi cal results of
carbon monox ide and hydrocarbon s em iss io ns from
two stroke vehicles with 5 pe r ce nt and 10 pe r ce nt
ethanol and gaso lin e with and w ith o ut cata lyti c
conve rte r are presented in Fig ure I (a b). It is
interestin g to see th at while in non-catalyst vehi c le
the hydrocarbon e mi ss io ns had marg in a ll y gone up
with eth anol bl e nded fu e l, in catal ys t fitted ve hi c le
substantial red uct ion s in hydrocarbon emi ss ions we re
o bserved with ethan o l bl e nded fu e ls . Hi g he r
reducti o ns of carbon mo noxide with b le nded fuels in
cataly st fitted ve hicl es were also see n.
Th e above findings indi cate stro ng potential of
e nvironme nt improvement w ith use of e th anol gas oline bl ends in th e hi g h populati o n o f two-stro ke
vehi c les in Indi a n c iti es, parti cularl y if they are
retrofitted with ox id ati on cata lyst whil e us in g th e
ethan o l bl e nded fu e l.
Th e
mate ri a l
co mpatibility
of
e ng ll1e
co mpo ne nts is an issu e, which needs to be looked into
by Indian manufacture rs. As mos t of the ca r
manufacture rs ha ve fo re ign ti e-ups the materia ls of
such e ngines are already compatible w ith bl ended
fu e ls. However, some of the Indi a n two-wh ee le r
manufac ture rs wi ll have to exa min e th e mate ri al
co mpatibility, if hi g he r blends of e th ano l in gaso lin e
are to be used .
Ethanol as Fu el/or Diesel Engines
In Indi a , where we use di ese l in mu c h larger
ratio as compared to gaso line which is unlike th e
deve loped world the biofuels thu s make mo re sense
fo r use in diesel e ngines.
MALHOTRA & DAS : BIOFUELS
3.5
3
2.5
2
mWithout
CJ I.
1.5
Converter
1
DWith
0.5
Co nverter
0
-;
·u10. .5
Q)
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E "0
'"
E
0 C-'
~
U
Figure I (a) -
"0
c
~
..c
~
~
"0
~
0
C
~
..c
....
~
to
CO emi ssion-two-stroke vehi cle w ith and w ithout
catal yti c co nve rt er
DWithout
Cat.
Converter
DWith
Converter
(5
;!2. c
o
1\1
~=
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Figure I (h ) -
He emi ssions-two- stroke vehi cle wi th
and
without cata lyti c co nvert er
It is we ll known th at good spark ignition (SI)
e ngine fu e ls are poor di ese l fu e ls. This is true for
ethanol , w hi c h has hi g h octan e and hi gh latent heat,
whi c h are virtues for SI e ng ines application but
render it as an undes irabl e fu e l for di esel e ngines.
Stoichiometri c considerations require rough ly 1.7times more o f ethan o l mass compared to di ese l fuel.
93
Then considering the latent heat of vaporization of
900 kJfkg of ethano l compared to 600 kJf kg fo r
diesel , it is possible to estimate the mixture
temperature as a result of vaporization of ethano l.
Cooling can be detrime ntal at low ambient air
temperatures when the co ld start may beco me
difficult. The charge air cooling will a lso act to
quench combustion in di ese l e ngines. Thi s makes
ethanol a difficult fuel to combust in the compression
ignition diesel engines. It is for this reason that
ethanol is not being used on large commercial scal e
a nywhere in the world for di ese l applications.
Variou s research es have tri ed to use pilot injec tion s
and biofuels approaches for part substitution of di ese l
fuel 6,7 . All these approaches require e ng ine des ign
c han ges, which are difficult to imple me nt.
An approach , more like ly to be successful, is to
use ethanol-diese l bl e nds as no e ng ines modificat ions
are required. This ca n a lso e nabl e the use of et hano l
in the farm sector near the source of produ cti o n as
and when surplus ethan o l is ava i labl e . Phase
separation has been the most c ritical pro bl em w ith
blends of diese l and ethanol. Add iti on of traces of
water will separate th e diese l and ethanol. Th e wate r
tolerance is extreme ly poor at low te mperatures and
improves wit h increase in te mperature.
The anhydrous e thanol can be bl e nded w ith
diesel fuel by use of additives commonly known as
couplers. Such bl e nd s could use up to 10 per cent
e thanol in di ese l. A few co mpani es a re inte rnati o nall y
marketin g th ese addit ives which bes ides mak in g the
blend stable also contain cetane impro ve rs to
compensate for the lower cetane quality of e th a nol.
As the lubri c ity of th e e th ano l is also poore r,
additional additives for e nhan c in g lubricity may a lso
be required . The tighte nin g o f e missi o n norms require
di ese l sulphur re moval which re nd e r th e fuel even
poorer in lubricity and this would definite ly call for
additional lubricity tmprove rs In di ese l-etha nol
blends.
A typical ethanol-d iese l bl e nd marketed in
Europe as E-diese l is re po rted to res ult in 19 pe r cent
reduction in CO and 17 pe r cent red uction in Pm with
no significant change in HC and NO x (re f. 8).
A nother marketed ethano l-diesel bl e nd as O 2 di ese l is
claimed to have resu lted in co nsiste ntl y red uced
e mission s of vis ibl e smoke, NO", CO, Pm, a nd
aldehydes durin g extensive e mi ss io n tes ts co nducted
at independe nt the US , European, and South
American la borato ri es'}
94
J SCII ND RES VOL 62 JANUAR Y-FEB RUA RY 2003
If the water tolerance of blends could be
impro ved, it would be possible to use even the
cheaper grade of hydrous ethanol. In addition to
lowering cost, th e di esel- ethanol- water emul sion
could improve combustion . The water serves as a heat
sink, lowerin g combustion temperatures and reducin g
NO, emi ssion 10. Its vo latility serves to impro ve
ato mization thu s reducing Pm emissions. The oxygen
content on account of et hanol in the fuel could redu ce
carbon monox ide.
engine. The biod iese l also has good lu bric ity and can
compensate fo r the loss of lubricity on accou nt of
removal of sulphur in the blend with low sulphur
di esel fu els. The use of bi o-di esel-d iesel blends
increase the oxygen content in the fuel like ethanol
and therefore results in redu cti on of carbon monox ide
emi ss ions. The other incentives for using bio-diesel
are that it is non-toxic, bi o-degradable and a
renewable fuel with virtuall y no su lphur, low
aromatics and low volatility.
Biodiesel for Diesel Engines
In a study conducted with bi od iesel and di esel
blends containing 10, 20, 30, 50 and 100 per cent
blends reported that in comparison with low sulphur
di esel the blends generally resu lt in lower black
smoke emissions. As a result of their influence on
soot formation all of the ester blends result in
substantial improvements in total particulate
emi ss ion s. However the fuel co nsumption as well as
the NO, emissions tend to increase with the increase
in percentage of ester. A summary of the fu e l
consu mption and emi ss ion test conducted under 13
mode test cyc le by FEY is given in Figure 2 (ref. 12).
Bi odi esel when blended up to 20 per cent in low
sulphur di esel can improve the performance of the
engine particul arl y in terms of emi ssions of HC, CO
and particulates with minimum penalty of fuel
The use of vegetable oils either raw or mo re
usually after esterifi cati on has been of interest for
diesel engine applications . Although neat vegetable
oils could be combusted in diesel engine, there are
problems reported from long term use". Most of the
engine problems related to injector coking, piston,
and ring deposits and lubricating oil incompatibility
can be eliminated by modifying the oi l into vegetable
es ters called bi odi esel throu gh th e process of
transesterification related to injector co king, pi ston
and ring deposits and lubricating oil incompatibility.
The bio-diese l ex hibits chemical and thermodynamic
properties which are substantiall y simil ar to di ese l
fuel. The bio-diesel has higher cetane number an d
th erefore is quiet suitab le fo r combusti on in a di esel
~ .-------------------------------------------------------------------------
ON:x
oPcJtiajciES
me
om
1(ffC
-1ffi L---- - - - - -------------- -------------------------- -- ----------------------
Fi gure 2 -- Comparison between 100 per cent Iwo sulphur and blends of biodiesel having 10.20,30,50. and 100 per cent biodiesel
MALHOTR A & DAS: BIOFUELS
eco nomy and NO, emissions. In the FEY study, with
the 20 per cent biodiesel blend, redu ction of the order
of 24 per cent of particulates and 32 per cent of
hydrocarbons was observed with only 5 per cent
increase in the NO, and on ly 2 per cent increase in the
specific fu e l consumption. With the change in engine
settings it is poss ible to reduce both NO, and
particulates wh il e maintaining fuel consumption
reaso nably closed to th e di ese l fu e l.
In a stud y conducted on a Navistar diese l 1.1
engine unde r 13 mode steady state test conditions,
reducti o n in the total pa rticulate was seen. Under the
light load conditions, however, a sli g ht increase in the
particulate e mission s was seen due to increased
Soluble Organic Fraction (SOF). In most of the
studies i .) , conducted with diese l and bio-di ese l bl end s,
the SOF portion of the parti c ulates is reported to
increase with the inc reasing proportion of bi o-di ese l,
even thou g h the total parti c ulates are lower on
account of lowe r soot gene ration .
It is re ported that the use of a di ese l oxidation
cata lyst in th e ex hau st system burn th e part of
particu lates due to e leva ted tempe ratures in the
cata lys t bed . Reduction ofSOF con.tent is particularly
of interest H·ith catalyst vehicles. The hi g he r oxygen
conte nt o f bio-diesel could he lp in improvin g the
performance of th e oxi dation catalyst , thus he lpin g
further reduc tion s of parti culates bes ides the
hydroca rbons and carbon monoxide. Us e of BioDiesel and Diesel blends th erefore has potential for
significant ell1ission reduction s including particulates
/i"OI11 di esel engin es .
Issues Related To Success of Biofuels Programme
In India
India has an exce ll e nt pote ntial for inc reas in g
the product io n of ethan o l not only from th e sugarcane
but also by utili zat ion o f various other biosources,
res idu es and wastes . Indi a also has large degradabl e
land where no n-edi ble o il seeds could be grow n for
conve rsion into biodiese l. This can he lp in creation of
millions of jobs particularly in the rural sector,
besides prov idin g e nergy security throu g h the
production of home grow n re newabl e fuels which
will also he lp in reduc in g pollution .
Howeve r, th e re are several iss ues re lated to the
success of this programme in Indi a which need to be
addressed .
both
India at present , has surp lu s refinin g ca pac ity of
motor gaso lin e and diesel fuel. The o il
95
companies will find it diffi cult to start using these
biofuel s as blending component unless the sa me is
avai lable at be low the inte rnational price of motor
gasoline and diesel. In case, these biofuel s could be
produced economically, th e oi I companies cou Id
consider blending these fuels with petroleum fuels
and exporting the surplus pe trol eum fu e ls .
Alternatively the Government interve ntion in th e
form of fi sca l incentives, exc ise duty concessions,
e tc ., would be required for the success of th e
programme.
In addition to the issue of pnclllg the oil
companies would look forward to th e sustain ed
ava ilability of such fu e ls before makin g any
investments on creation of blending facilitie s of these
fuels. In India the a lcohol is so me times ava ilabl e in
abundance and also scarce at differe nt times during
last few years . This has bee n one of th e major factor
for the non-impleme ntation of the a lcohol prog ramme
in India in the past. The biodiese l produc tion is yet to
commence on a commercial scale in th e country.
Although , there seems to be strong pote ntial fo r the
produc tion of biodiese l, the impleme ntati on of
programmes for plantati o n in degraded land ,
co ll ection of seeds and in vestme nts for the eco no mi c
producti o n of fue l g rade bi odi ese l would need
Government support.
Another iss ue which would need to be addressed
is the assessment of th e suitability of Indian des igns
of engines and vehicles to perform satisfactorily
whi le operating on the bl e nd s o f biofuel s and
pe troleum fuels . There is an urgent need for R&D
prog rammes to be taken up jointl y or independentl y
by th e automobile indu stry and the oil indu stry so as
to ensure that biofue ls could be utilized as and when
they are available in sufficient quantiti es at eco nom ic
rates .
At this point of time, we may, howeve r,
consider using biofu e ls fro m emissions po int of vie w
in the polluted c iti es as alternative to th e eNG and
LPG which are on ly be in g regarded as ollly c leaner
options . The ethanol gaso lin e bl end s have been found
to result in red uction s of cal·hon mo noxide e mi ssio ns ,
particularly from th e two stroke e ng in e powered
vehicles which constitute large proportion of the tota l
vehicle population in Indian cities. The addit io nal
advantage of hydrocarbon e mi ss io ns hes ides highe r
reduction of carbon monoxid e are achievable, if these
vehicles are fitted with catal yti c co nve rte rs. Indi a also
has a large populati o n of diesel veh ic les which are
96
J SCiIND RES VOL 62 JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2003
under attack from the environmentalists on account of
hi gher smoke and particulates. The use of biofuels in
di ese l engines as blending component of diesel fuel
may help in reduction of such emissions to some
ex tent.
4
5
6
8
9
References
2
3
7
A performance stud y o f iso-bu ta no l-meth ano l- ,and ethanolgaso line bl end s usin g a sin g le cylinder engine, by S S
Sri ram, Po puri et aI. , SAE Paper No.:932953 .
Plant oils - Fucl of th e future, J Sci Ind Res, 61 (2002) 7-16.
Guidebook lo r evaluating, selec tin g, a nd implementing fuc l
c ho ices for transit bu s o perat ion s, TCRP Report 38, 1998.
Handboo k on bi oeth anol: producti o n and utilisation, by
C harl es E Wyman , 1996.
Produ cti o n and utili satio n of bi o-eth ano l fo r rural
development and enviro nment protection , Pre Ph 0 Proj ec t
Report by R K Malh o tra at Indian Institute o f T ec hnology,
Delhi . Nove mbe r, 2000.
Sub zero cold startin g o f a port inj ected M 100 engien using
plasma jet ignition and prompt EGR , by 0 Gardiner el al.,
Alternate fuel s - A decad e of success and pro mi se, SAE
PT-48 .
10
Performance and emissions o f a DOC 8V -7 1 tran sit bus
e ngine usin g ig niti o n improved meth ano l a nd eth ano l, by R
Bec htold et aI. , Alternate fu els-A decad e o f success and
promise, SAE PT-48 .
Inlormation provided in th e commercial lit e rat ure o f MIs
Akzo Di ese l.
Information pro vid ed in th e co mmercia l lite rature of MIs
AAE Technologies.
Evaluation of diesel fu el- e thanol mi cro e mul sio ns, by P A
Boruffet et aI., 1982-Trans ASAE.
II
A rev iew o f the potential lo r biofue ls as transpo rtation fuel s,
by 0 J Rickeard et a I. , SAE Paper No. 932778.
12
The effects of rapeseed oil meth yl es te r o n diesel engi ne
pe rforman ce, exhaust e mis sio ns a nd lo ng - term beha viour a summ ary of three years of experimentatio n. F Staat , et ai. ,
SAE Paper No. 950053.
13
Emissions a nd perlormance c haracteristics o f a 4-s tro ke,
direct injecti on di ese l engine fu eled with blends o f biodiesel
and low su lphur diesel fuel , R J Last ct al.. SAE Paper No.
950054.
14 Determin at io n of pa rticul ate a nd unburn ed hydroca rbo n
emissions from diesel engines fu e led with biodi esel, Dav id
Y Chang et a I., SAE Paper 982527
14
Mr R K Malh olra is holdin g Ihe posilion (~j' DepUl)' Geneml Mallager al R&D Celllre oj' lndian Oil
Co rporalion Lillliled. He is ill charE;e of Vehicle Teslill g, Fuels and Emissions Division. He did his Mechanical
Engin eerin g in 1975 fr0 1l1 In.l'lilllle of Technology, Ballams Hilldll Ullive rsit\'. He has 27 vears of experience ill Ihe
field of File!.\', Lllhricanls and Vehiclliar Emissions. He has pllblished m ore Ihan 30 resea rch papers in Ihisfield and
holds Ihree inlel'llalional palen Is 10 his C/wlil.
Dr L M Das is a Professo r ill Ihe Cenlre f or Energy SlIldies, Indian Inslilllie of Techno lo.'{ l' (I1T) , Delhi. He
has Il ea rlv Ihirly years oj' leachinE; Iresearch experience. His prilll(// ), areas of resea rch inlereSI in clude developllleni
of ailernalive fll els for 101V emission inlernal COIT/huslion engin e/vehicles. He has pllblished I/lOre Ihan 75 papers in Ihe
area of allernalive fil I' I SlIch as hydrogen , biodiesel, bylhan e, CNG as \Veil as Oil vehiclliar emissions. He had had
several resea rch and CO/lsllliancy assiglll1lenls abroad, such as ill University of California, Riverside; 111.l'Ii11llO
Superior Technico, Lishon , Shell Resea rch Lid, Th ornlon Resea rch Cenlre, England and fllS/il 11 I Naliollal de
Recherche SlIr Les Transp or!s 1'1 Lellr Sec/.lrile (INRETS), Bran, France. He is also on Ih e Ediloria! Boa rd of Ihe
Journal of Sciel/lijic and IndllSlrial Research.