MIAMI UNIVERSITY
The Graduate School
Certificate for Approving the Dissertation
We hereby approve the Dissertation
of
LaTasha McKenzie Mack
Candidate for the Degree:
Doctorate of Philosophy
___________________________________
Carl E. Paternite, Ph.D.
Director
___________________________________
Denise Haynie, Ph.D., M.P.H.
Reader
___________________________________
Yvette Harris, Ph.D.
Reader
___________________________________
Julie Rubin, Ph.D.
Reader
___________________________________
Margaret O’Dougherty-Wright, Ph.D.
Reader
___________________________________
Ronald J. Iannotti, Ph.D.
Graduate School Representative
ABSTRACT
ASSOCIATIONS AMONG ADOLESCENTS’ HEALTH-RISK BEHAVIOR, THEIR
PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR FRIENDS’ HEALTH-RISK BEHAVIOR, PARENTAL SUPPORT
AND SCHOOL SUPPORT WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF A SCHOOL TRANSITION
by LaTasha McKenzie Mack
Within the context of transitioning from a smaller to a larger school setting, adolescents’ selfreported health-risk behavior and academic achievement were examined in relation to their
perceptions of their friends’ health-risk behavior and parent and school support. Hypotheses
were generated using the “windows of vulnerability” (Lau Quadrel, & Hartman; 1990) and the
“stage-environment fit” (Eccles, Lord, & Midgley; 1991) models. Previous health-risk behavior,
friends’ health-risk behavior, parent support and the interaction term parent support by academic
achievement were predictive of adolescents’ current health-risk behavior. In general,
adolescents with low support and academic achievement participated more in health-risk
behavior. Suggestions for prevention and intervention programs are offered.
Associations among Adolescents’ Health-Risk Behavior, their Perceptions of Friends’ HealthRisk Behavior, Parental Support and School Support within the Context of a School Transition
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Faculty of
Miami University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate of Philosophy
Department of Psychology
by
LaTasha McKenzie Mack
Miami University
Oxford, Ohio
2004
Director: Carl E. Paternite, Ph.D.
Table of Contents
Introduction
………………………………………………………………………..9
Data Archive ……………………………………………………………………….16
Method for Present Study ………………………………………………………….16
Analysis Plan ………………………………………………………………………19
Results ………………………………………………………………………….…..21
Discussion …………………………………………………………………….……24
ii
List of Tables
Table 1.
Reported Prevalence of Adolescents’ Health-Risk Behaviors …………………….40
Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Sample Size of Parent Support,
School Support, Academic Achievement, 30-Day Health-Risk Behavior,
12-Month Health-Risk Behavior, Friends’ Health-Risk Behavior.. …………...…..41
Table 3.
Reported Number of Friends’ Participating in Health-Risk Behavior…….……….42
Table 4. Zero Order Correlations Between Self-reported Health-Risk Behavior and
Perceptions of Friends’ Health Risk Behavior ……………………….……….…..43
Table 5a. Analysis of CoVariance for Health-Risk Behavior………………………………..44
Table 5b. Analysis of CoVariance for Health-risk Behavior, Planned Pairwise
Comparisons ………………………………………………………………………45
Table 6a. Summary of Regression Analysis for Parent Support Predicting
Adolescent 30-Day Health-Risk Behavior………………………………………...46
Table 6b. Summary of Regression Analysis for Parent Support Predicting
Adolescent 12-month Health-Risk Behavior ……………………………………...47
Table 6c. Summary of Regression Analysis for School Support Predicting
Adolescent 30-Day Health-Risk Behavior ………………………….…………….48
Table 6d. Summary of Regression Analysis for School Support Predicting
Adolescent 12-month Health-Risk Behavior ……………………………………..49
Table 6e. Summary of Regression Analysis for Academic Achievement
Predicting Adolescent 30-Day Health-Risk Behavior……………………….……50
Table 6f. Summary of Regression Analysis for GPA Predicting Adolescent
12-Month Health-Risk Behavior………………………………………………….51
Table 7. Summary of Regression Analysis for Parent Support and GPA
Predicting Adolescent 12-Month Health-Risk Behavior…………………………..52
iii
List of Figures
Figure 1. The Relations between Parent Support and Friends’
Health-risk Behavior on Adolescents’ 30-day Health-Risk Behavior……….54
Figure 2. The Relations between Parent Support and Academic
Achievement on Adolescents’ 30-day Health-Risk Behavior……………….55
iv
List of Appendixes
Appendix A. Health-risk Behavior …………………..………………………………..56
Appendix B. Friends’ Health-risk Behavior ………….……………………………….57
Appendix C. Parent Support ………………………………………………………….58
Appendix D. School Support …………………………………………………………59
Appendix E. Academic Achievement …………………………………………….…..60
v
Acknowledgments
One of the highlights of my graduate school experience was a summer internship at the
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Prevention Branch. My
sincerest gratitude is extended to Drs. Bruce Simons-Morton and Denise Haynie of NICHD for
allowing me to use a subset of the Adolescent Problem Behavior dataset for my dissertation.
Further, Denise’s involvement on the committee was critical to the development of this project.
I also appreciate the efforts of my research advisor, Dr. Carl E. Paternite. Carl and I
worked together for the majority of my graduate school years at Miami. His supervision of both
my thesis and dissertation greatly influenced my development as a researcher.
Dr. Ronald J. Iannotti was an integral part of my professional development as a
researcher during graduate school and he made himself readily available for consultation during
the earlier stages of this dissertation. Ron also played a large role in my summer internship at
NICHD, for which I remain grateful. In many ways, Ron made my difficult times at Miami
more tolerable. He is a good person and mentor.
My family remained supportive and encouraging throughout the five years of graduate
school I was away from home. The distance from home, heavy workload of school, economic
hardship and my work ethic resulted in my missing a number of important family gatherings.
Thank you all for your patience over the past five years.
I also would like to thank Drs. Yvette R. Harris, Margaret O’Dougherty-Wright and Julie
Rubin for serving on the committee.
vi
Associations among Adolescents’ Health-Risk Behavior, their Perceptions of Friends’ HealthRisk Behavior, Parental Support and School Support within the Context of a School Transition
Contemporary society has witnessed adolescents’ continued participation in risky
behaviors during a time when the negative consequences of such behavior can be fatal.
Participation in health-risk behavior (e.g., alcohol use) can result in irreversible consequences
(e.g., automobile accidents), which can cause immediate and long-term health complications
(Kennedy & Prothrow-Stith, 1997; Gruber & Zinman, 2001; Prevention Primer, 1999;
Kurtzman, Otsuka, & Wahl, 2001). The purpose of this study was to examine contexts that
promote or discourage adolescent health-risk behavior. Identifying these contexts can be of
assistance in developing appropriate prevention and intervention programs targeting the
promotion of adolescent health.
Prevalence of Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior
Adolescents “face a serious health crisis involving new sources of mortality and
morbidity… diseases of lifestyle” (Elliott, 1997). Indeed, statistics suggest that adolescents are
over-represented in all categories of health-risk behavior (Arnett, 1992). Gruber and Zinnman
(2001) found that 42% of adolescents initiated cigarette smoking before the age of 16. By 15
years of age, 88% of boys and 87% of girls have consumed alcohol (Cook & Moore, 2001). In
comparison to other age groups, adolescent marijuana use is higher (U.S. Census of the Bureau,
1997).
Adolescence: A Window of Vulnerability
Adolescence spans over a decade and is associated with significant biological, cognitive
and social changes. Biological changes associated with puberty include increases in hormone
production, reproductive capabilities, and mature physical appearance (Brooks-Gunn & Paikoff,
1993). There is cognitive development in the capacity and ability for abstract reasoning, selfreflection, consideration of future consequences and decision-making (Crockett & Petersen,
1993). Changes also occur in the qualities of peer relationships. In comparison to childhood
friendships, adolescent friendships are more intimate, more stable, more supportive (Brown,
Dolcini, & Leventhal, 1997), and less supervised by parents (Eccles, Midgeley, Buchanan,
1
Wigfield, Reuman, & Mac Iver 1993; Millstein, 1993). Also during adolescence, peer
relationships become as important, if not more important, than familial relationships (Perry,
Kelder, & Komro, 1993).
According to Bronfenbrenner (1972, 1978, 1986), individual development is a dynamic
process that takes place in the context of various systems of influence. The systems of influence
are the chronosystem, the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.
(For a more detailed description of each system’s influence on individual development, see
Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Across the lifespan, the systems of influence interact with an individual
in ways that affect the individual’s development. Interactions between the systems and the
individual are dependent on the resources accessible within each system of influence and the
individual’s own characteristics. However, individuals in the same developmental phase (e.g.,
adolescence) have been noted to share certain characteristics, and, therefore, interact with the
systems of influence similarly (Nurmi, 1997).
Lau, Quadrel, and Hartman (1990) offered a model for the development of health
behavior and beliefs that fits well within Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. Lau et al., focused
on influences within the microsystem to explain the development of health behavior. The
researchers’ four-year study examined the influences of parents and friends on the health
behavior of college students. The findings suggested that the students’ transition from home to
college was associated with changes in their health behavior. In general, the students’ freshman
year health behavior was closely associated with their parents’ behavior whereas their behavior
during later college years was more closely associated with friends’ behavior.
Lau et al., (1990) suggested that adolescence is the first opportunity most individuals
have to take some responsibility for the maintenance of their health. This opportunity is
described in the ‘windows of vulnerability’ model. Vulnerability refers to the adolescents’
ability to seriously consider the risks of engaging in health-risk behavior while experiencing
social pressures to engage in the behavior. The difficulty adolescents experience using decisionmaking skills under increased stress and pressure has been reviewed elsewhere (Brooks-Gunn &
Paikoff, 1993).
Vulnerability within the Stage-Environment Fit Model
Adolescence often is associated with institutional (e.g., school) transitions (Cowell &
Marks, 1997). Based on a person-environment fit model (Hunt, 1975; Mitchell, 1969), Eccles,
2
Lord, and Midgley (1991) proposed a stage-environment fit model for understanding adolescent
development across institutional transitions. This model suggests that the individual’s
psychological, physical and cognitive developmental levels interact with the structure of their
environment to determine how well the individual adjusts within that given structure. The better
fit between the adolescents’ developmental needs and the environment’s support results in better
adjustment for the adolescent, including less participation in health-risk behavior.
Transitions into larger schools often are accompanied by psychological, social, and
academic problems, which in turn have been associated with adolescents’ increased participation
in health-risk behavior (Eccles, Lord, Roeser, Barber, & Jozefowicz, 1997). Also, school
systems requiring adolescents to transition from smaller schools into larger schools have been
criticized for not being supportive of adolescents’ developmental needs (Eccles, Lord, &
Midgley, 1991). Developmental changes (e.g., hormonal changes) along with institutional
changes require for the adolescent to deal with a great amount of unfamiliarity. It has been
suggested that early and middle adolescents should continue to advance through smaller schools.
Smaller schools often are described as having lower teacher-student ratios, providing more
opportunity for students to engage in decision-making skills, having a more personal and positive
teacher-student relationship, and having fewer adolescents participate in health-risk behavior
(Eccles, Lord, & Midgley, 1991).
Influences on Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior
Parental Influence. Several studies have indicated that parents influence adolescents’
health-risk behavior. For example, adolescents’ risky driving has been associated positively with
witnessing their fathers engage in risky driving practices (Harre, Brandt, & Dawe, 2000). Both
maternal and grandparental smoking have been associated with adolescent smoking (Chassin,
Presson, Rose, Sherman, & Todd, 1998). Somewhat similarly, Iannotti, Bush, and Weinfurt
(1996) found perceived family use of alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana to be a contributing
predictor of adolescent substance use.
Peer Influence. Studies have consistently indicated that peers influence adolescents’
health-risk behavior. Adolescents with friends who are drug users are more likely to engage in
health-risk behavior than are adolescents with friends who are not drug users (Fisher & Bauman,
1988). Perceived friends’ substance use has been identified as the best single predictor of
3
adolescents’ substance use (Iannotti, Bush, & Weinfurt, 1996). Other studies (Brook, Nomura &
Cohen, 1989; Johnson, 2001) also have found associations between adolescent substance use and
adolescents’ perceptions of peers’ substance use.
Few studies have investigated both peer and parental influences on adolescent health-risk
behavior. However, of the studies conducted, both parental and peer health-risk behavior were
predictive of adolescents’ health-risk behavior (Chassin et al, 1986 and Iannotti et al., 1996).
Whereas in some studies (Chassin et al., 1986) parental and peer influences were not found to
differ significantly, other studies (Iannotti et al., 1996) have found peer influence, in comparison
to parental influence, to be a stronger predictor of adolescent health-risk behavior.
School Environment Influence. Associations between adolescents’ health-risk behavior
and their school environment have not been extensively investigated. However, of the studies
conducted, some suggest that school environmental factors have an impact on adolescents’
health-risk behavior. On the one hand, participation in school extracurricular activities and
interest in school have been related to decreased participation in health-risk behaviors (Field,
Lang, Yando & Bendell, 1995). On the other hand, some studies suggest that involvement in
school extracurricular activities is related to less participation in some health-risk behaviors, such
as regular smoking, but not others, such as drinking (Simantov, Schoen, & Klein, 2000).
Research by Eccles and Barber (1999) provided some clarification on the association
between school environment and adolescent health-risk behavior. Their research indicates that
different types of activities are related differently to adolescent participation in health-risk
behavior. In their study, involvement in prosocial activities during earlier grades was related to
less participation in risky behaviors during later grades. Similarly, students involved in school
performing arts organizations were less likely than other students to later engage in health-risk
behavior. However, involvement in team sports was related to more involvement in risky
behaviors, particularly alcohol use.
Few studies have collectively investigated parental, peer and school influences on
adolescent health-risk behavior. However, studies do indicate that school, family, and
neighborhood factors affect adolescents’ academic performance, mental health and social
behaviors (e.g., Cook, Herman, Phillips, & Settersen, Jr., 2002).
Perceived Support and Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior
Parent Support. Some studies have investigated the associations between adolescents’
4
health-risk behavior and their perceptions of the quality of the relationship with a parent or
family. McCubbin, Needle, and Wilson (1985) investigated associations between 12 and 13
year-old adolescents’ perceptions of the quality of their family relationships and their health-risk
behavior. For girls, the variance explained by quality of family relationships for participating in
health-risk behaviors such as cigarette smoking, alcohol use and marijuana use was 15%, 11%,
and 9%, respectively. For boys, the variance explained by quality of family relationships for
participating in health-risk behaviors was 14% for cigarette smoking, 12% for alcohol use and
5% for marijuana use.
The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Resnick, Bearman, Blum,
Bauman, Harris, Jones, Tabor, Beuring, Sieving, Shew, Ireland, & Bearinger, 1997) also found
family and parental context variables to be associated with various adolescent health-risk
behaviors. Family context, including family caring, was found to explain 6 – 9% of the variance
in the frequency of adolescents’ health-risk behavior, including alcohol use, cigarette use, and
marijuana use. Although family/parental context variables do reveal important influences on
adolescent health-risk behavior, it has been suggested that because such variables are not
isomorphic with one another, specific variables (e.g., support) should be studied directly
(Furman & Buhrmester, 1985).
Supportive School Environments. Studies have examined the association between
adolescent health-risk behavior and adolescents’ perceptions of support within the school
context. Higher levels of “school bonding” or “connectedness” have been related negatively
with adolescent health-risk behavior. For example, in another study that included 7th through
12th grade students attending public schools, school disconnectedness was related positively with
cigarette use, regardless of gender (Bonny, Britto, Klostermann, Hornung & Slap, 2000). In a
study of 6th through 8th grade students attending public schools, school bonding and school
climate were inversely related to problem behaviors, including smoking, drinking and other
substance use, but the association was stronger for females than for males (Simons-Morton,
Crump, Haynie, & Saylor, 1999).
Few studies have investigated relations between adolescent health-risk behavior and both
perceived parental and school environmental support. One such study, which included
participants from grades 7 through 12, found that both parent/family and school connectedness
5
were protective against adolescents’ engaging in health-risk behavior (Resnick et al. 1997).
Rationale for the Study
As practitioners and researchers interested in adolescent health move into a new era of
prevention and intervention programs targeting the promotion of health during adolescence, the
importance of learning what influences adolescents’ participation in behaviors that compromises
their health is paramount (Millstein, 1993). Extant research has shown that parents and the
school environment influence adolescents’ health behavior. However, there are too few of these
studies to illustrate the impact of such influences across adolescents’ transitions through the
school system. Further, it is unclear what qualities of interpersonal relationships affect
adolescents’ health behavior (Windle, 1999). Only a few studies have examined the effects of
relational support on adolescents’ health behavior. There are too few studies to formulate a clear
understanding of how relational support from parents and the school environment interact with
friends’ health-risk behavior to influence adolescents’ health behavior.
Although the ‘windows of vulnerability’ model explicitly addresses both parental and
peer influences on adolescent health behavior, factors such as school environmental support have
been neglected. Yet, research shows that parental and school support affect adolescents’ health
behavior. Also, the Lau et al. (1990), study was conducted using an older adolescent sample.
Therefore, the generalizability of their results to younger adolescents is limited.
The present study aimed to expand the applicability of the “windows of vulnerability”
model in explaining influences on adolescent health-risk behavior, including cigarette smoking,
alcohol use and marijuana use, by examining the contexts in which younger adolescents do and
do not participate in risky behavior. Variables related to adolescents’ relationships with their
parents and their school environments were examined to determine how these variables affect the
association between adolescents’ health-risk behavior and their perceptions of friends’ healthrisk behavior. In comparison to the Lau et al. study, the present study examined a more
ethnically diverse sample. Further, the present study examined younger adolescents transitioning
from a smaller school context into a larger school context. The effects of such school transitions
are under-examined.
Hypotheses
1) Iannotti, et al. (1996) and others consistently have found positive associations between
6
adolescents’ health-risk behavior and their perceptions of their friends’ health-risk behavior. To
confirm this well-established finding, the association between adolescents’ health-risk behavior
and their perceptions of their friends’ health-risk behavior was examined.
Hypothesis 1. A positive association between adolescents’ health-risk behavior and their
perceptions of friends’ health-risk behavior was expected.
2) The home and school environments of some adolescents have been associated with less
participation in health-risk behavior. Adolescents who feel supported in their homes are less
likely to engage in health-risk behavior (Klein, 1997). Also associated with increased
participation in health-risk behavior is transitioning from a smaller to a larger school setting.
Such transitions also are associated with decreased academic achievement and increased
participation in health-risk behavior (Eccles, Lord, Roeser, Barber, & Jozefowicz, 1997).
Hypothesis 2. a) Adolescents’ who reported higher levels of perceived parent support in
the 8th grade were expected to participate less in health-risk behavior in the 9th grade,
compared to adolescents who reported lower levels of perceived parent support; b)
Adolescents who reported higher levels of perceived school support in the 8th grade were
expected to participate less in health-risk behavior in the 9th grade, compared to
adolescents who reported lower levels of perceived school support; and c) Adolescents
who reported higher academic achievement in the 8th grade were expected to participate
less in health-risk behavior in the 9th grade, compared to adolescents who reported lower
academic achievement.
3) Few studies have investigated the association between adolescents’ health-risk behavior and
their perceptions of friends’ health-risk behavior, perceived parental support and perceived
school support. Cook, Herman, Phillips, & Settersen (2002) suggested that such support is
related negatively with adolescents’ participation in health-risk behavior. For Hypothesis 3,
results similar to the Cook et al. study were expected.
Hypothesis 3. a) Perceived parent support was expected to moderate the association
between adolescents’ health-risk behavior and their friends’ health-risk behavior; b)
Perceived school support was expected to moderate the association between adolescents’
health-risk behavior and their friends’ health-risk behavior; and c) Academic
achievement was expected to moderate the association between adolescents’ health-risk
behavior and their friends’ health-risk behavior.
7
Data Archive
Data for the present study was collected as part of a larger research project. With
parental consent, 6th through 8th grade middle school students attending seven Maryland public
middle schools were followed through 9th grade (high school). Three of the middle schools were
assigned to a treatment group and four were assigned to a control group. From a population of
approximately 3,800 students, participation rates were 70% at 8th grade and 62% at 9th grade.
Each year participating students completed a student health survey, which assessed a
variety of behavioral, attitudinal and psychological factors. The 224-item 8th grade survey
contained questions concerning demographic information, health behavior, academic
achievement and extracurricular activity, delinquent behavior and misconduct, perceived parent
and school environment support, perceived parental expectations and monitoring, and
perceptions of friend, peer, and parent health behavior (See Appendix A).
The 9th grade measure contained 112 questions and assessed health behavior, academic
achievement, educational expectations and aspirations, as well as perceptions of friends’ healthrisk behavior. (See Appendix B).
Questionnaire administration for all participants took place during class or during a
makeup session. Two trained proctors administered the surveys to groupings of 20 to 35
adolescents. Classroom teachers remained in the classroom, but did not circulate around the
room and were not in any way involved in administering the survey. Participant confidentiality
was protected; the survey contained only the participant’s identification number.
The study protocol was approved by the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development Institutional Review Board and authorized representatives of the school district.
(For more information on the original study, see Simons-Morton, Crump, Haynie & Saylor,
1999; Simons-Morton, Haynie, Crump, Eitel & Saylor, 2001; Simons-Morton, Haynie, Crump,
Saylor, Eitel & Yu, 1999).
Method for Present Study
Participants
Due to the restricted focus of the current study, including the nature of the hypotheses
and statistical procedures (e.g., predictive analyses) used, only data from participants that
responded to the items on the independent variables of interest taken from the 8th grade survey
and the dependent variables of interest taken from the 9th grade survey were included in the
8
study. Forty-nine percent of the 1,775 original control group sample were excluded from this
study.
Longitudinal data from 906 8th and 9th grade control group participants were included in
the present study. Forty-four percent of the participants were male. Most (70.7%) were
Caucasian; 19.2% were African American and 10.2% were of “other” racial background,
including Latino, Native American and Asian. The participants’ socio-economic status was less
diverse. The school district sampled is a middle-class area where about 45% of households in
the community earn between $50,000 – 99,000 and almost one-fourth earn a six-figure salary
(Census of the Bureau, 2000). Students in special education and with reading disabilities were
excluded.
Measures
Health-Risk Behavior. Six questions referring to cigarette use, alcohol use and marijuana
use within the past 30 days and 12 months were extracted from the 9th grade survey to create
separate measures (30-day composite and 12-month composite) of health-risk behavior. Each
extracted item contained a set of possible multiple-choice responses indicating the number of
times a substance was used during the time period specified, a) 0 b) 1-2 c) 3-9 d) 10-19 and e)
20+. Responses were coded from least risky (zero) to most risky (20+). Item endorsement
reflecting more risky behavior received a higher number of “risk units” than item endorsement of
less risky behavior. Participants earned a separate risk score for 30-day health-risk behavior and
for 12-month health-risk behavior. Risk scores reflected a tabulation of risk units within a 30day and a 12-month period of time. (Items 7a-7b, 8a-8b, 10a-10b).
For the present study, reliability analyses were computed for each the 30-day health-risk
behavior variable and the 12-month health-risk behavior variable. The 30-day health-risk
behavior variable yielded a respectable reliability score (alpha = .76). The three item 12-month
health-risk behavior score also yielded a respectable reliability score (alpha = .78).
Perceived Friend Health-Risk Behavior. Also from the 9th grade survey, two questions
referring to friends’ cigarette use and alcohol use were extracted to create a measure of perceived
friends’ heath-risk behavior. Adolescents responded to these items to assess how many of their 5
closest friends engage in health-risk behavior. The survey items read “How many of your closest
5 friends do the following things: smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol (beer, wine, liquor)?” with a
response range from 0 to 5. Separate risk scores were assigned for smoking and for drinking.
9
(Items 18a - 18b).
A composite score was computed and used to gain an overall assessment of the influence
of friends’ health-risk behavior. The composite indicates whether adolescents’ friends engaged
in no health-risk behaviors, one health-risk behavior (cigarette smoking or alcohol use) or two
health-risk behaviors (cigarette smoking and alcohol use). The score range is 0 – 2. For the
present study, the two-item variable used to assess perceived friends’ health-risk behavior
yielded a respectable correlation between the items (r=.75, p<.01).
Perceived Parent Support. Twenty questions on perceived parent support were extracted
from the 8th grade survey. These questions were rated on a 4-point Likert scale, with a “1”
representing “strongly agree” and a “4” representing “strongly disagree.” Adolescents were
instructed to identify if a statement was representative of either a parent (e.g., mom or stepfather)
or a guardian. An example statement is, “I have a parent or guardian who enjoys doing things
with me.” The composite parent support variable was the sum score of the twenty items. (Items
56a - 56t).
For the present study, reliability analyses were computed for the perceived parent support
variable. The twenty-item composite variable yielded a respectable reliability score (alpha =
.82).
Perceived School Environmental Support. Twenty questions on perceived school
environment support were extracted from the 8th grade survey. These questions are rated on a 4point Likert scale, with a “1” representing “strongly agree” and a “4” representing “strongly
disagree.” Adolescents were asked to what extent they agreed or disagreed with each statement
about their middle school. An example statement is, “There is an adult at this school who cares
about me.” The composite school support variable was the mean score of the twenty items.
(Items 57a – 57t).
In the present study, reliability analyses were computed for the perceived school support
variable. The twenty-item composite variable yielded a respectable reliability score (alpha =
.85).
Academic Achievement. Four questions on academic achievement were extracted from
the 8th grade survey. These questions ask “What grade did you get on your last report card for
the last quarter in the following subjects: math, science, language arts, and social studies?” The
response set is 1) A, 2) B, 3) C, 4) D, 5) F. A grade point average was computed based on the
10
average of the math, science, language arts, and social studies grades. (Items 58a – 58d).
Analysis Plan
To account for the multiple analyses performed on the data, a family-wise Bonferonni
correction was applied within each set of analyses performed to examine an hypothesis. For the
first hypothesis, which contained one analysis, the significance level was set at p<.05 (i.e., .05
divided by 1). The significance level was set at p<.017 for the second hypothesis, which
included three analyses (i.e., .05 divided by 3). The significance level for the third hypothesis
also was set at p<.017. Results are reported as significant only if the correction criterion was
met.
Preliminary analyses, including descriptive and t-test statistics, were used to examine the
means, standard deviations and gender and race differences of the variables of interest. For
Hypothesis 1, correlation analyses were used to examine the association between 9th graders’
health-risk behavior and their perceptions of their friends’ health-risk behavior. In addition to
the friend health-risk behavior composite score and the adolescents’ 30-day and 12-month
health-risk behavior composite scores, the individual items (i.e., cigarette use, alcohol use,
marijuana use) also were examined to confirm associations across health-risk behaviors.
For Hypothesis 2, ANCOVA was used to examine associations among 8th grade selfreports of parent support, school support and academic achievement with 9th grade self-reported
health-risk behavior. For each the parent support, school support and academic achievement
variables, three groups (i.e., high, moderate, and low) were created based on the distribution.
The ‘high’ group included data greater than one standard deviation above the mean, (i.e., parent
support, 19.71 - 20.00; school support, 50.65 - 56.00; academic achievement, 4.65 - 5.00). The
‘moderate’ group included the mean and data one standard deviation above and below the mean
(i.e., parent support, 13.52 - 19.70; school support, 37.22 - 50.64; academic achievement, 2.91 –
4.64). The ‘low’ group included data less than one standard deviation below the mean (i.e.,
parent support, 5.00 -13.51; school support, 18 -37.21; academic achievement, 1 – 2.91). The
ranges for each variable were: parent support, 5 - 20; school support, 18 - 56; and academic
achievement, 1 - 5. As appropriate, race, gender, and 8th grade reports of health-risk behavior
were entered as covariates.
For Hypothesis 3, hierarchical linear regression techniques were used to examine the
contribution of each predictor variable (friends’ health-risk behavior, parental support, school
11
support and academic achievement) in accounting for the variance in adolescents’ health-risk
behavior. For each regression analysis, a limited number of interaction terms also were
examined.
In separate sets of regression analyses, parent support and friend behavior, school support
and friend behavior, and academic achievement and friend behavior were analyzed. Each
regression model was designed to statistically control for the variance in 9th graders’ health-risk
behavior accounted for by 8th grade health-risk behavior, gender and race. Only significant
contributions above the variance accounted for by these variables was interpreted as predictive of
adolescents’ health-risk behavior. For each set of regression analyses, the control variables (8th
grade health-risk behavior, gender, race) were entered as a block in the initial model. The
second and third regression models in the set included an independent variable of interest. The
final model of the set added the interaction term of the two independent variables of interest.
Missing Data. With race and gender controlled, ANOVA techniques revealed significant
differences in the 30-day (F(2, 1210)=10.38, p<.01) and 12-month (F(2, 1191)=9.60, p<.01) 8th
grade health-risk behavior of adolescents with data at the 8th grade only, compared to adolescents
with data at both the 8th grade and the 9th grade. Eighth grade only participants engaged more in
health-risk behavior during the 8th grade compared to adolescents who participated in both the 8th
grade and 9th grade. (Eighth grade only participants’ 30-day health-risk behavior mean = 1.34
and 12-month health-risk behavior mean = 2.26; 8th and 9th grade participants’ 30-day health-risk
behavior = .76 and 12-month health-risk behavior = 1.50).
ANOVA techniques revealed significant differences in perceived parent support, F(2,
1205)=3.64, p<.05, and perceived school support, F(2, 1204)=4.50, p<.01, between adolescents
who participated only at 8th grade compared with adolescents who participated in both the 8th
grade and 9th grade. Overall, adolescents who participated only in the 8th grade reported lower
levels of perceived support than did adolescents who participated at both 8th and 9th grade. There
also were differences in academic achievement, F(2, 1203)=21.45, p<.01, between adolescents
who participated in one versus both data collections. Adolescents who participated only at 8th
grade reported higher academic achievement than did adolescents who participated at both 8th
grade and 9th grade. (Eighth grade only participants’ parent support mean = 16.10, school
support mean = 42.54, academic achievement mean = 2.62; 8th and 9th grade participants’ parent
support mean = 16.62, school support mean = 43.96, academic achievement mean = 2.22).
12
Results
The majority of participants had never smoked, although about 22% reported smoking at
least once a month and about 32% reported smoking at least once a year. Similarly, the majority
of participants had never used alcohol; however, almost 30% reported alcohol use at least once a
month and approximately 43% reported using alcohol at least once a year. Approximately 10%
of adolescents reported using marijuana at least once a month and about 14% reported using
marijuana at least once a year. More detailed prevalence rates for adolescent health-risk
behavior are summarized in Table 1. Means, standard deviations and sample sizes for each
variable of interest are presented in Table 2. Adolescents’ perceptions of the number of friends
participating in health-risk behavior are presented in Table 3.
Independent samples t-tests revealed significant differences in 30-day and 12-month risktaking behavior by race (Black mean = .72, White mean = 1.26, and Black mean = 1.38, White
mean = 2.14, respectively). However, there were no significant differences in 30-day or 12month health-risk behavior by gender (boy mean = 1.12, girl mean = 1.15 and boy mean = 1.81,
girl mean = 2.04, respectively).
Hypothesis 1. A positive association between adolescents’ health-risk behavior and their
perceptions of friends’ health-risk behavior was supported. Ninth graders’ 30-day health-risk
behavior was related positively with the composite of their friends’ health-risk behavior, r=.37,
p<.01. Ninth graders’ 12-month health-risk behavior also was related positively with the
composite of their friends’ health-risk behavior, r=.43, p<.01. Similar significant associations
were found for specific adolescent and friends’ health-risk behaviors (see Table 4).
Hypothesis 2a. Adolescents’ with higher levels of perceived parent support participated
in significantly less health-risk behavior reported at 30 days, F(2, 850)=15.21, p<.01 (See Table
5a). Planned comparisons revealed a statistically significant difference between the groups with
high and low parent support (health-risk behavior means .74 and 2.63, respectively). There also
was a statistically significant difference between the groups with moderate and low parent
support (health-risk behavior means .92 and 2.63, respectively; Table 5b). There was no
statistically significant difference between the groups with moderate and high parent support.
The ANCOVA model evaluating differences in 12-month report of health-risk behavior
by level of parent support was not significant (F=2.25, p=.11).
Hypothesis 2b. Adolescents with higher levels of perceived school support in the 8th
13
grade participated in significantly less health-risk reported at 30 days, F(2, 850)=6.77, p<.01
(See Table 5a). Planned comparisons revealed a statistically significant difference between the
groups with high and low school support (health-risk behavior means .59 and 2.17, respectively).
There also was a significant difference between the groups with moderate and low school
support (health-risk behavior means 1.06 and 2.17, respectively; Table 5b). There was no
statistically significant difference between the groups with high and moderate school support.
The ANCOVA model evaluating differences in 12-month report of health-risk behavior
by level of school support was not significant (F=.74, p=.48).
Hypothesis 2c. Adolescents with higher academic achievement participated in
significantly less health-risk behavior reported at 30 days, F(2, 848)=6.35, p<.01 (See Table 5a).
Planned comparisons revealed a statistically significant difference between the high and low
achieving groups (health-risk behavior means .63 and 1.63, respectively). There also was a
statistically significant difference between the moderate and low achieving groups (health-risk
behavior means 1.16 and 1.63, respectively; Table 5b). There also was a statistically significant
difference between the high and moderate achieving groups (health-risk behavior means .63 and
1.16, respectively).
The ANCOVA model evaluating differences in 12-month report of health-risk behavior
by level of academic achievement was significant, F(2, 823)=7.77, p<.01 (See Table 5a).
Planned comparisons revealed a statistically significant difference between the high and low
achieving groups (health-risk behavior means 1.11 and 2.60, respectively). There also was a
statistically significant difference between the moderate and low achieving groups (health-risk
behavior means 2.01 and 2.60, respectively; Table 5b) and the high and moderate achieving
groups (health-risk behavior means 1.11 and 2.01, respectively).
Hypothesis 3a. Parent support moderated the association between adolescents’ 30-day
health-risk behavior and perceptions of friends’ health-risk behavior. (See Table 6a). The first
model contained the control variables race, gender, and 8th grade health-risk behavior along with
parent support, friends’ health-risk behavior, and the interaction term parent support by friends’
health-risk behavior. The model was a significant predictor of 9th graders’ 30-day health-risk
behavior, F(6, 847)=133, p<.01, and accounted for 49% of the variance. The control variables
race, gender, and 8th grade health-risk behavior accounted for 41% of the variance. Friends’
14
health-risk behavior accounted for an additional 5% of the variance. Parent support accounted
for 2% of the variance. The interaction term parent support by friends’ health-risk behavior
accounted for 1% of the variance.
To further examine adolescents’ health-risk behavior as related to the interaction term
parent support by friends’ health-risk behavior, a post-hoc analysis using ANCOVA techniques
was performed. Race, gender, and 8th grade health-risk behavior were treated as covariates. The
ANCOVA model evaluating differences in 30-day report of health-risk behavior by level of
parent support and friends’ health-risk behavior was significant, F(4, 842) = 3.83, p<.01. The
model indicated that adolescents’ are more likely to participate in health-risk behavior when
friends participate in fewer health-risk behaviors and parent support is higher. (See Figure 1).
The second regression model included the same independent variables and was a
significant predictor of 9th graders’ 12-month health-risk behavior, F(6, 822)=192.47, p<.01.
(See Table 6b). The model accounted for 58% of the variance. The control variables race,
gender, and 8th grade 12-month health-risk behavior accounted for 54% of the variance. Friends’
health-risk behavior accounted for an additional 4% of the variance. Neither parent support nor
the interaction term parent support by friends’ health-risk behavior accounted for a significant
amount of additional variance.
Hypothesis 3b. School support did not moderate the association between adolescents’
30-day or 12-month health-risk behavior and their perceptions of friends’ health-risk behavior.
(See Tables 6c and 6d).
Hypothesis 3c. Academic achievement did not moderate the association between
adolescents’ 30-day or 12-month health-risk behavior and their perceptions of friends’ healthrisk behavior. (See Tables 6e and 6f).
Post hoc Analyses. Post hoc hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to further
explore the moderating effects of parent support on the association between adolescent healthrisk behavior and perceived friends’ health-risk behavior. Using the same methods used in the
previous analyses, the interaction terms parent support by school support and parent support by
academic achievement were examined. (See Table 7). Accounting for 1% of the variance in
adolescents’ 30-day health-risk behavior, the interaction term parent support by academic
achievement moderated the association between adolescents’ health-risk behavior and their
perceptions of friends’ health-risk behavior. (See Figure 2). Adolescents with higher academic
15
achievement and parent support participated less in health-risk behavior. The interaction term
parent support by school support did not account for additional unique variance.
Discussion
In the current study, the transition from middle school to high school was the context for
examining the influences of and interactions among microsystem factors (i.e., parents, friends,
school) on adolescents’ health-risk behavior. In general, it was expected that adolescents would
be less vulnerable to participate in health-risk behavior when they perceived their friends
participated in fewer health-risk behaviors and their parents and schools offered higher levels of
support. Overall, results confirmed the impact of friends’ health-risk behavior on adolescents’
health-risk behavior as well as the protective nature of parent and school support on protecting
adolescents’ from participation in health-risk behavior.
The hypothesis that adolescents’ health-risk behavior was related positively with their
friends’ health-risk behavior was supported. The hypothesis that adolescents’ with higher levels
of perceived parent support, perceived school support and academic achievement participated
less in health-risk behaviors, compared to adolescents with lower levels of support and
achievement, also was supported. This hypothesis was consistently supported for adolescents’
30-day health-risk behavior and partially supported for adolescents’ 12-month health-risk
behavior. Specifically, adolescents with higher academic achievement participated less in 12month health-risk behavior, compared to adolescents with lower academic achievement.
Partial support also was found for the hypothesis that perceived parent support moderated
the association between adolescents’ health-risk behavior and friends’ health-risk behavior.
Perceived parent support moderated the association between adolescents’ 30-day health-risk
behavior and friends’ health-risk behavior. The interaction term parent support by academic
achievement also moderated the association between adolescents’ 30-day health-risk behavior
and friends’ health-risk behavior. Support was not found for the hypotheses that perceived
school support and academic achievement moderated the association between adolescents’
health-risk behavior and friends’ health-risk behavior.
Friends’ health-risk behavior consistently predicted both adolescents’ 30-day health-risk
behavior and 12-month health-risk behavior. Interestingly, across analyses adolescents’ 12month health-risk behavior, compared to 30-day health-risk behavior, was associated less
consistently with the independent variables of interest. This possibly is related to more accurate
16
reporting of recent health-risk behaviors. It also is possible that because early adolescence is a
time for initiation of health-risk behavior, recent behavior is more closely associated with the
amount of support received from significant others.
Adolescents’ and Friends’ Health-Risk Behavior
Consistent with previous research, adolescents’ self-reported 30-day and 12-month
health-risk behavior was related positively with their perceptions of their friends’ health-risk
behavior. Also, friends’ health-risk behavior was a significant predictor of both adolescents’ 30day health-risk behavior and 12-month health-risk behavior. Friends’ health-risk behavior
accounted for 4-5% of the variance in adolescents’ health-risk behavior above the variance
accounted for by adolescents’ 8th grade health-risk behavior, which was statistically controlled.
Notably, controlling for adolescents’ 8th grade health-risk behavior also statistically removed the
variance of factors that influenced their behavior at 8th grade, including the predictor variables
(e.g., friend health-risk behavior). Hence, results of the current study also illustrate the
continuing influence of friends’ behavior on adolescents’ behavior.
Brook, Nomura & Cohen (1989) and Johnson (2001) have found positive associations
between adolescents’ substance use and perceptions of their friends’ substance use.
Adolescents’ perceptions of their friends’ cigarette use (Evans, Dratt, Raines, & Rosenberg,
1988), alcohol use (Thorliondsson & Vihjalmsson, 1991), and other drug use (Jenkins, 1996)
also have been related positively to their own participation in these behaviors. Although
associations between adolescents’ self-reported health-risk behavior and perceptions of friends’
health-risk behavior has been described as artificially inflated due to projection (Maxwell, 2001),
studies using matched adolescent and friend health-risk behavior data also have resulted in
positive associations (Urberg, 1992).
Similar to the results of the present study, previous findings also indicate that friends’
health-risk behavior, compared to other social variables, is a strong predictor of adolescents’
participation in health-risk behavior (Brook, Nomura & Cohen, 1989; Johnson, 2001; Iannotti,
Bush & Weinfurt, 1996). Notably, friend variables are predictive of both adolescents’
participation in health-risk behavior (e.g., the current study) and adolescents’ abstinence from
health-risk behavior (Beal, Ausiello & Perrin, 2001). In the latter study, friend variables were
independently associated with adolescents’ abstinence from tobacco use, sexual activity, and
marijuana use. Taken together, these studies indicate the strong influence of friends’ health
17
behavior on adolescents’ health behavior, which has implications for programs targeting health
promotion for adolescents. Seemingly, prevention and intervention programs targeting
adolescent health should include as a component involving the adolescents’ friends. The
inclusion of adolescents and their friends would provide a network of support and positive
influence for the practice of healthy behaviors.
Future studies should explore groups of adolescents and their friends who engage in
health-risk behavior compared to groups of adolescents and their friends who engage in minimal
health-risk behavior. An exploration of the relationship qualities between the adolescent-friend
dyad might more clearly illustrate friends’ influence of adolescents’ health-promoting and
health-compromising behaviors, which would be useful in designing and implementing programs
to promote adolescents’ health.
Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior and Parent Support
In the current study, parents’ support was a protective factor that lowered the risk of
adolescents’ participating in unhealthy behaviors. Results at the 30-day time period showed that
adolescents with ‘high’ and ‘moderate’ parent support, compared to those with ‘low’ parent
support, participated less in health-risk behavior. Further, above the variance accounted for by
adolescents’ previous health-risk behavior, parent support accounted for 2% of the variance in
the association between 9th grade adolescents’ and their friends’ perceived health-risk behavior.
In general, results of the current study indicate that both high and moderate levels of
parent support delay or prevent adolescents’ from participating in health-risk behavior whereas
minimal parent support is more likely to be associated with adolescents’ increased participation
in health-risk behavior. These results suggest the possibility of a threshold effect for parents’
support protecting against adolescents’ health-risk behavior. In spite of the influence of friends
on adolescents’ health-risk behavior, even a moderate level of parent support is “good-enough”
to delay or prevent early adolescents from participating in health compromising behaviors.
Adolescents with less support commonly are described as more “at-risk” for negative
health outcomes, including participation in health-risk behavior. Previous studies (i.e.,
McCubbin, Needle, & Wilson, 1985; Resnick et al. 1997) have found that aspects of the family
relationship are associated with adolescents’ health-risk behavior. However, whereas other
studies have found family variables to account for 5 – 15% of the variance in adolescents’
health-risk behavior (Resnick et al. 1997; McCubbin, Needle, & Wilson, 1985), the current study
18
found parent support to account for 2% of the variance in adolescents’ health-risk behavior.
As previously stated, statistically controlling for the variance explained by 8th grade
health-risk behavior also controlled for some influence of parent support. Hence, that parent
support continues to predict adolescents’ health-risk behavior above what is controlled for by
their previous health-risk behavior is quite notable. Other explanations for the smaller amount of
variance accounted for by parent support in the current study, compared to previous studies,
includes differences in measurement and differences in samples. Parent support is measured
differently across studies of adolescent health-risk behavior. Some of these studies refer to what
is called parent support in the current study as “family context” or “family caring” (e.g., Resnick
et al. 1997). Measurement differences possibly translate into statistical differences.
Whereas the current study examined a restricted age range (early adolescence), some
longitudinal studies have examined health-risk behavior and family context across the wide age
range of adolescence (early, middle, and late). Results of the current study capture only a
snapshot of adolescent health-risk behavior. It is well accepted that the probability of
adolescents’ participation in health-risk behavior increases as they grow older. However, it is
not as clear how the magnitude of perceived parent support changes or remains stable as
adolescents grow older. For example, it is possible that parent support accounts for a different
percentage of variance in older adolescents’ health-risk behavior than for younger adolescents’
health-risk behavior due to changes in the parent-adolescent relationship (i.e., parental
monitoring of adolescent behavior).
Future studies should further explore the parent-adolescent relationship in regard to
adolescents’ health behavior. A thorough examination of the relational qualities of the parentadolescent relationship might provide a more clear illustration of adolescents’ health behavior.
Parenting variables (e.g., parenting style) have been found to effect the way parents’ monitoring
and expectations are experienced by the child (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). In turn, parental
monitoring has been associated with adolescents’ participation in health-risk behavior (Li,
Feigelman & Stanton, 2000). Future studies are encouraged to explore how relational qualities
of the parent-adolescent dyad affect adolescent health-risk behavior. A more in-depth study also
might investigate bi-directional effects of the parent-adolescent relationship. Such an
examination would likely shed more light on contexts that promote healthy behaviors among
adolescents. An examination of these parent-adolescent variables in addition to an exploration of
19
similar adolescent-friend variables might provide an even clearer illustration of contexts that
promote or compromise adolescents’ health. Again, such information would be valuable for
designing programs that promote adolescents’ health.
Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior and School Environment Support
Partial support was found for the hypothesis that adolescents who reported higher levels
of perceived school support in the 8th grade participated less in health-risk behavior in the 9th
grade. There was a statistically significant difference only in adolescents’ 30-day health-risk
behavior between the groups with high and low levels of school support and the groups with
moderate and low school support. The hypothesis that school support would moderate the
association between adolescents’ health-risk behavior and perceived friends’ health-risk behavior
was not supported.
Similar to the current study, other studies also have found that adolescents with more
positive school experiences are less likely to participate in health-risk behavior (KowaleskiJones, 2000). In contrast, adolescents who report lower levels of “school support,” “bonding,” or
“connectedness” often participate more in health-risk behaviors (Simons-Morton, Crump,
Haynie, & Saylor, 1999; Bonny, Britto, Klostermann, Hornung & Slap, 2000). The Lau et al.
study also shares some similarities with the current study.
Both the current study and the Lau et al. study illustrate the influence of changes within
the microsystem on adolescents’ health-risk behavior. Both studies suggest that friends’
influence on adolescents’ health-risk behavior has the potential to increase as adolescents
matriculate across school systems and the relationship with their parents changes. However, the
current study also bears some differences from the Lau et al. study. For example, whereas the
current study focused on the context of a transition from middle school to high school, the Lau et
al. study focused on the transition from high school to college. The dynamics of the transitions
are different as a result of the degree of microsystem changes experienced. For example, the
traditional transition from high school to college includes more responsibility for one’s health
than does the transition from middle school to high school. Transitioning from high school to
college also involves a higher likelihood of moving away from home and into a new
environment as well as more changes in friends than does the transition from middle school to
high school. In that regard, the earlier transition is less disruptive than the later transition.
Had the 8th grade only participants also provided data at 9th grade, the prevalence rates of
20
health-risk behavior reported in the current study would likely have been higher. Certainly, a
more compelling illustration of the protective function of positive school experiences might have
been evident for the ‘high’ and ‘moderate’ groups as these groups participated less in health-risk
behavior and had a more positive school experience compared to the ‘low’ group. Given the
association between earlier positive school experiences (i.e., support) and less participation in
health-risk behavior in later years, programs to promote adolescent health should include as a
component fostering early positive school experiences (e.g., academic success, good schoolstudent relationships).
Similar to parent and family relationship variables, there is not a gold standard for
examining school support. Conceptually, school support includes the teacher-student
relationship, the curriculum, the physical environment, school policies and resources. Further, a
supportive school environment is supportive at the student’s developmental level (Eccles, Lord,
& Midgley; 1991). The development of an instrument that reflects the broad range of school
support, containing multiple questions for the multiple domains of school support, would be
useful in demonstrating the effects of school support on adolescent health-risk behavior. Such an
instrument might provide insight into the aspects of the school environment that are most
influential of adolescents’ health behavior. The construction of such an instrument, however,
would present quite a challenge.
Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior and Academic Achievement
Support was found for the hypothesis that adolescents who reported higher academic
achievement in the 8th grade participate less in health-risk behavior in the 9th grade. For both
adolescents’ 30-day and 12-month health-risk behavior, there was a statistically significant
difference between all groups, high and low, moderate and low, and high and moderate.
The hypothesis that academic achievement would moderate the association between
adolescents’ health-risk behavior and perceived friends’ health-risk behavior was not supported.
Possibly, the associations among the variables are better explained by an additional variable,
such as friend selection. Extant literature (e.g., Fisher & Bauman, 1988) suggests that
adolescents tend to choose as friends those who are similar to them. Therefore, it is reasonable
to imagine that adolescents that perform poorly in school select friends who also perform poorly
in school. The association between poor school performance and participation in health-risk
behavior has been aforementioned.
21
Given that academic achievement was associated with both adolescents’ 30-day and 12month health-risk behavior, it does seem that academic achievement is a critical factor
influencing adolescents’ health behavior. Although unexplored in the current study, it is possible
that adolescents’ academic achievement is partly explained by innate potential as well as
exposure to intellectually stimulating social and cultural experiences, the latter which has been
related to educational achievement and attainment (Kao & Thompson, 2003). The plausible
association with potential and previous experiences might explain how academic achievement
was related to both adolescents’ 30-day and 12-month health-risk behavior.
Although academic achievement alone did not moderate the association between
adolescents’ and their friends’ perceived health-risk behavior, the interaction term parent support
by academic achievement accounted for 1% of the variance in the association between
adolescents’ 30-day health-risk behavior and perceived friends’ health-risk behavior. Results of
the current study indicate that adolescents with more parent support and higher academic
achievement are less likely to participate in health-risk behavior. Seemingly, the association
between adolescents’ academic achievement and adolescent health-risk behavior is a complex
association that requires the presence of another variable (e.g., parent support) to moderate the
relation between adolescents’ and perceived friends’ health-risk behavior. Apparently, multiple
barriers facilitate adolescents’ participation in risky behavior.
The current study used self-reported measures of academic achievement. Although a
difficult task to accomplish given institutional review board and school administrative concerns,
a more accurate measure of academic achievement would have been to obtain from school
personnel the participants’ grades as reported on their last report card. Future studies are
encouraged to use as accurate a measure of academic achievement as is attainable. Future
studies also are encouraged to include an assessment of other areas where adolescents have
opportunities to achieve. Some researchers of adolescent development warn against the
importance placed strictly on academic achievement (e.g. science) while other achievements
(e.g., musical) are ignored. Such a view has been described as detrimental to youths’ overall
development (Eccles, Lord, & Midgley; 1991).
Implications for Prevention and Intervention Services
Results of the current study suggest that early prevention and intervention strategies
22
targeting health promotion for adolescents are necessary. Approximately 40% of the 9th graders
who participated in this study had engaged in cigarette use, alcohol use or marijuana use. Over
half of the sample reported that their friends used both alcohol and cigarettes.
Data from the 8th grade only participants further illustrates the need for early prevention
and intervention initiatives. As reported in the Missing Data section, compared to the 8th grade
and 9th grade participants, 8th grade only participants’ reported higher rates of health-risk
behavior, lower academic achievement and lower perceived support. Previous research (e.g.,
Lord, Roeser, Barber & Jozefowicz, 1997) indicates that adolescents who report lower levels of
school and family engagement are more likely to be truant from school, earn lower grades, and
exhibit problem behaviors. This finding suggests that had the 8th grade only participants been
involved in the study at both 8th and 9th grade, the results of the current study would reflect
higher rates of adolescent health-risk behavior, lower academic achievement and lower perceived
support as well as greater differences between the ‘high,’ ‘moderate,’ and ‘low’ groups.
As identified by Blum and Ellen (2003) “any plan to address the limitation of the current
system of adolescent health promotion involves the creation of the appropriate infrastructure.”
Indeed, results of the current study suggest adolescent health behavior should be addressed at
multiple levels. Adolescents’ health-risk behavior was associated with their friendships, family
environment and school environment, including academic achievement. These findings have
implications for including adolescents’ friendship circle, home environment, and school
environment in creating an infrastructure that promotes adolescent health.
Blum and Ellen also suggest that an infrastructure effective in promoting adolescent
health would include both local and national initiatives. Whereas the current study indicates that
immediate social influences affect adolescents’ health-risk behavior, other studies and
developing agenda identifies that local, state, and national initiatives all affect adolescent healthrisk behavior (Office of Drug Control, 2003; Centers for Disease Control, 2003; Center on
Alcohol Marketing and Youth, 2003; Child Trends, 2002). In summary, the results of the current
study indicate that adolescent health initiatives should be broadly-based within the microsystem.
Some research also suggests that initiatives should be initiated across macro-level environments
(Child Trends, 2002). In general, environments affecting adolescents should be more conducive
to adolescents making healthy decisions.
23
Limitations
The present study had several shortcomings. The participants did not represent a socioeconomically diverse sample. There also are shortcomings related to the measurement of the
variables. One measurement shortcoming is the exclusive use of adolescents’ perceptions of
parent support, school support and friend health-risk behavior. A better indicator of support and
health-risk behavior might have been parent, teacher and friend self-reports. Adolescents’
perceptions of friends’ health-risk behavior is commonly used and yields results comparable to
studies that use friends’ self-reported data. However, there is a discrepancy between
adolescents’ and friends’ reporting of friends’ health-risk behavior. It is likely that compared to
adolescents’ perceptions, friends’ self-reported data would provide a different depiction of the
social context in which adolescent health-risk behavior takes place. A study that included both
perceived and self-reported data on friends’ health-risk behavior would provide quite an
interesting viewpoint of adolescents’ health-risk behavior. However, the feasibility of
identifying and tracking friend dyads is an arduous task, particularly given the transience of
adolescent friendships and the frequency of school transitions for some students. For these
reasons, friends’ self-reported data was beyond the scope of the current study.
Similarly, previous studies (Li, Feigelman & Stanton; 2000) have illustrated the
discrepancy between the reports of adolescents and their parents. Therefore, it is likely that
compared to adolescents’ perceptions, parents’ self-report of support offered to adolescents,
might have provided a different description of parent-adolescent relationship dynamics that
contribute to adolescents’ health behavior. A study that included both adolescent and parent
reports of relational support would provide more in-depth understanding of the context of
adolescents’ health-risk behavior. However, parents’ self-report also has limitations. Parents
might be motivated to present an overly positive picture regarding their own behavior. Such
issues of social desirability in addition to the fact that tracking survey data on dyads might
significantly decrease the response rate are some of the reasons parents’ self-report was beyond
the scope of the current study.
Another measurement shortcoming was the measurement of the variable “school
support.” School support is a multifaceted variable for which a gold standard for measurement
does not exist. In association with adolescents’ health-risk behavior, the examination of more
specific constructs within school support, such as teacher support, should be explored. Given
24
that school support has so many components, defining and gathering data on each might present
a challenge. These challenges made the use of a more comprehensive assessment of school
support beyond the scope of this study.
Compared to self-reported academic achievement, obtaining from school personnel
participants’ grades from their last report card might have provided more accurate reporting.
Accurate reporting of academic achievement would better represent the dynamics in which
adolescents’ health-risk behavior takes place. Likewise, the results of the current study would
then have been more accurate in offering health promotion initiatives targeted toward low
achieving adolescents.
Regardless of the noted limitations, the present study contributes greatly to the literature
on adolescent health behavior. Few studies have collectively examined parent, school, and
academic variables in association to adolescent health-risk behavior. The current study
examined these associations, in addition to how relational qualities impact adolescents’ healthrisk behavior. The current study also further highlights the need for early prevention and
intervention strategies to reduce adolescents’ health-risk behavior. By 8th grade many
adolescents already were participating in drinking and smoking behaviors.
The current study also expands the applicability of a conceptual model. While this study
is not a direct examination of the windows of vulnerability concept, it does offer a compelling
illustration of the concept. The study provides data that expands the model to also explain early
adolescent health-risk behavior by illustrating the dynamics involving microsystem factors (i.e.,
peers, parents and school context) during a vulnerable period of development.
25
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Table 1. Reported Prevalence of Adolescents’ Health-Risk Behaviors
N and % of sample
Variable of Interest
30-day
12-month
Cigarette Use
Never
1-2 times
3-9 times
10-19 times
>20 times
686(78)
75(8.5)
46(5.2)
23(2.6)
49(5.6)
594(68)
94(10.8)
62(7.1)
31(3.5)
93(10.6)
Alcohol Use
Never
1-2 times
3-9 times
10-19 times
>20 times
625(71.3)
139(15.8)
77(8.8)
20(2.3)
16(1.8)
494(56.7)
168(19.3)
101(11.6)
60(6.9)
49(5.6)
Marijuana Use
Never
1-2 times
3-9 times
10-19 times
>20 times
797(90.5)
42(4.8)
21(2.4)
7(0.8)
14(1.6)
753(86)
48(5.5)
29(3.3)
15(1.7)
31(3.5)
31
Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Sample Size of Parent Support, School Support,
Academic Achievement, 30-Day Health-Risk Behavior, 12-Month Health-Risk Behavior,
Friends’ Health-Risk Behavior.
Variable of Interest
Mean (SD)
N
Parent Support
16.61(3.09)
894
School Support
43.93(6.71)
894
Academic Achievement
3.77(.87)
892
9th Grade 30-Day Health-Risk Behavior
1.13(2.20)
872
9th Grade 12-Month Health-Risk Behavior
1.94(2.90)
865
.75(1.72)
899
1.48(2.48)
882
9th Grade 30-Day Cigarette Use
.49(1.09)
879
9th Grade 12-Month Cigarette Use
.78(1.34)
874
9th Grade 30-Day Alcohol Use
.48(.88)
877
9th Grade 12-Month
.86(1.20)
872
9th Grade 30-Day Marijuana Use
.18(.66)
881
9th Grade 12-Month Marijuana Use
.31(.90)
876
Friends’ Health- Risk Behavior
1.23(.88)
885
Friends’ Cigarette Use
1.50(1.65)
888
Friends’ Alcohol Use
1.83(1.86)
888
8th Grade 30-Day Health-Risk Behavior
8th Grade 12-Month Health-Risk Behavior
Alcohol Use
32
Table 3. Reported Number of Friends’ Participating in Health-Risk Behavior
Variable of Interest
Smoke Cigarettes
None
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
N and % of sample
359(40.4)
164(18.5)
133(15.0)
106(11.9)
44(5.0)
82(9.2)
Drink Alcohol
None
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
324(36.5)
152(17.1)
112(12.6)
92(10.4)
66(7.4)
142(16)
Composite of Friends’ Health-risk Behavior
No Friends Participate in Health-risk Behavior
Friends Participate in one Health-risk Behavior
Friends Participate in two Health-risk Behaviors
261(29.5)
160(18.1)
464(52.4)
33
Table 4. Zero Order Correlations Between Self-reported Health-Risk Behavior and Perceptions
of Friends’ Health Risk Behavior
Friends’
Health-Risk
Behavior
.370**
Friends’
Cigarette
Use
.457**
Friends’
Alcohol
Use
.453**
Health-Risk
Behavior,
12-month
.430**
.532**
.523**
Cigarette
Use, 30-day
.338**
.434**
.367**
Alcohol Use,
30-day
.352**
.391**
.449**
Marijuana
Use, 30-day
.224**
.333**
.338**
Cigarette
Use, 12-month
.380**
.494**
.410**
Alcohol Use,
12 month
.415**
.434**
.503**
Marijuana
Use, 12-month
.268**
.418**
.417**
Health- Risk
Behavior,
30-day
Note. **p<.01
34
Table 5a. Analysis of CoVariance for Health-Risk Behavior.
Source
df
F
n
Race
Sex
HRB30
Parent Support
Error
1
1
1
2
850
3.63
0.00
503.59
15.21
(2.81)
10.21
0.00
1414.44
42.72
.06
.97
.00*
.00*
Race
Sex
HRB12
Parent Support
Error
1
1
1
2
825
4.55
1.37
851.68
2.25
(3.88)
17.65
5.31
3304.81
8.72
.03
.24
.00*
.11
Race
Sex
HRB30
School Support
Error
1
1
1
2
850
4.46
0.02
522.53
6.77
(2.84)
12.67
0.06
1485.14
19.24
.04
.89
.00*
.00*
Race
Sex
HRB12
School Support
Error
1
1
1
2
825
4.72
1.26
858.79
0.74
(3.84)
18.14
4.85
3300.52
2.86
.03
.26
.00*
.48
Race
Sex
HRB30
Academic
Achievement
Error
1
1
1
2
5.74
0.01
565.98
6.35
16.37
0.03
1613.01
18.10
.017
.92
.00*
.00*
Race
Sex
HRB12
Academic
Achievement
Error
1
1
1
2
22.81
6.68
3516.75
29.51
.014
.19
.00*
.00*
848
823
p
(2.85)
6.00
1.76
925.58
7.77
(3.80)
Note. Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean errors. HRB30 = 30-day health-risk
behavior. HRB12 = 12-month health-risk behavior. *p<.017.
35
Table 5b. Analysis of CoVariance for Health-risk Behavior,
Planned Pairwise Comparisons
Variables
30-day Health Risk Behavior
N
Mean (SD)
Parent Support
Low
Moderate
High
128
522
206
2.63(3.37)a
0.92(1.85)b
0.74(1.71)b
School Support
Low
Moderate
High
126
557
173
2.17(3.21)a
1.06(2.04)b
0.59(1.38)b
Academic Achievement
Low
Moderate
High
132
572
150
1.63(2.62)a
1.16(2.23)b
0.63(1.44)c
12-month Health-Risk Behavior
Parent Support
Low
Moderate
High
121
509
201
3.41(3.83)
1.84(2.70)
1.31(2.35)
School Support
Low
Moderate
High
120
543
168
3.14(3.64)
1.88(2.77)
1.24(2.18)
Academic Achievement
Low
Moderate
High
123
560
146
2.60(3.37)a
2.01(2.89)b
1.11(2.13)c
Levels with different superscripts are significantly different from one another (p<.017).
36
Table 6a. Summary of Regression Analysis for Parent Support Predicting Adolescent 30-Day
Health-Risk Behavior
_________________________________________________________________
Variable
B
SE B
B
R2 change
_________________________________________________________________
Step 1
Race
0.17
0.09
0.05
.41
Step 2
Gender
0.02
0.12
0.00
8th HRB
0.82
0.03
0.64
Race
0.18
0.09
0.05
Gender
-0.03
0.12
-0.01
0.77
0.04
0.60
-0.09
0.02
-0.13
Race
0.16
0.08
0.05
Gender
-0.11
0.11
-0.03
8th HRB
0.71
0.03
0.56
Parent Support
-0.08
0.02
-0.11
Friend HRB
0.56
0.07
0.22
Race
0.16
0.08
0.05
Gender
-0.14
0.11
-0.03
8th HRB
0.71
0.03
0.56*
Parent Support
-0.07
0.02
-0.09*
Friend HRB
0.58
0.07
0.23*
Parent Support*
Friend HRB
-0.25
0.06
-0.11*
8th HRB
Parent Support
Step 3
Step 4
.02
.05
.01
8th HRB= 8th grade Health-risk Behavior. Friend HRB = Perceived Friends’ Health-risk
Behavior. Note. *p<.017
37
Table 6b. Summary of Regression Analysis for Parent Support Predicting Adolescent 12-month
Health-Risk Behavior
_________________________________________________________________
Variable
B
SE B
B
R2 change
_________________________________________________________________
Step 1
Race
0.23
0.10
0.05
.54
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Gender
0.18
0.14
0.03
8th HRB
0.84
0.03
0.73
Race
0.23
0.10
0.05
Gender
0.15
0.14
0.03
8th HRB
0.83
0.03
0.71
Parent Support
-0.05
0.02
-0.05
Race
0.22
0.10
0.05
Gender
0.03
0.13
0.01
8th HRB
0.75
0.03
0.65
Parent Support
-0.04
0.02
-0.04
Friend HRB
0.73
0.08
0.22
Race
0.22
0.10
0.05
Gender
0.02
0.13
0.00
8th HRB
0.75
0.03
0.65*
Parent Support
-0.03
0.02
-0.03
Friend HRB
0.74
0.08
0.23*
Parent Support x
Friend HRB
-0.15
0.07
-0.05
.00
.04
.00
8th HRB = 8th grade Health-risk Behavior. Friend HRB = Perceived Friends’ Health-risk
Behavior. Note. *p<.017
38
Table 6c. Summary of Regression Analysis for School Support Predicting Adolescent 30-Day
Health-Risk Behavior
__________________________________________________________________
Variable
B
SE B
B
R2 change
__________________________________________________________________
Step 1
Race
0.17
0.09
0.05
.41
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Gender
0.01
0.12
0.00
8th HRB
0.81
0.03
0.64
Race
0.18
0.09
0.05
Gender
0.04
0.12
0.01
8th HRB
0.78
0.03
0.61
School Support
-0.04
0.01
-0.12
Race
0.16
0.08
0.05
Gender
-0.06
0.11
-0.01
8th HRB
0.72
0.03
0.57
School Support
-0.03
0.01
-0.08
Friend HRB
0.56
0.07
0.22
Race
0.17
0.08
0.05
Gender
-0.07
0.11
-0.02
8th HRB
0.72
0.03
0.56*
School Support
-0.03
0.01
-0.08*
Friend HRB
0.57
0.07
0.23*
School Support x
Friend HRB
-0.13
0.06
-0.06
Friend HRB = Perceived Friends’ Health-risk Behavior. Note. *p<.017
39
.01
.05
.00
Table 6d. Summary of Regression Analysis for School Support Predicting Adolescent 12-month
Health-Risk Behavior
_____________________________________________________________________
Variable
B
SE B
B
R2 change
_____________________________________________________________________
Step 1
Race
0.22
0.10
0.05
.54
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Gender
0.16
0.14
0.03
8th HRB
0.84
0.03
0.73
Race
0.23
0.10
0.05
Gender
0.17
0.14
0.03
8th HRB
0.83
0.03
0.72
School Support
-0.02
0.01
-0.04
Race
0.21
0.10
0.05
Gender
0.04
0.13
0.01
8th HRB
0.76
0.03
0.66
School Support
-0.01
0.01
0.02
Friend HRB
0.73
0.08
-0.22
Race
0.22
0.10
0.05
Gender
0.04
0.13
0.01
8th HRB
0.75
0.03
0.65*
School Support
-0.01
0.01
Friend HRB
0.73
0.08
0.22*
School Support x
Friend HRB
-0.05
0.07
-0.02
.00
.04
.00
- 0.02
8th HRB= 8th grade Health-risk Behavior. Friend HRB = Perceived Friends’ Health-risk
Behavior. Note. *p<.017
40
Table 6e. Summary of Regression Analysis for Academic Achievement Predicting Adolescent
30-Day Health-Risk Behavior
_____________________________________________________________________
Variable
B
SE B
B
R2 change
_____________________________________________________________________
Step 1
Race
0.16
0.09
0.05
.41
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Gender
0.01
0.12
0.00
8th HRB
0.82
0.03
0.64
Race
0.22
0.09
0.07
Gender
0.04
0.12
0.01
8th HRB
0.80
0.03
0.63
Academic
Achievement
-0.29
0.07
-0.11
Race
0.18
0.08
0.06
Gender
-0.06
0.11
-0.12
8th HRB
0.74
0.03
0.58
Academic
Achievement
-0.20
0.07
-0.08
Friend HRB
0.56
0.07
0.22
Race
0.18
0.08
0.05
Gender
-0.08
0.11
-0.02
8th HRB
0.74
0.03
0.58*
Academic
Achievement
-0.20
0.07
-0.08
Friend HRB
0.58
0.07
0.23*
-0.12
0.06
-0.06
Academic Ach.
x Friend HRB
.01
.05
.00
Friend HRB = Perceived Friends’ Health-risk Behavior. Note. *p<.017
41
Table 6f. Summary of Regression Analysis for GPA Predicting Adolescent 12-Month HealthRisk Behavior
_____________________________________________________________________
Variable
B
SE B
B
R2 change
_____________________________________________________________________
Step 1
Race
0.20
0.10
0.05
.54
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Gender
0.17
0.14
0.03
8th HRB
0.85
0.03
0.73
Race
0.27
0.11
0.06
Gender
0.20
0.14
0.04
8th HRB
0.83
0.03
0.72
Academic
Achievement
-0.30
0.08
-0.09
Race
0.23
0.10
0.05
Gender
0.07
0.13
0.01
8th HRB
0.76
0.03
0.66
Academic
Achievement
-0.20
0.08
-0.06
Friend HRB
0.71
0.08
0.22
Race
0.23
0.10
0.05
Gender
0.06
0.13
0.01
8th HRB
0.76
0.03
0.66*
Academic
Achievement
-0.20
0.08
-0.06*
Friend HRB
0.71
0.08
0.22*
.01
.04
.00
Academic Ach.
X Friend HRB
-0.05
0.07
0.02
8th HRB= 8th grade Health-risk Behavior. Friend HRB = Perceived Friends’ Health-risk
Behavior. Note. *p<.017
42
Table 7. Summary of Regression Analysis for Parent Support and GPA Predicting Adolescent
12-Month Health-Risk Behavior
_____________________________________________________________________
Variable
B
SE B
B
R2 change
_____________________________________________________________________
Step 1
Race
0.17
0.09
0.05
.41
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Gender
0.01
0.12
0.01
8th HRB
0.81
0.03
0.64
Race
0.15
0.08
0.05
Gender
-0.08
0.11
-0.02
8th HRB
0.75
0.03
0.58
Friend HRB
0.59
0.07
0.23
Race
0.15
0.08
0.05
Gender
-0.12
0.11
-0.03
8th HRB
0.71
0.03
0.56
Friend HRB
0.56
0.07
0.22
Parent Support
-0.08
0.02
-0.11
0.19
0.08
0.06
Gender
-0.09
0.11
-0.02
8th HRB
0.71
0.03
0.55
Friend HRB
0.54
0.07
0.21
Parent Support
-0.07
0.02
-0.10
Academic
Achievement
-0.17
0.07
-0.07
Race
43
.05
.01
.00
Table 7. Summary of Regression Analysis for Parent Support and GPA Predicting Adolescent
12-Month Health-Risk Behavior, cont’d
_____________________________________________________________________
Variable
B
SE B
B
R2 change
_____________________________________________________________________
Step 5 Race
0.17
0.08
0.05
Gender
-0.10
0.11
-0.02
8th HRB
0.71
0.03
0.55*
Friend HRB
0.55
0.07
0.22*
Parent Support
-0.06
0.02
-0.08*
Academic Ach.
-0.15
0.07
-0.06
Parent Support
x Academic Ach.
0.17
0.05
0.09*
.01
8th HRB= 8th grade Health-risk Behavior. Friend HRB = Perceived Friends’ Health-risk
Behavior. Note. *p<.05
44
Figure 1. The Relations between Parent Support and Friends’ Health-risk Behavior on
Adolescents’ 30-day Health-Risk Behavior
Adolescents' 30-day Health-Risk Behavior,
Parent Support and Friends' Health-Risk Behavior
Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
Parent Support
1.0
low support
.5
0.0
0 participate
mid support
high support
2 participate
1 participates
Friend Health-Risk Behavior
45
Figure 2. The Relations between Parent Support and Academic Achievement on Adolescents’
30-day Health-Risk Behavior
Adolescents' 30-day Health-Risk Behavior,
Parent Support and Academic Achievement
Adolescent Health-Risk Behavior
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
Parent Support
1.0
low support
.5
mid support
0.0
low
high support
mid
high
Academic Achievement
46
Appendix A
Health-risk Behavior (8th and 9th grades)
Choose the one answer that best describes you. Please choose from the following options:
0) Zero
1) 1-2
2) 3-9
3) 10-19
4) 20+
1. How many times have you smoked a cigarette, even a puff…
a) in the last 30 days?
b) In the last 12 months?
2. How many times have you had alcoholic beverages (beer, wine, liquor) to drink other than
for religious purposes…
a) in the last 30 days?
b) In the last 12 months?
3. How many times have you used marijuana (sometimes called grass, weed, or pot)…
a) in the last 30 days
b) in the last 12 months
47
Appendix B
Friends’ Health-risk Behavior (9th grade)
The next questions ask about what high school students do. How many of your 5 closest friends
do the following things. Please choose from the following options:
0)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Zero
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
1. Smoke cigarettes?
2. Drink alcohol (beer, wine, liquor)?
48
Appendix C
Parent Support (8th grade)
Think about your parents and guardians as you read each of the following statements. Decide if
any one of your parents or guardians is like the statement. For example, your mom might be
easy to talk to and your stepfather might be interested in what you are learning at school.
1-Strongly Agree
2-Agree
3-Disagree
4-Strongly Disagree
I have a parent or guardian who…
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
Helps me with things.
Likes me the way I am.
Is hard for me to get along with.
Would find out if I misbehaved.
Gives me a lot of care and attention.
Respects my opinions.
Often makes me angry.
Checks up to see whether I have done what he/she told me to do.
Enjoys doing things with me.
Takes my ideas seriously.
Gives reasons for the rules and decisions that involve me.
Gets angry at me almost everyday
Expects me to work hard at school.
Praises me for doing a good job on things.
49
Appendix D
School Support (8th grade)
Choose the one answer that best describes you. Think about your middle school. How much do
you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about your middle school.
1-Strongly Agree
2-Agree
3-Disagree
4-Strongly Disagree
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
The teachers are fair.
My teachers do not expect very much from me.
I pay attention in class.
At least one of my teachers would help me if I had a problem or were upset.
There is a clear set of rules for students to follow.
Teachers provide students with a lot of support.
My teachers know the kinds of things I do well.
There is an adult at this school who cares about me.
The rules are enforced unfairly
I take school seriously.
A teacher or adult at this school treats me like a person who matters.
There are kids I like in most of my classes.
Overall, this is a good school.
Students respect each other.
My teachers would care if I did poorly in their classes.
I am proud to be a student at this school.
My teachers know when students try hard and when they don’t.
I want to do well at this school.
Most days, I am happy when I am at school.
My teachers don’t really care if students pay attention in class.
50
Appendix E
Academic Achievement (8th grade)
What grade did you get on your last report card for the last quarter in the following subjects?
1-A
2-B
3-C
4-D
5-F
a.
b.
c.
d.
Math
Science
Language Arts
Social Studies
51