Ragnhild Lund, NTNU Research Group on Forced Migration
Forced Migration, Resource
Conflicts and Development
Final Report
© Norges forskningsråd 2004
Norges forskningsråd
Postboks 2700 St. Hanshaugen
0131 OSLO
Telefon: 22 03 70 00
Telefaks: 22 03 70 01
2
Contents
Foreword ………………………………………………………………………………... 5
Background for formulating a research programme on forced migration ..……….. 8
•
Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and Development: Final Report …9
Programme profile, themes and organization ….………………………….………... 11
•
Project objectives …………………………………………..……...…… 12
•
Themes …………………………………………………………….…… 13
•
Role of the Board and implementation of the programme ….………..... 15
•
Types of research ………………………………………..……………... 17
Achievements of initial objectives ……………………….……………….………….. 21
•
Role of seed money …………………………….…………..………..… 23
•
International collaboration and networks ………….…………..….…… 24
•
Interdisciplinarity ………………………………....…………....…..….. 26
•
Generation of new projects and activities …………..……...…..……… 27
•
Relevancy for users and policy makers ………………………..………. 28
•
Gender and equality issues ……………………………..…….…..……. 28
•
Dissemination of research results …………………..…………..……… 29
Researchers’ own assessment of the programme and achievements ………...…… 31
•
Major project results …………………………………………..………. 31
•
Programme strengths and weaknesses ……………………………..….. 32
•
Suggestions for research and new actions ………………………….…. 34
3
Contents (cont.)
Appendix 1
Programme leaders and coordinators ……………………….………….. 38
Appendix 2
Project catalogue ……..…………………………..………………….…. 41
Appendix 3
Selected publications …………………………………………….…….. 55
4
Foreword
The research programme Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and Development was
established in 1996 and lasted until 2001. The last project was completed in 2003. The
present report is an evaluation of programme outputs, based on information from final
reports to the Research Council of Norway from the researchers, from a small
questionnaire sent out to the researchers, and from various internal reports from the
Research Council.
Forced migration was seen as a crucial challenge to the field of refugee politics. It was
envisaged that the present research would increase the knowledge and awareness of the
‘refugee problematics’.
The objective of the programme has been twofold:
•
build knowledge and maintain research competence in this field in Norwegian
academic institutions
•
achieve improved, ‘knowledge-based’ decisions among Norwegian authorities
and Norwegian and international aid organizations
A total of 17 major and some smaller grants have been allocated to the programme.
Research fellows have been recruited from a wide variety of disciplines: economics (2),
law (1), geography (2), political science/comparative politics (3) and anthropology (1).
The research has had a strong theoretical and methodological focus. Considerable efforts
were given to conceptual clarifications and new theoretical approaches, such as actororiented research and how one may study people and societies under stress. Some topics
have become central to the programme:
5
Internal displacement. Internal displacement has been identified as a serious
development challenge of our time. This research has provided clarification on the
way the international community classifies and supports different categories of
refugees, socio-economic impacts of displacement and how we can theorize on
these issues.
Types of migration and repatriation. The research has unpacked the complexity
of causes that drives conflicts, what constitutes the situation of refugees and
internally displaced people, and how they have been treated by the international
community, practitioners and donors. The issue of forced versus voluntary
migration has been another concern.
The role of environmental factors in analyzing causes and impacts of flight has
been a third research issue. This research has dealt with questions related to who
constitutes an ‘environmental refugee’ and the relevancy of this term. Case studies
have illustrated that environmental factors also warrant attention in forced
migration research.
The role of institutions has also been central to the programme. Issues raised
relate to coordination of donor assistance, the role of civil society in the peace
process, and protective strategies in situations of mass exodus due to war and
conflicts.
The present report reveals that the programme Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and
Development basically has been a capacity-building research enterprise that has
contributed with substantial new knowledge to a research field which has now started to
expand very rapidly. It is concluded that it has had a catalytic value to conflict-related
research and research on globalization and marginalization. Although many of the
researchers have established strong relationships with aid organizations and authorities,
Norwegian aid donors especially have not utilized the full potential of information
provided by the programme.
6
The final report has been written by Ragnhild Lund, coordinator of the NTNU Research
Group on Forced Migration.
Trondheim 27 February 2004
7
Background for formulating a research
programme on forced migration
Conflicts and flight within and across borders are not new phenomena in modern history.
The magnitude of such problems, however, has increased dramatically during the last
decade, notwithstanding during and after recent wars and conflicts in, for instance,
Palestine/Israel, Afghanistan, Sudan and Colombia. Whenever solutions are found in one
country or area, conflicts and war arise in another. At the same time, conflicts tend to
become protracted and giving rise to the problem of not only how to tackle flights and
emergencies, but how to create long-term, sustainable solutions to development and
recovery.
In April 1994, the Division of Environment and Development in the Research Council of
Norway formulated a committee to develop a proposition for a research programme on
international flight and migration in an environmental and development perspective. The
report of the committee proposed that research within the field of forced migration,
resource conflicts and development be launched either by a separate programme or
integrated in other existing research programmes.
Forced migration was also seen as an important challenge within the political regimes of
refugees, and that research on such issues would contribute to increase understanding of
contextual as well as causal relationships of refugees and flights.
Furthermore, within the regime of humanitarian aid and policy formulation relating to
war and conflicts, the quest for early warning and response mechanisms were
highlighted. In addition, contextual information and insights were very much sought
after, and highlighted even more the need to produce knowledge that could serve as
useful for the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs as well as other ‘users’.
8
The report of the committee, Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and Development,
was approved by the Norwegian Research Council and provided the basis for the ensuing
research programme. In 1996, an agreement with the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign
Affairs for a duration of 5 years was signed. The programme, with a total budget of NOK
18.5 million was funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry
of Research and Education. The research programme started fully in 1998 and was
officially terminated by the completion of the last project in June 2003.
Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and Development:
Final Report
Major outcomes of the present research programme under investigation have been:
identification and analysis of the complexity of causes and consequences of internal and
external flight and forced migration; identification of how refugees and displaced people
are classified in research and emergency interventions; examination of vulnerable
peoples’ own strategies and actions relating to emergencies and flights in different
geographical areas; identification of preconditions for repatriation and post-war recovery;
and analyses of impacts of the policies and interventions of policy makers and donors.
In the present report, the research programme Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and
Development, although now finalized, is very much seen as a first step of the Norwegian
Research Council to highlight issues related to war and conflict, the migration and
mobility patterns involved, as well as the policy challenges of security and human rights,
democracy and governance, post-war reconstruction, and survival strategies of people
and communities under severe stress.
As new conflicts continue to arise and old conflicts tend to become protracted, it is
argued that there is a need for new research as well as consolidation of existing research
environments that have been able to build competence due to the programme.
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Furthermore, issues relating to more formalized upgrading of such knowledge within the
universities and research institutions are still unresolved, such as teaching, supervision
and strategic, institutional, research priorities. It is therefore essential that broadening
these research themes and issues to include new disciplines and research environments
takes place.
Methodologically, the report is based on reviews of secondary material such as the
researchers’ final reports to the Norwegian Research Council, Plan of Action, annual
reports, and lists of participants and project leaders. These constitute the basis for the
information given in Chapters 1–3. In addition, a short questionnaire was sent out to the
participating researchers. About half of them provided answers. This information is used
in Chapters 4 and 5, and provides insights into the researchers’ assessment of their own
performance, future research challenges and actions, as well as their assessment of the
management of programme.
The author of this report, Ragnhild Lund, has been an insider as well as an outsider to the
programme. She has been an insider in the sense that she has been able to follow the
development of the programme, has been an active participant in the formulation of
research topics and priorities, and has supervised three doctoral candidates (topics under
investigation: the marginalization of the indigenous population in Sri Lanka, the role of
host communities in Sri Lanka, environment and forced migration in Angola, and postwar recovery in Bosnia in Herzegovina). She has also developed institutional links with
foreign and Norwegian research environments. The author has been an outsider in the
sense that she has not been able to follow the internal discussions in the programme
board and has not been fully aware of their priorities and plans. Normally, final reports
such as these are written by the programme boards. Then the results and achievements
are seen through their ‘lens’. This report is therefore different because it lacks this
dimension and it does not include a separate section on the role and priorities of the
board.
10
Programme profile, themes and
organization
The programme’s Plan of Action states that there is a need for scientific knowledge in
this field: ‘There is a need for research knowledge about the causes and consequences of
internal and external flight and forced migration as well as about response mechanisms,
in particular those from the international community.’ (Handlingsplan 1996–2001,15).
Because there is no clear distinction between what constitutes forced or voluntary
migration, the grey zone between them was also considered to be an interesting field of
research.
Furthermore,
the
programme
should
‘generate and develop theoretical and
methodological knowledge necessary to understand the causes and consequences of
forced migration and mass flight within or across state boundaries. This is to serve as a
basis for engendering appropriate response mechanisms, with the eventual aim of
contributing to prevention, or at least to early warning leading to timely action … This is
a capacity-building enterprise with a central place for applied and basic research.’
(Handlingsplan 1996–2001, 15).
Special attention should be given to:
•
theoretical and methodological issues
•
the role of conflicts, broadly defined (social, political, and conflict over resources)
in triggering flight/forced migration but also as a consequence thereof
•
response mechanisms
It is also stated in the planning document that it is important to overcome the
compartmentalization that characterizes most research on these issues, and encourage
integrated and interdisciplinary approaches. Interdisciplinary approaches are especially
emphasized because of the particular analytical and methodological problems involved in
11
doing research relating to such a broad spectrum of issues, regions and countries, as well
as facilitating analyses of cross-cutting issues such as gender.
Finally, this research is seen as a capacity-building enterprise with a central place for
applied and basic research. The research should be theory-driven, but responsive to the
needs and concerns of the policy community in Norway and internationally.
Project objectives
The research programme has had a twofold objective:
1. Build knowledge and maintain research competence in this field in Norwegian
academic institutions.
2. Achieve improved, ‘knowledge-based’ decisions among Norwegian authorities
and Norwegian and international aid organizations.
The various issues and objectives are summarized in Figure 1.
12
Develop, initiate and carry out research that should:
•
be responsive to the policy community in Norway and internationally
•
be interdisciplinary
•
have a gender-oriented perspective
•
critically examine the grey zone between forced and voluntary migration
•
identify the causal role of conflict in research on migration and flight
•
study conflicts, persecution and human rights violations in view of developmental and
environmental factors
•
be useful for future ‘protection schemes’
•
contribute to building research capacity
Source: Plan of Action 1996–2001
Figure 1. Specific research objectives of the research programme.
Themes
The Plan of Action highlighted selected themes. These themes, summarized below,
constituted the guidelines for the research programme. In general, implications of flight
and forced migration on social and economic conditions were important considerations in
aid, reconstruction, rehabilitation and development assistance. This was especially
considered relevant in areas where the potential for flight and conflicts was increasing.
Definitional and Conceptual Issues
Conceptual clarifications were invited on issues related to the grey zone between
forced and voluntary migration, as well as in relation to the search for appropriate
political and juridical response mechanisms.
13
Conflict
Researchers were encouraged to investigate causes and effects of flight/migration.
They were invited to consider analytical approaches that encompass structural as well
as agency-oriented factors. Special inputs into the study of environmental and
developmental problems related to conflicts and flights were encouraged.
Response Mechanisms
Researchers were encouraged to critically enquire into the adoption of basic
international instruments for protection and relief, human rights and humanitarian
principles. The mandate and functions of the UNHCR and other multilateral as well
as bilateral organizations, including NGOs, was an explicitly stated research concern.
Building of the Research Capacity
One strategic concern of the research programme was to support long-term capacitybuilding and methodological development of the programme in the Norwegian
research environment. Another focus was on stimulating networking, in particular
trans-disciplinary networking between such environments. Support for doctoral and
postdoctoral research projects with a focus on developing theory and methodology
was therefore a primary concern of the programme. Norwegian scholars were
encouraged to work at centres of excellence abroad.
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Figure 2. Bombed district hospital, northern Sri Lanka. Photo: Cathrine Brun.
Role of the Board and implementation of the
programme
The Programme Board during the programme period 1996–1998 had the following
composition:
Jon Martin Trolldalen (head)
Professor,
Department
Geography/CESAR, University of
Håkan Wiberg
of
Oslo
Director, Center for Peace and Conflict
Research, Copenhagen
15
Ahn Nga Longva
Associate Professor, Department of Social
Anthropology, University of Bergen
Vigdis Vevstad
Advisor, Norwegian Refugee Council (until
December 1997)
Ragna Vikøren
Advisor, Norwegian Refugee Council (from
October 1998)
Erik Berg
Deputy Director, Norwegian Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, Bilateral Division
Tom Eriksen
Refugees Attaché, Norwegian Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, Political Division
In 1999, the Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and Development programme was
reorganized, and during the final stage a free-standing research programme was
integrated into the new programme, Development Paths in the South, Globalization and
Marginalization. Associate Professor Anh Nga Longva has represented the former
programme within the new programme.
The Plan of Action states that the Programme Board was to play an active role in
initiating good projects, and to stimulate collaboration between different disciplines and
research environments. Another major objective was to facilitate contact between
researchers and users and also to facilitate user’s needs in more applied projects.
In areas where the programme board felt there was a need for further collaboration,
competence building, new projects, etc., the programme stated the wish to actively create
a dialogue with potential actors to create new projects. The board also had the right to
revise projects to better create coordination between programme objectives and
resources. Hence, the programme had the privilege to initiate new projects.
Finally, the board had the ambition to play a coordinating role to optimize the resources
of the programme. The role of the board would be to facilitate creation of functional
16
divisions of tasks/themes between research environments, as well as identifying
responsibilities between different actors by functioning as a catalyst to create
collaborating environments and to reduce overlap. Creating research groups was one of
the models suggested by the board.
To launch the programme, a conference was organized in 1997. Most participants from
the project were present and gave presentations of the projects they were planning to do.
Since then, no special meetings between researchers and the Programme Board have been
organized.
Types of research
A total of 17 major and some smaller grants have been allocated by the programme.
Research fellows have been recruited from a wide variety of disciplines: economics (2),
law (1), geography (2), political science/comparative politics (3), and anthropology (1).
Internal displacement has been a major theme in several projects. This is reflected in
the recording of the magnitude of the problem (25 million people worldwide), and the
fact that displaced people are moving in all directions, even back to their place of origin.
The way the donors and practitioners have conceptualized and classified refugees and
displaced people has been another focus related to this theme. Internal displacement
constitutes a serious development challenge of our time. This research has provided
clarification on the way that the international community classifies and supports different
categories of refugees (who constitutes a refugee or a displaced person, how IDPs can be
empowered), which are the socio-economic impacts of displacement, and how can we
theorize on these issues (structural versus actor-oriented approaches).
Another set of research topics concerns types of migration and repatriation. The
research has unpacked the complexity of causes that drives conflicts. A further input has
been to reveal what constitutes the situations of refugees as compared to those of
17
internally displaced people, and how they are treated differently by the international
community, practitioners and donors. The issue of forced versus voluntary migration has
been another concern. What has arisen as a major conclusion is that the distinction
between the two is blurred and sometimes changing from one condition to another due to
changes over time and space. Many researchers have also engaged in deeper explorations
of the different facets of conflict, migration and change, perceiving migration as a
continuum between voluntary and forced, and perceiving refugees and displaced as both
victims and agents of change. In this regard, refugees’ ways to strategize and handle their
(multiple) identities have been exposed to scrutiny. Regarding repatriation, major
concerns have been related to who can repatriate and how, and what the preconditions for
repatriation and recovery are. This has been studied both from a legal perspective as well
as from a social-cultural perspective.
The role of environmental factors in analyzing causes and impacts of flight has been a
third research issue. This research has dealt with questions related to who constitutes an
environmental refugee, a contentious term but one with persuasive examples to illustrate
the ways in which people are forced to leave their homes because of environmental
change. It is understood that such displacement also has multiple antecedents, and that
environmental change warrants more attention than it currently receives.
Another theme which has been very central to the general debate on refugees, conflicts
and recovery is the role of institutions. For example, one project specifically studied the
coordination of NGO intervention in Afghanistan, while another has explored the role of
civil society in the peace process, and a third has focused on the UNHCR’s discourse on
protective strategies in situations of mass flows.
Altogether, this research raises questions on how people can produce and secure
livelihoods under changing and volatile circumstances, on what processes social
identities are shaped and reformulated, and how people create or re-create social
structures, cultural institutions and forms of organization when confronted with fluid,
18
unpredictable situations. Finally, it questions what institutions are involved in post-war
recovery and how they function and coordinate their efforts.
The different projects may be classified as follows (see Appendices 1–3 for a complete
list of participants, projects and selected publications):
Doctoral scholarships:
A total of 9 doctoral scholarships were funded. Of these, 4 were awarded to female
candidates. By summer 2003, 1 candidate had completed her doctoral exam and 5
candidates had submitted their theses. Several of the candidates have spent time in
reputed research environments abroad, such as the University of California, Berkeley, the
University of Michigan Law School, the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford, and the
Post-war Reconstruction and Development Unit (PRDU), York, UK, Sussex Centre for
Migration Research, University of Sussex, UK.
Postdoctoral fellowships:
Two postdoctoral scholarships were granted (both to men). Both candidates have now
obtained permanent research positions. Their projects were related to the issues of
migration and social change in Sri Lanka, and resource conflicts and migration in India
and Africa.
Project support to senior researchers:
Support was given to 16 such projects. Most of these were relatively small projects, with
a limited time frame. Many existing activities were supported for up to one year. In other
cases, seed/network money was given to research groups, or to fund visiting scholars.
Three research groups have been formed in the process of research:
•
Centre for Development and Environment (Senter for Utvikling og Miljø,
SUM) was awarded a doctoral and a postdoctoral fellowship, funding for a
permanent researcher and seed money for networking. These, together with a
19
couple of other projects supported by the Norwegian Research Council
(coordinator, Professor Kristi Anne Stølen), constituted the project The Dynamics
of Displacement in Situations of Conflicts. Thematic focus has been on
repatriation and the dynamics of displacement in a cross-cultural context.
Network funding has been used for visiting scholars, a research course and
workshops, and formulation of an Oslo-based network of researchers. The group
has collaborated with several foreign partners.
•
NORAGRIC at the Norwegian Agricultural University received support for a
cross-cultural project, Forced migration of civil war victims in Africa and Asia:
resource conflicts, dilemmas of return and long term development, involving
permanent researchers comparing the situation in Sudan and Sri Lanka
(coordinator, Associate Professor Kjersti Larsen). Thematically, this group has
worked on various issues related to resource conflicts, dilemmas of return and
long-term development. The researchers have collaborated with SUM and NTNU
(through joint seminars and publication) as well as internationally.
•
NTNU Research Group on Forced Migration received funding for two doctoral
fellowships, support for two permanent faculty members, as well as seed money
for networking. These projects are embraced in the project Internal displacement:
impacts, strategies and scopes, together with other projects funded by NTNU
internally and the Nordic Africa Institute (coordinator, Professor Ragnhild Lund).
This project has a cross-cultural perspective (Angola, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh) and
focuses particularly on internal displacement and is based on actor-oriented theory
and methodology. The NTNU Research Group on Forced Migration was
established in 1997. It has collaborated nationally with individual researchers of
the programme, with NORAGRIC, and with international institutions (research
institutes, universities, the UN, NGOs, aid workers).
20
Figure 3. Settlement for displaced people, Sri Lanka. Photo: Cathrine Brun.
Achievements of initial objectives
The various annual reports highlight that the programme has succeeded in building
competence across the conventional disciplines and that the doctoral and postdoctoral
scholarships have been awarded to people from many different disciplines. The
completion and submission of more than half of the doctoral thesis manuscripts is a good
completion rate. The candidates still to submit are expected to complete within 2004 or
2005.
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All of the candidates have been working on highly relevant research topics. To date,
limited research has been carried out in Norway in this field, but it is becoming realized
that this is a rapidly expanding field nationally and internationally. Simultaneously, these
are topics that have become important on the political agenda.
As says Jennifer Hyndman in her book review of Shanmugaratnam, N., Lund, Ragnhild
& Stølen, Kristi Anne, 2003. In the Maze of Displacement: Conflict, Migration and
Change. Høyskoleforlaget – Norwegian Academic Press, Kristiansand. 229 pp. ISBN 827634-540-9, (see Figure 4):
‘Norway has been at the forefront of studies in forced migration and displacement
for some time. This book captures substantively leading research from Norwegian
authors and their collaborators on conflict and migration in South Asia, Africa
and Central America …’ (Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of
Geography 58:1, in press)
In view of scientific inputs, this programme has challenged existing methodological and
theoretical approaches. Researching ‘under fire’ must allow ad hoc methodological
solutions. This questions well-established ‘truths’ and norms in science, particularly
criteria of data reliability and validity which normally make distinctions between ‘good’
and ‘bad’ science. Theoretically, the programme can show alternative theoretical
approaches that in many ways complement more conventional, structural research
approaches on refugees and migration, as well as peace and conflict research. Actororiented approaches have been dealt with in many of the projects (i.e. actors broadly
defined, such as individual refugees/displaced, institutions and donor agencies). This
indicates a renewed interest for the role of agency in research, but it may also indicate a
willingness to be applicable and to produce knowledge which may create a potential for
change.
In general, it may also be argued that the success in developing new methodological and
theoretical insights relates to the type of support given, mainly the emphasis on doctoral
22
and postdoctoral scholarships. The majority of these projects may be classified as basic
research, but many are quite innovative in their approaches. Furthermore, the fact that
methodological and theoretical account should be exposed to critical scrutiny in doctoral
theses enables researchers to discuss problems and dilemmas relating to their work. This
also fits with the initial objective of the Plan of Action and prioritization of the
programme board, namely to allow as many such scholarships as possible and to facilitate
cross-cultural and interdisciplinary approaches. The emphasis on doctoral and
postdoctoral work is also considered very positively by the researchers and environments
involved with the programme. Interestingly, this view questions the present priorities care
of the Norwegian Research Council, which has a policy of funding big projects rather
than individual doctoral projects.
Role of seed money
The programme has given a substantial, but small amount of its total budget to senior
researchers. The potential weakness with this is that the researchers do ‘business as
usual’, cultivate their existing networks and consolidate their positions. To a certain
extent, this is seen by the fact that quite a few of the researchers have established links
with other researchers on the programme. This impression is strengthened when taking
into account the researchers’ own assessments of their work.
However, yet others have been given a unique chance to strengthen fragile research
environments. Further, neither the significant role senior researchers can play in research
teams nor the role of the interplay between juniors and seniors should not be
underemphasized. Hence, the programme has been useful for networking and
strengthening old and new fields. The formulation of the research groups has already
been mentioned above, as one example of how new research areas have developed in the
process of research.
23
Seed/network support has also generated curriculum development and collaboration in
teaching and research, establishment of new interdisciplinary courses, as well as internal
seminars. In Bergen, for example, the Christian Michelsen’s Institute (CMI) and the
Faculty of Law have formulated the course Current International Refugee Law and
Issues. In Oslo, a specialized course on refugee and asylum law has been created. Fritjof
Nansens instituttet (FNI) and Norsk utenrikspolitisk institutt (NUPI), on the other hand,
have formalized their research collaboration on certain issues of mutual interests.
It may be argued that such funding and initiatives have strengthened the institutional
support for the programme activities. Development of curricula and courses indicates
long-term involvement on behalf of universities and teaching institutions, legitimizes new
research activities, and facilitates applications for strategic university funds. To the
research coordinators, such funding, although low, has enabled the environments to
network, exchange teaching staff, and work in a flexible and efficient manner.
International collaboration and networks
It must be emphasized that almost all the projects have had exceptionally high
international exposure, because of the international nature of the themes, because the
doctoral candidates have been encouraged to do part of their course work or fieldwork
abroad, but also because senior researchers have strengthened their network and
established new links with institutions and individuals in foreign reputed institutions, as
well as local institutions. Some of the international partners have collaborated with
several projects and institutions (e.g. the Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford and PRDU,
York). All the research fellows and the majority of the other researchers have conducted
fieldwork abroad, most often in developing countries (8 different countries in Africa,
Asia and Latin America), but also in Europe (the Balkans).
24
One outcome of national collaboration is the publication In the Maze of Displacement:
Conflict, Migration and Change by Shanmugaratnam, Lund & Stølen (Figure 4). This
book is presently on the reading list at Norwegian and British universities.
Figure 4. Joint publication by NORAGRIC, NTNU and SUM, 2003.
With regard to networking, the NTNU Research Group on Forced Migration in particular
has been able to create a new research environment which has generated additional
funding and the possibility to create a research network (Figure 5). Subsequent to the
programme support and finalization of the individual projects, support has been granted
by the Norwegian Research Council and NTNU central. This has led to the formulation
25
of the NTNU IDP Network, which is a collaborative effort with the Norwegian Refugee
Council/Global IDP Project, Geneva (funded by Development Paths in the South,
Globalization and Marginalization, 2002–2004).
Role of the Res earch Networks
(RN)
• S erve a s a na tiona l center a nd meeting
pla ce of expertis e
• E s ta blis h mecha nis ms for coopera tion with
interna tiona l res ea rch g roups a nd
multila tera l org a niza tions in s elected a rea s
• Crea te meeting points for dis s emina ting
a nd excha ng ing informa tion
• P romote communica tion with the g enera l
public
• Conta ct forum for the integ ra tion of va rious
dis ciplina ry a nd thema tic is s ues
• R es ea rchers a nd “us ers ” ca n s et the
a g enda tog ether
Figure 5. Role of research networks under the research programme Development Paths in
the South, Globalization and Marginalization.
Interdisciplinarity
As mentioned, the programme seems to have succeeded fairly well in building
competence across the conventional disciplines and that the doctoral and postdoctoral
scholarships have been given to people from many different disciplines. However, the
allocation of funds reflects one-discipline projects, yet some project groups may be
26
characterized as multi- or interdisciplinary, such as the networks and research groups
(FNI/NUPI, NORAGRIC, SUM, NTNU).
In certain cases, new sub-disciplines/scopes have been integrated in the well-established
disciplines, such as inserting issues of relief and human emergencies into development
studies, or refugee studies’ perspectives into architecture.
It is also interesting to note that this programme has triggered further interdisciplinary
efforts, such as that of the research group at NTNU which works across disciplines such
as geography, political science, architecture and engineering.
Generation of new projects and activities
Much of this research has generated/developed new topics of research, and people have
developed new proposals and received funding. Some have secured permanent researcher
positions, and others have established new contacts that have led to commissioned
research for multilateral and bilateral aid agencies, as well as NGOs such as the
Norwegian Refugee Council.
The Research Group on Forced Migration, NTNU, for example, has been awarded new
scholarships and positions. One postdoctoral scholarship was given by the Faculty of
Social Science and Technology Management, NTNU (2003–2004). Later, one doctoral
and one postdoctoral scholarship in addition to one Canadian adjunct professorship have
been granted by NTNU’s Globalization Programme (funded by NTNU’s strategic
funding as well as NTNU’s interdisciplinary fund). Researchers are being recruited from
political science, geography, architecture, and construction engineering. The main focus
of the new research is forced migration into ‘Fort Europe’, post-war reconstruction and
livelihoods (re)creation. It is envisaged that theses activities should constitute one of
NTNU’s major strategic, interdisciplinary projects in the coming years.
27
Relevancy for users and policy makers
Almost all the researchers have been involved with user groups prior to, during, or after
completion of their research. Contacts have been formalized in the way of continued
activities, e.g. the Refugee Council of Norway and NTNU, FNI and the UN. In other
cases, researchers have been recruited to do consultancies in their countries of
specialization (e.g. Angola, Sri Lanka), or in areas with related programs (e.g. the
Balkans, Caucasus, Sierra Leone).
Networking at seminars and conferences have been arenas for communication, sharing of
information and exchange of views.
Interestingly, there has been much more interaction between international and local
NGOs than between the researchers and the formal donor aid system. Contacts with
international agencies such as the UNHCR and UNDP have been more widespread than
contacts with NORAD and the Norwegian Foreign Ministry. Bilateral organizations, such
as DFID also provided more financial support to research dissemination than the
Norwegian donor system.
Gender and equality issues
As already mentioned, 4 out of 9 scholarships were awarded to women. Furthermore, 8
out of 12 project leaders are women. Hence, female representation in the project must be
assessed as good.
As for the content in the research projects, however, the focus on gender is much less
visible. Only two projects have had gender as a major focus, but several projects have
had gender as a cross-cutting issue or an additional dimension .
28
Dissemination of research results
Scientific dissemination, such as reporting in articles, theses, publication of a book
(Figure 4), and proceedings have been conducted by all the researchers (Appendix 3). As
this is an international field, much has been published in journals with international
referee systems, and has been distributed to an international audience.
Seminars and workshops have been carried out internally and nationally. One highlight
was the opening conference organized by the programme itself. Another, which was
positively assessed, was the research course Migration and Reconstruction of Livelihoods
and Identities, organized by SUM. The course had 17 participants, and had recruited
lecturers from Norway, Denmark and England. The third highlight was the workshop the
NTNU IDP Network organized in collaboration with the Falstad Centre (memorial place
and human rights centre, Norway), entitled Alternative methodologies for a new
understanding of conflict and displacement. Methodology, conflict and memorial sites
(September 2003), which attracted 28 participants.
One international conference that took place subsequent to the formal closure of this
programme was Researching Internal Displacement: State of the Art. This conference
recruited participants from 17 developing countries and 7 Western countries. Participants
were researchers and representatives from donor agencies, practitioners and policy
makers. One of the distinguished guests was Francis Deng, the UN Secretary General’s
Special Representative on Internally Displaced People. It was the first time a whole
conference such as this dealt with IDP issues. It set out to identify major research issues,
purpose and impacts of IDP-related research and how such research could feed into
policy, protection and humanitarian response. The conference was organized by The
NTNU IDP Network in collaboration with The Global IDP Project of the Norwegian
Refugee Council, and funded by the Norwegian Research Council, DFID, NTNU and
NORAD. Selected articles were published in Forced Migration Review (Figure 6), and
29
the full presentations were published in Acta Geographica–Trondheim (2003, Series A,
No. 6).
Figure 6. Researching Internal Displacement: State of the Art, Conference Report, 7–8
February 2003, Trondheim, Norway.
30
Several of the researchers have been assigned to do commissioned research and
consultancies, or have participated at user seminars, especially those who have worked
with issues related to emergency situations, post-war recovery and role of donor agencies.
Less can be said about how the various research environments have disseminated
information about what they do to wider audiences because this information was not
available to the editor of this report.
Researchers’ own assessments of the
programme and achievements
Major project results
The researchers’ own assessments of their achievements very much fit with the general
overview provided above. Almost all of them emphasized the high relevancy and
timeliness of the research programme. They also emphasized how they have
meaningfully contributed to it through conceptualizing the issues and critically examining
the way authorities and practitioners have classified and worked with refugees and
displaced people. Other contributions, they maintain, are their thorough exploration of
methodological and theoretical weaknesses of existing conflict-related research and
practice, their interaction with donors and practitioners, especially the UN system and
NGOs (much less with Norwegian authorities), and their opportunity to teach and
supervise more effectively on these issues. They feel that they have made a difference
nationally and internationally, especially as their research has been actively disseminated
abroad through books, refereed articles, at international conferences and by
commissioned reports. As these contributions have been positively assessed by
colleagues abroad, Norwegian research has been effectively put onto the international
research agenda.
31
Several researchers also expressed the view that the initial objective of the need to
identify ‘response mechanisms’ is no longer a primary research concern. It is considered
more useful to focus on the experiences of flight, survival strategies, human security, and
post-war recovery. What these individual projects have especially highlighted instead is
the thematic and disciplinary heterogeneity of research on local articulations of flight and
displacement.
Dilemmas around definitions and enumeration are closely related to the challenge of
making academic research more relevant for policy makers and advocacy organizations
and planners. Researchers should continue to reflect on how their presentation of findings
can have the greatest potential impact on decision-making (see the suggested actions
below). In doing so, cross-fertilization of knowledge through cross-cultural and
interdisciplinary approaches is considered important. There is a need to be more
proactive in encouraging interdisciplinary research and welcoming the perspectives of
disciplines that currently are not well represented in research on forced migration.
Programme strengths and weaknesses
A general lament expressed by the researchers was that considering the magnitude of the
problems under investigation, it is rather paradoxical that this had been a small project in
terms of resources. In addition, the researchers added some more specific views on
strengths and weaknesses of the programme.
On programme strengths, the researchers’ highlighted:
•
The programme had facilitated competence building in small and
fragmented research environments.
•
The programme had led to competence building in a field dominated by
practitioners, or in fields where researcher and practitioner roles overlap.
32
•
They, as researchers, had developed an excellent working relationship
with the person in charge in the Norwegian Research Council.
•
Programme funding has enabled them to establish networks (NTNU IDP
Network), formulate new projects, develop new courses, create new
collaborations/alliances, and even write books together.
•
The programme had provided job opportunities, both permanent and
temporary research positions, as well as work for the UN system, NGOs
and other commissioned research and evaluations.
•
They had established new or had broadened existing academic links.
Furthermore, this had enabled them to organize new meeting places and
develop new courses. According to one researcher: ‘this programme has
enabled us to organize international PhD courses, seminars, conferences,
etc. which we intend to start implementing in 2004’. Major partners in
Norway were NTNU, the IMER research programme in Bergen, CMI, and
individual researchers in other universities. Major academic partners
abroad include the Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford, the Post-war
Reconstruction and Development Unit, York, The Global IDP Project,
UNHCR, UNDP, Foreign Ministry/UD, national universities and research
institutes.
•
They have established new links with intergovernmental organizations
such as the OSCE-HCNM (High Commissioner for National Minorities),
the Norwegian immigration authorities and UDI, Norwegian counties, and
various NGOs.
•
They have received funding for new research projects from institutions
such as the Norwegian Research Council, Nordic Africa Institute, the
European Union and internal university sources.
•
Their books and articles are being actively used as teaching material at
Norwegian and foreign universities.
33
On programme weaknesses, the researchers stressed:
•
There had been only one researchers’ meeting in the beginning of the
programme. The majority wonder why a final conference to mark the end
of the programme has not been organized. Quite a few also missed
progress meetings.
•
They had had no contact with the Programme Board beyond the first
conference. They felt that the Board had been invisible, and were of the
opinion that the Board had been unable to fulfill their own initial
objectives and priorities (see Section 2).
•
It was especially felt that contact with user groups and the other
researchers on the programme had suffered because of this. Contacts with
user groups and dissemination had thus been left to individual researcher’s
own ability and initiative.
•
Integration of the programme Development Paths in the South.
Globalization and Marginalization has marginalized the issue and
delimited new research options.
Suggestions for research and new actions
This report has shown that the programme Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and
Development basically has been a capacity-building research enterprise that has
contributed with substantial new knowledge to a research field which has now started to
expand very rapidly. Hence, it may have a catalytic value to conflict-related research as
well as research on globalization and marginalization.
The research has been theory-driven, but still responsive to the needs and concerns of the
policy community in Norway and internationally. It has successfully developed
knowledge and maintained research competence in this field in Norwegian academic
34
institutions, and it has achieved the basis for improved, ‘knowledge-based’ decisions
among Norwegian authorities and Norwegian and international aid organizations. It may
also be argued that the knowledge developed is highly contextualized, as it builds on
primary data and extensive fieldwork in conflict zones, and not on secondary
information, which has characterized much of the conflict-related research so far. Hence,
this information provides in-depth insights that serve a complementary function and
added value to existing conflict-related research.
However, it may be argued that the authorities and aid organizations have not utilized the
full potential of the information provided by the programme. Therefore, suggestions for
further research and actions are presented below.
It was found that the majority of the researchers want a new, revitalized, follow-up
programme, with a major focus on forced migration and humanitarian action:
‘Important to maintain a similar programme in the future in order to continue to
increase our sophistication and knowledge about social and political processes
associated with forced migration.’ (male researcher)
‘There is a need for further sophistication and knowledge, not to disregard
‘humanitarianism’ and its practices per se. I believe research has an important
role to play in this discussion as well as a role in advocating humanitarian
principles to policy makers.’ (female researcher)
The researchers involved in the programme also articulated several additional research
topics:
•
Focus more specifically on global issues of forced migration and dynamics of
displacement – societies ‘in transition’
•
Focus on how new conflicts arise and how existing knowledge may be utilized
35
•
Study the effects of the globalized economy and politics of formation of new
flows of internally displaced people and crossing borders
•
Study different conceptions of what constitutes a good life and good society
•
Create a new programme on gender, war and displacement
•
Create a programme on children, war and displacement
•
Focus on forced migration and human smuggling
•
Focus on forced migration and Islam
•
Examine the role and interaction of NGOs, IGOs and the UN
•
Identify various ‘flight alternatives’
•
Study problems of conciliation in post-development situations
•
Study the loss of restitution claims through new legal identities
•
Develop more legal research on the situation of IDPs.
•
Identify the links between forced migration and development
•
Focus on rights-based protection in assistance
•
Focus on the role of human security (social and legal)
As mentioned, the researchers were of the opinion that they have had good contacts with
user groups. However, more priority and emphasis could be given to enhance such
contacts.
The following actions are suggested in order to improve the dialogue with institutions,
donors and user groups:
•
Organize seminars and meetings with user groups and the general public
•
Develop a research database (This is currently being developed by the NTNU
IDP Network in collaboration with the Global IDP Project/Norwegian
Refugee Council)
•
Provide internships arrangements (1–6 months) with donors and donors
36
•
Provide funding to enable the researchers to develop user friendly
manuals/training modules and publications, e.g. 1–3 months’ salary for such
purposes.
•
Organize seminars with the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs to present
research findings/research needs in the field of forced migration.
37
Appendix 1 – Project leaders and coordinators
Prosj.nr. 115744
Førsteaman. Stein Terje Holden, Norges landbrukshøgskole, Institutt for økonomi og
samfunnsfag, Postboks 5033, 1432 Ås. Dr.gr.stip. Orlando San Martin, samme adr.
Prosj.nr. 118142
Prof. Henry John MæIand, Juridiske fakultet, Universitetet i Bergen, 5020 Bergen. Dr.gr.stip.
Erik Roxstrøm, samme adr.
Prosj.nr. 118157
Forsker Wenche Hauge, Institutt for fredsforskning, Fuglehauggt. 11, 0260 Oslo.
Prosj.nr. 118159
Forsker Dan Smith, Institutt for fredsforskning (se forrige). Forsker Inger Skjelsbæk, samme adr.
Prosj.nr. 118168
Regine Andersen, Fridtjof Nansens institutt, Postboks 326 Lysaker, 1326 Lysaker.
Prosj.nr. 118169
Cecilia M. Bailliet, Juridisk fakultet, Universitetet i Oslo, Postboks 6706 St. Olavs plass, 0130
Oslo.
Prosj.nr. 118193
Prof. Ragnhild Lund, Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, NTNU, 7491
Trondheim. Dr.gr.stip. Nina Madeleine Birkeland, Geografisk institutt, NTNU.
Prosj.nr. 118194
Prof. Ragnhild Lund (se forrige).
Dr.gr.stip. Cathrine Brun, Geografisk institutt, NTNU.
Prosj.nr. 118195
Prof. Kristi Anne Stølen, Senter for utvikling og miljø, Postboks 1116 Blindern, 0317 Oslo.
38
Prosj.nr. 118196
Førsteaman. Kjersti Larsen, Etnografisk museum, Universitetet i Oslo, Postboks 6762 St.
Olavs plass, 0130 Oslo.
Prosj.nr. 120994
Instituttbestyrer Haakon Lein, Geografisk institutt, NTNU.
Prosj.nr. 121079
Forskningsleder Øivind Fuglerud, Norsk institutt for forskning om oppvekst, velferd og
alderdom, Postboks 3223 Elisenberg, 0208 Oslo.
Prosj.nr. 122040
Prof. Nadarajah Sharnnugaratnam, Norges landbrukshøgskole, NORAGRIC, Postboks 5001,
1432 Ås.
Prosj.nr. 122046
Prof. Jon Martin Trolldalen (nå Trondalen), CESAR, Postboks 61 Manglerud, 0612 Oslo.
Prosj.nr. 122202
Dr.gr.stip. Ame Strand, PRDU, Dept. of Politics, Derwent College, York YO10 5DD,
England.
Prosj.nr. 122468
Førsteaman. Stein Ugelvik Larsen, Inst. for sammenliknende politikk, Universitetet i Bergen,
Christies gt. 15, 5007 Bergen. Dr.gr.stip. Hakan Gurcan Sicakkan, hjemme adr.: Nedre Gartnergt.
4, 5011 Bergen.
Prosj.nr. 122032
Professor Yngve Lithman, Inst. for sammenliknende politikk, Universitetet i Bergen, Christies
gt. 15, 5007 Bergen. Dr.gr.stip. Atle Solberg, hjemme adr.: Welhavens gt. 9, 5006 Bergen.
Prosj.nr. 128656
Prof. Ragnhild Lund, Geografisk institutt, NTNU.
39
Prosj.nr. 128718
Prof. Kristi Anne Stølen, Senter for utvikling og miljø, Postboks 1116 Blindern, 0317 Oslo.
Prosj.nr. 128743
Prof. Ragnhild Lund, Geografisk institutt, NTNU.
Prosj.nr. 129726
Prof. Ola M. Johannessen, Nansen senter for miljø og fjernmåling, Evard Griegs vei 3A,
5059 Bergen.
Prosj.nr. 129729
Forsker Trond Vedeld, Norsk institutt for by- og regionforskning, Postboks 44 Blindern, 0313
Oslo.
Prosj.nr. 118171
Rådgiver Vigdis Vevstad, Flyktningerådet, Postboks 6758 St. Olavs plass, 0130 Oslo.
Prosj.nr. 118136
Forskn. leder Astri Suhrke, Chr. Michelsens institutt, Postboks 6033 Postterminalen, 5892
Bergen.
Prosj.ur. 118134
Forskn. leder Astri Suhrke, Chr. Michelsens institutt, Postboks 6033 Postterminalen, 5892
Bergen.
Prosj.ur. 118151
Prof. Ragnhild Lund, Geografisk institutt, NTNU.
40
Appendix 2: Research catalogue
(source: Research Council of Norway)
1
Forced urbanization and food scarcity: A study on the
population and natural resource interlinkages in
Mozambique
Prosjektansvarlig:
Institutt for økonomi og ressursforvaltning, Norges landbrukshøgskole
Prosjektleder:
Holden, Stein Terje (Førsteamanuensis)
Prosjektnr:
115744/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.1.1998-14.2.2001
1998: 463,000 1999: 370,000 2000: 482,000
After a prolonged civil war, food scarcity and resource degradation is creating a major social and political
problem, threatening the stability achieved with the peace agreements in Mozambique. About 6 million
people were forced to migrate due to the civil war and they have been concentrated in peri-urban and urban
areas mostly on the coastal zone. Concerns have been expressed on the possible ecological and
socioeconomic consequences of such massive population movements and the sustainability of the migrants’
economy. Initially, it was thought that poverty-striken peri-urban households (more than 70 % of the
population in province capitals is ‘ultra-poor’, i.e. their incomes are not enough to buy a minimum
consumption basket), should return to their (rural) areas of origin, alleviating the population pressures in
urban and peri-urban areas. However, the expected population flows have not materialized while social and
environmental conflicts increase.
The project will investigate the main forces (economic and non-economic) driving the survival strategies,
e.g. production and migration behaviour of poor households in selected areas of Mozambique most affected
by high immigration flows. This will provide a basis for formulation of a development strategy which
alleviates poverty and promotes the sustainable management of key natural resources in Mozambique.
2
Tvungen migrasjon og masseflukt – nettverkstiltak
Prosjektansvarlig:
Chr. Michelsen Institutt
Prosjektleder:
Suhrke, Astri (Forskningsleder)
Prosjektnr:
118134/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.5.1997-31.12.1997
1997: 25,000
Prosjektet skal etablere og koordinere et begrenset, men effektivt og godt fagmiljø for tre nye forskere. Det
inkluderer faglig veiledning fra prosjektlederne, samt tilrettelegging for et samarbeid på dette feltet mellom
de involverte institusjonene, Chr. Michelsens Institutt og Det juridiske fakultet, Universitetet i Bergen, og
et mer uformelt samarbeid med andre institusjoner i inn- og utland.
41
3
The UNHCR discourse on protective strategies in situations
of mass flows of refugees
Prosjektansvarlig:
Chr. Michelsen Institutt
Prosjektleder:
Suhrke, Astri (Forskningsleder)
Prosjektnr:
118136/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.3.1997-31.12.1997
1997: 253,221
Prosjektet fokuserer på utviklingen av diskursen i UNHCR og Eksekutivkomiteen gjennom de ti siste år.
Det har vært en klar endring i både oppfattelse av hvem UNHCR yter assistanse og/eller beskyttelse til, og i
utøvelse og praksis. For å oppnå en forståelse av denne endringen må UNHCRs egen oppfatning av den
globale flyktningsituasjonen, særlig med hensyn til massefluktsituasjoner, analyseres. Deretter vil
UNHCRs vurderinger av eget mandat og mulige strategier bli gjennomgått og analysert.
4
The principle of non-discrimination and admission of noncitizens and refugees
Prosjektansvarlig:
Juridiske fakultet, Universitetet i Bergen
Prosjektleder:
Mæland, Henry John (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
118142/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.7.1997-31.7.2001
1997: 162,500 1998: 375,370 1999: 410,000 2000: 190,000
The primary objective is to study and analyse temporary protection and other comprehensive approaches to
refugee situations in relation to the principle of non-discrimination in International Law (in particular with
respect to Article 26 of the ICCPR).
The point of departure of the study is whether and to what extent States’ ‘sovereignty’, in terms of
admission of refugees and aliens, is limited by the principle of non-discrimination in international law. This
paramount question is of particular relevance in respect to temporary and collective protection, as these
schemes typically involve the designation of groups of forced migrants to be granted protection.
Consequently, a differentiation between individual refugees, on the basis of their membership of a
particular group (e.g. ethnically or nationally defined) as opposed to more individual circumstances, is
implicit in these concepts. This creates a tension with respect to the principle of equality and nondiscrimination. And it represents a movement away from the individualistic approach enshrined in the 1951
Convention on the status of refugees and general International Human Rights Instruments. Moreover,
although temporary protection has been subject to legislation in many European States, temporary
protection regimes in Europe remain, in essence, ad hoc arrangements. Thus, in order to ensure a consistent
and fair practice there is a need to review these regimes in the light of core human standards.
5
Tvungen migrasjon, miljø og utvikling – et aktørorientert
perspektiv. Forskergruppa ved Geografisk institutt, SVT,
NTNU – Nettverkstiltak
Prosjektansvarlig:
Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige
universitet
Prosjektleder:
Lund, Ragnhild (Professor)
42
Prosjektnr:
118151/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.5.1997-30.12.1997
1997: 25,000
6
Causes and Dynamics of Conflict Escalation: The Role of
Environmental Change and Economic Development
Prosjektansvarlig:
Institutt for Fredsforskning (PRIO)
Prosjektleder:
Hauge, Wenche (Forsker)
Prosjektnr:
118157/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.8.1997-30.7.2001
1997: 135,000 1998: 390,000 1999: 426,000 2000: 221,700
Temaet for doktorgradsprosjektet er kva rolle økonomisk utviklingsnivå og fornybare ressursar, som
dyrkbar jord, skog, ferskvatn og fiskeressursar, spelar i utviklinga og eskaleringa av væpna konfliktar.
Prosjektet inkluderer ein teoretisk studie av problematikken.
Det empiriske arbeidet består av seks landstudiar. Tre av landa er låginntektsland: Bangladesh, Haiti og
Madagaskar. Dei andre tre er lågare mellominntektsland: Guatemala, Senegal og Tunisia. Alle landa har
høg jorderosjon og fleire av dei har stor avskoging og dårleg tilgang på ferskvatn. Begge gruppene inneheld
fredelege land og land med varierande grad av konflikteskalering.
Hensikten med landstudiane er å identifisere fellestrekk og særdrag ved den eller dei kausale rollane
økonomisk utviklingsnivå og fornybare ressursar spelar i konfliktar med ulikt intensitetsnivå.
Typologiseringa av kausale rollar er basert på ein metode som fokuserer på fire viktige årsaksaspekt i
konfliktar. Desse er konfliktkanalane (viktige skiljeliner i samfunnet), målsetjingane til deItakarane i
konflikten, utløysande faktorar og katalysatorar. Den komparative studien er strukturet ved hjelp av denne
typologiseringa. Kombinert med eit systematisk utval av land vil metoden kunne tilføre ny innsikt i kvifor
somme land med tilnærma likt økonomisk og ressursmessig grunnlag er fredelege medan andre utviklar
konfliktar med ulik grad av intensitet.
The objective of the project is to analyse the role of renewable environmental resources, such as forest, soil,
fresh water and fish resources, and the role of economic development, in the causation and escalation of
armed conflict. A theoretical study within this field will be conducted.
The empirical work consists of six case studies. Three of the cases are low-income countries: Bangladesh,
Haiti and Madagascar. The other three are lower middle-income countries: Guatemala, Senegal and
Tunisia. All countries have high soil erosion and several of them also have deforestation and a shortage of
fresh water. Both conflict countries and peaceful countries are included among the case studies and the
conflict countries represent different degrees of conflict escalation.
The objective of the case studies is to identify common characteristics and particularities in the causal roles
that economic development and renewable environmental resources play at the different levels of conflict
escalation. For this purpose David Dessler’s analytical scheme will be applied. Dessler categorizes causes
by their nature (as channels, targets, triggers and catalysts) in an interactive causal system. This method
gives a structured, focused comparison. Some independent variables are kept constant, while there is a
variation in the dependent variable.
7
Forced Migration, Resource Conflict and Sexual Violence: A
Literature Survey and Conceptual Study
Prosjektansvarlig:
Institutt for Fredsforskning (PRIO)
Prosjektleder:
Smith, Dan (Forsker)
Prosjektnr:
118159/730
43
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.6.1997-30.4.1998
1997: 138,884 1998: 197,116
Temaet for prosjektet er seksualisert vold i krig. Gjennom en litteraturstudie vil det bli klarlagt i hvilken
grad seksualisert vold blir tillagt vekt i dokumentasjonen om ressurskonflikter og tvungen migrasjon. En
stor del av prosjektet vil bestå i å skaffe til veie denne informasjonen.
Den definisjonsmessige delen av prosjektet vil bestå i å konseptualisere seksualisert vold i en
konfliktsammenheng. En rekke studier konkluderer med at seksualisert vold er et våpen i krig, men det
finnes få studier som definerer på hvilken måte det er et våpen. Å definere ulike typer seksualisert vold i
krig vil være en måte å legge grunnlaget for mer inngående studier av seksualisert vold som våpen i krig.
Det er gjort få studier om seksualisert vold generelt, derfor vil dette prosjektet være av avgjørende
betydning for videre forskning.
8
Miljørelatert tvungen migrasjon: Tidlig varsling som
grunnlag for forebyggende handling
Prosjektansvarlig:
Fridtjof Nansens institutt (FNI)
Prosjektleder:
Andersen, Regine (Doktorgradsstipendiat)
Prosjektnr:
118168/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.7.1997-31.12.1998
1997: 544,000 1998: 497,000
Miljørelatert tvungen migrasjon stiller det internasjonale samfunn overfor store utfordringer som til dels vil
kreve nye løsninger. "Preventive action" er et sentralt begrep i denne sammenhengen. Prosjektet ønsker å
rette fokus mot Norges rolle i det internasjonale arbeidet for respons. En vil ved hjelp av anvendt forskning
analysere rammebetingelsene for kanalisering av informasjon (bl.a. "early warning" systemer),
beslutningsprosesser og oppfølging av nødhjelpstiltak med sikte på å identifisere endringspotensiale.
Multilateral koordinering av de ulike aktører på dette området vil være en viktig forklaringsvariabel. På
dette grunnlaget vil en analysere mulighetene for bedre tilrettelegging av multilateral og bilateral bistand
for "preventive action".
Det legges opp til et flerfaglig samarbeid, der statsvitenskap, økonomi, andre samfunnsfag og
naturvitenskap inngår. Likevel vil organisasjons- og beslutningsteori være den faglige forankringen og gå
som en rød tråd gjennom prosjektet. Prosjektet er brukerrettet og lagt opp i korte intervaller som avsluttes
med ferdigstilling av rapporter. Disse presenteres på egne brukerseminarer ca. tre ganger i året. I tillegg
legges det opp til årlige fagseminarer. Et viktig element i kompetansebygging er utvekslingsprosessen
mellom forskerteam, referansegruppe og ressurspersoner fra det internasjonale fagmiljøet.
9
Preventing Internal Displacement: Conciliating Land
Conflicts in Latin America
Prosjektansvarlig:
Juridisk fakultet, Universitetet i Oslo
Prosjektleder:
Bailliet, Cecilia M. (Doktorgradsstipendiat)
Prosjektnr:
118169/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.3.1997-31.1.2002
1997: 271,500 1998: 390,000 1999: 383,000 2000: 63,350
44
This project assesses the effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanisms for land
conflicts in Guatemala. The goal is to analyze whether such procedural innovations may serve to resolve
problems associated with internal displacement during post-conflict transition, or whether they merely
mask inaction within the area of social justice. Because ADR forms a structural coupling of political,
economic, and legal systems, its success or failure may be directly linked to intersystem dysfunction.
Comparison with international conciliatory mechanisms within the field of human rights is made.
10 Forskningsformidling av folkerettslig bok "Refugee
Protection – Shortfalls in International Law"
Prosjektansvarlig:
Flyktningerådet
Prosjektleder:
Vevstad, Vigdis (Rådgiver)
Prosjektnr:
118171/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.5.1997-31.1.1997
1997: 106,000
Boken bygger på fransk doktorgradsavhandling forsvart ved universitetet i Strasbourg i
september 1995. Avhandlingen redigeres til bok og oversettes. Flyktningerådet er
prosjektansvarlig fordi en ønsker å formidle endringsforslag til norsk og regional (europeisk)
flyktning- og asylrett for å bedre flyktninger og asylsøkeres rettssikkerhet. Beskyttelse av
flyktninger er Flyktningerådets primaloppgave og dette innebærer også beskyttelsespolicy i eget
land og område.
11 Miljø og tvungen migrasjon
Prosjektansvarlig:
Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige
universitet
Prosjektleder:
Lund, Ragnhild (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
118193/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.8.1997-31.1.2003
1997: 150,000 1998: 294,000 1999: 312,000 2000: 329,000 2001: 214,700
Prosjektet studerer hvilke a) sammenhenger som finnes mellom tvungen migrasjon og miljødegradering og
b) hva slags overlevelses- og "livelihood" strategier intern flyktninger utvikler og bruker mens de er på
flukt. En generell målsetning med prosjektet er å opparbeide og videreutvikle den teoretiske forståelsen av
sammenhengene mellom miljøendring og tvungen migrasjon. Teoretisk kombineres aktørorienterte
tilnærminger og struktureringsteori, og i noen grad ifh. til miljøproblematikken også politisk økologi.
Faglig ståsted er i utviklingsgeografi og flyktningstudier. Datainnsamlingen er primært gjennomført i form
av intervjuer med flyktninger, lokal befolkning og andre aktører i Huambo, Angola. Videre er
litteraturstudier brukt for å samle bakgrunnsinformasjon, og gi grunnlag for sammenligning med andre
tilsvarende situasjoner. Den nye kunnskapen som dette prosjektet frambringer kan anvendes av lokale
NGOer, multilaterale organisasjoner og internasjonale NGOer som driver nødhjelps- og
utviklingsarbeid i studieområdet. Videre vil den frambragte kunnskapen kunne brukes mer generelt ifh. til
planlegging og gjennomføring av nye prosjekter for å assistere og beskytte intern flyktninger, og ikke minst
for å forebygge framtidig flukt.
12 Internally Displaced and Receiving Communities in the
South
Prosjektansvarlig:
45
Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige
universitet
Prosjektleder:
Lund, Ragnhild (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
118194/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.8.1997-30.9.2002
1997: 135,000 1998: 296,000 1999: 290,500 2000: 291,000 2001: 173,700
Studiet av internt fordrevne er en ung akademisk disiplin. Mottakerbefolkning som ofte er aktive i
migrasjonsprosessene blir sjelden inkludert i studier av internt fordrevne. Formålet med dette prosjektet er å
bidra til utvikling av et teoretisk rammeverk/verktøy for å forstå prosesser og interaksjon mellom internt
fordrevne og aktører blant mottakerbefolkninger. Aktør-orienterte perspektiver er utgangspunktet for den
teoretiske diskusjonen. Aktør-orienterte perspektiver betrakter aktørene som aktive i å bidra til å skape egne
livsopphold, og som aktive i utviklingsprosessen. Et sentralt spørsmål er hvordan aktørene takler
endringene som følge av flukt og bosetting på et nytt sted. Å skape en forståelse av hvordan de ulike
aktørene samhandler vil være viktig for å kunne betrakte ulike responsmekanismer. Enhver flyktningstrøm
representerer en unik hendelse, stedene de drar fra og kommer til er viktige i den teoretiske diskusjonen, og
også hvordan flyktninger og mottakerbefolkning skaper og gjenskaper nye steder. Metoden som anvendes
vil i stor grad kunne plasseres inn under tittelen "tolkende refleksjon", hvor det foregår en vekselvirkning
mellom teoretisk og empirisk arbeid.
The study of internally displaced is a young and underdeveloped academic discipline. Other actors than the
internally displaced participating in the process of flight and resettlement have seldom been considered.
The purpose of the project is to contribute to the development of a theoretical framework for understanding
the processes and interactions between internally displaced persons and actors in the receiving
communities.
Four main groups of actors will be the focus of regard: the internally displaced, host communities,
assistance programmes, and local and national authorities. An actor-oriented perspective will be the starting
point for understanding the processes taking place. The actor-oriented perspective considers the actors as
actively contributing to create their own livelihoods – as actors of the development process. A central
question is how actors cope with changes of flight and resettlement. To fit these actors, responses and
interaction in a model of the impacts of refugee flows will be one of the tasks. As every refugee flow
represents a unique event, place as context and analytical concept may be applied in the project.
The method of interpretative reflection will be used. The method implies both theoretical and empirical
work. The fieldwork will be done in Sri Lanka.
13 Forced Migration and Social Reconstruction among
Returned Refugees in Petén, Guatemala
Prosjektansvarlig:
Senter for Utvikling og miljø, Universitetet i Oslo
Prosjektleder:
Stølen, Kristi Anne (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
118195/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.6.1997-31.12.2000
1997: 19,280 1998: 43,070 1999: 74,345 2000: 82,805
Prosjektet er en del av SUMs tverrfaglige forskningsprogram: The Dynamics of Displacement in Situation
of Conflict, som fokuserer på årsaker og virkninger av tvungen migrasjon i Latin-Amerika (Peru og
Guatemala) og Asia (Kina og Sri Lanka). Prosjektet i Guatemala er basert på feltarbeid blant retunerte
flyktninger som etter ca. 13 år i flyktningleire i Mexico har vendt tilbake til Guatemala hvor de har slått seg
ned i et tidligere ubebodd jungelområde i den nordlige delen av landet. I et historisk perspektiv belyser
prosjektet på hvordan mennesker i bevegelse skaper og sikrer sine levekår under nye og ukjente
omstendigheter, hvordan identiteter blir skapt og omformulert, hvordan de skaper og gjenskaper sosiale
46
sturkturer institusjoner og organisasjonsformer når de møter nye og uforutsigbare situasjoner. Teoretisk tar
prosjektet sikte på å øke forståelsen for sosiale endringsprosesser knyttet til vold og krig. Prosjektet i
Guatemala inngår i et større NUFU-finansiert forsknings- og undervisningssammarbeid mellom UiO og
San Carlos universitetet i Guatemala City, hvor guatemalanske forskere og studenter, i et komparativt
perspektiv, studerer tvungen migrasjon og sosiale gjenoppbygging blant andre typer flyktninger i andre
deler av landet. Dette programmet tar sikte på å øke kunnskapen om de komplekse endringsprosessene som
skjer i Guatemala i forbindelse med gjennomføringen av fredsavtalen.
The project is part of SUM’s interdisciplinary research programme: The dynamics of displacement in
situations of conflict, which deals with causes and consequences of forced migration in four socio-cultural
contexts in Asia and Latin-America (China, Sri Lanka, Peru and Guatemala).
The Guatemala project is based on fieldwork among returned refugees who after ten to fifteen years in
camps in Mexico have settled in the Lacandon jungle in Petén, Guatemala. Within a historical perspective
the project focuses on how people produce and secure livelihoods in new locations under changing and
volatile circumstances, how social identities are shaped and reformulated, and how people create and
recreate social structure, cultural institutions and forms of organisations when confronting fluid,
unpredictable situations. Underlying is a theoretical concern with exploring and understanding practice,
agency and the actions taken by women and men living in situations that are unstable, uncertain and rapidly
changing.
The project is also carried out within the frames of the NUFU programme Forced migration and social
reconstruction in Petén, Guatemala, a competence-building programme, where Guatemalan colleagues, in
a comparative way, study other situations of displacement and social reconstruction in Petén and beyond.
This programme will provide new knowledge on the complex processes of social change currently going on
in Guatemala.
14 Forced migration of civil war victims in Africa and Asia:
Resource conflicts, dilemmas of return and long-term
development
Prosjektansvarlig:
Norges landbrukshøgskole (NORAGRIC)
Prosjektleder:
Larsen, Kjersti (Førsteamanuensis)
Prosjektnr:
118196/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.7.1997-30.6.2000
1997: 143,044 1998: 581,956 1999: 578,000
Prosjektet søker å utforske sammenhenger mellom tvungen migrasjon, dilemmaer som oppstår i
forbindelser med repatriering og sosial, politiske og økonomiske prosesser som innvirker på forvaltning av
naturresurser både innenfor og utenfor de områder folk er tvunget til å migrere fra/returnere til. Særlig i
lavinntekts land er ofte årsaker til tvungen migrasjon knyttet til spørsmål om landfordeling,
miljøforringelser, befolkningsvekst og mangel på matvaresikkerhet. Dette er problemer som igjen skaper
nye sosiale og politiske konfliktsituasjoner. Viktige temaer å diskutere i denne forbindelsen er hva som
motiverer evt. forhindrer migranter i å returnere til de områder de tidligere har flyktet fra, hvordan kan man
forhindre at det i kamp om resursser, utvikler seg konflikter mellom lokalbefolkning og migranter, hvordan
kan man legge forholdene til rette slik at tvungne migranter kan sikres, verdige livsvilkår, og hvilke
vurderinger og erfaringer ligger til grunn for de valg kvinner og menn gjør i situasjoner hvor de er/har vært
tunget til å migrere? Studiet av tvungen migrasjon, plutselig konsentrasjon av mennesker,
repatrieringssituasjoner og sosiale, politiske og økonomiske konsekvenser av slike prosesser krever at
datainnsamlingen baseres på feltarbeid, dvs. at en som forsker i perioder oppholder seg der hvor folk lever
sine hverdagsliv. Datainnsamlingen foregår i nordlige Sudan, Mosambik og på Sri Lanka.
The aim of the project is to investigate connections between forced migration, dilemmas of return and the
importance of seeing management of natural resources as linked to social, political and economic processes
among as well as beyond refugee communities. A focus on resource management is important because in
47
low income countries problems related to forced migration are usually those of land distribution,
environmental degradation, population growth and food security. These are all problems which initiate new
conflicts. Important questions to explore are as follows: What motivates and what discourages forced
migrants from returning back to the areas or regions they once migrated from? How to prevent emerging
conflicts concerning access to and control over resources between forced migrants and local populations?
How to secure that women and men who have found themselves in situations where they are forced to
migrate are allowed to keep their dignity and to secure their livelihoods? And, lastly, what kind of
experiences and understandings motivate the choices made by women and men in a situation of forced
migration, concerning livelihood security? In order to collect data necessary in order to explore the
problems raised above within a comparative framework, fieldwork is carried out in three different
countries, that is, in Sudan, Mozambique and Sri Lanka.
15 Naturkatastrofer og tvungen migrasjon i Bangladesh
Prosjektansvarlig:
Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige
universitet
Prosjektleder:
Lein, Haakon (Førsteamanuensis)
Prosjektnr:
120994/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.5.1997-31.12.2000
1998: 110,000 1999: 35,000 2000: 35,000
Prosjektet tar sikte på å studere sammenhengen mellom naturkatastrofer (flom, sykloner, elveerosjon) og
interne migrasjonsstrømmer i Bangladesh. Det er særlig antagelsen om to typer migrasjon som er av
interesse:
1. Det er ofte blitt hevdet at bosetting i marginale områder (som f.eks. lavtliggende kystområder) må forstås
som et resultat av fattigdom og marginalisering. Fattigfolk blir således, av økonomiske årsaker,
tvunget til å bosette seg i risikofylte områder.
2. Videre blir det ofte hevdet at naturkatastrofer fører til at folk blir tvunget inn til byene, og således bidrar
sterkt til byvekst og slumvekst. Sett i sammenheng kan en snakke om en migrasjon fra landsbygd
til by i flere etapper, tvunget frem av både økonomiske og fysiske marginaliseringsprosesser.
Selv om en utvilsomt finner eksempler på slike former for tvungen, intern migrasjon (den ene drevet fram
av fattigdom og den andre av naturkatastrofer), er det likevel grunn til å undersøke holdbarheten i de
påståtte migrasjonsmønstrene og de eventuelt underliggende drivkrefter. Dette ikke minst fordi det knapt
finnes empiriske studier som tar opp disse temaene til grundig drøfting.
Prosjektet tar sikte på å undersøke sammenhengene mellom naturkatastrofer, økonomisk marginalisering
og intern migrasjon og urbanisering. Dette vil bli gjort både ved en gjennomgang av litteratur, analyser av
tilgjengelige befolknings/flyttedata og feltarbeid i to utvalgte områder.
The project aims to study the relationship between natural disasters (flood, cyclones, river erosion) and
internal mass migration in Bangladesh. There are two assumptions concerning migration types that are of
particular interest:
1. It is often claimed that settlement in marginal areas, such as, for example, low-lying coastal regions,
should be seen as the result of poverty and marginalisation. The poor are, for economic reasons,
forced to settle in high risk areas.
2. Further, it is often claimed that natural disasters lead to people being forced into the towns and
consequently contributing greatly to urban growth and slum development. Seen in relationship,
one could talk about a migration from rural community to town in several stages, forced by both
economic and physical marginalisation processes.
Even if one finds irrefutable examples of similar forms of forced internal migration (the one driven by
poverty, the other by disasters) there is nevertheless reason to investigate the validity of the migration
patterns claimed and the possible underlying forces. This is not least because there have been hardly any
empirical studies which have taken up these for thorough discussion.
48
The project aims to examine the relationship between natural hazards and disasters, economic
marginalisation and internal migration and urbanisation. This will be done through a literature search,
analysis of available population and resettlement data and fieldwork in two selected areas.
16 Resource conflict, migration and social change in Batticaloa,
Sri Lanka
Prosjektansvarlig:
Norsk institutt for forskning om oppvekst, velferd, og aldring (NOVA)
Prosjektleder:
Fuglerud, Øivind (Forskningsleder)
Prosjektnr:
121079/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.11.1997-1.10.2001
1997: 77,586 1998: 366,689 1999: 520,176 2001: 208,270
The project will study forms of involuntary migration and local displacement in relation to processes of
social change and ethnic organisation in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka. From the late 1970s Sri Lanka
has experienced a state of civil war between representatives of the country’s different ethnic groups. Two
notable characteristics of the situation in east Sri Lanka are the area’s mixed population of Singhalese,
Tamils and Muslims, and the fact that contrary to the situation in other conflict areas, the ongoing
disturbances seem not to have led to any major long-distance refugee flows, but only to internal population
movements.
Central to the project will be the process and variables shaping displacement into its particular form. These
involve barriers to geographical mobility but also opportunities opened by the breakdown of traditional
social structures to individual entrepreneurship and political mobilisation. Theoretically this understanding
of displacement will be related to the question of how the organisation and symbolic representation of
social space is made part of the (unequal) incorporation of ethnic groups into the state structure. Of
particular interest in this respect is to see how and to what extent the precarious position of the Muslim
population in the east influences the development of a national Muslim minority in Sri Lanka.
17 Refugee Empowerment: The Theory and Practice in Moving
from Relief to Development in Refugee Situations
Prosjektansvarlig:
Institutt for Sammenliknende politikk, Universitetet i Bergen
Prosjektleder:
Lithman, Yngve (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
122032/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.1.1999-19.10.2004
1999: 370,000 2000: 380,000 2001: 481,000 2002: – 2003: 37,000
The guiding principle of the project is refugee empowerment, i.e. what are necessary conditions for
refugees to be ‘subjects’ rather than ‘objects’. The hypothesis is that refugees potentially have, or actually
can demonstrate, an agency which can have a very profound impact upon their own situation. The notion of
refugee empowerment as it stands today in the literature and in practical use does not, however, yield
significant insights neither theoretically nor in terms of its utility. Theoretically, identifying elements of
necessary conditions for refugee empowerment, therefore, is central to an understanding of the concrete
manifestation of refugee empowerment on the ground. By linking the concept of refugee empowerment
with the so-called continuum debate in the literature (or the possibility and advantages of incorporating
refugee programming into larger regional development), the project will present a cluster of variables,
which may hamper or serve refugee empowerment. The project will apply this framework on refugee
situations in Central America and the Balkans to assess opportunities for, as well as obstacles against,
refugee empowerment.
49
18 Forced migration of civil war victims in Africa and Asia:
Resource conflicts, dilemmas of resettlement and long term
development
Prosjektansvarlig:
Norges landbrukshøgskole (NORAGRIC)
Prosjektleder:
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
122040/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.1.1998-30.9.2000
1998: 138,072 1999: 200,124 2000: 73,654
The Sri Lanka component of NORAGRIC’s research project on forced migration focuses on internal
displacement, relocation and rehabilitation, and the relations between IDPs and host communities with
reference to competition for economic opportunities and natural resources. Internal displacement has
become an endemic phenomenon in the North-East of Sri Lanka since the advent of the civil war in 1983. It
is a major problem involving 800,000 to one million civilians. The study deals with the larger setting of
internal displacement and goes in-depth into the more specific aspects of forced migration, IDP’s-host
community relations, resource conflicts and the changing socio-economic context in two geographic areas
of Sri Lanka – one in Puttalam district in the Northwestern Province and the other in Vavuniya in the
Northern Province. In Puttalam, the IDPs are Muslims who were forced out of their homes in the North in
October 1990. It is outside the war zone. In Vavuniya, the IDPs are Tamils from the war-torn areas of the
North. These site studies will provide empirical analysis of the issues mentioned above with due reference
to changes in local economies and resource use patterns, access to resources, gender relations,
ethnic/religious solidarity, and to perceptions of the IDPs and hosts about each other and the changing local
context.
19 Hvilken betydning har ulike informasjonskilder, FNs
omorganiserinsprosess og forskningsinstitusjoners
samarbeid med FN for FNs muligheter
Prosjektansvarlig:
CESAR
Prosjektleder:
Trondalen, Jon Martin (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
122046/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.1.1998-31.12.1998
1998: 185,000
Prosjektet tar sikte på å utvikle et metodologisk verktøy for vurdering og håndtering av miljø- og
ressurskonflikter (Environmental Conflict Assessment Database/ECAD) hvor også tvungen migrasjon
inngår. ECAD rettes spesielt mot FN, og tar sikte på å øke FNs kapasitet i håndteringen av miljø- og
ressursrelaterte konflikter. Tre separate case vil inngå som grunnlag for prosjektet: Etiopia, Bangladesh og
Libanon.
Prosjektet har to mål:
1. Utvikle et metodisk verktøy til bruk i håndtering av miljø- og ressurskonflikter i Etiopia, Bangladesh og
Libanon, med sikte på å øke FNs konfliktløsningskapasitet i disse tre landene.
2. På grunnlag av erfaringene fra disse "case-studiene", undersøke mulighetene for utvikling av et mer
generelt metodisk verktøy med relevans for FNs generelle kapasitet i håndtering av miljø- og
ressurskonflikter der også tvungen migrasjon inngår.
I prosjektet er det forsøkt å kombinere en statsvitenskapelig og ressursgeografisk analyse. Den
ressursgeografiske analyse fokuserer primært på de konkrete miljø- og ressursproblemene i lys av tvungen
migrasjon og utvikling. Den statsvitenskapelige tilnærmingen inkluderer politiske faktorers betydning i
50
håndteringen av konfliktene, og kan bidra i utviklingen av metodologiske grep. Kombinasjonen av de to
fagfeltene kan legge grunnlaget for utviklingen av et metodisk verktøy som tar hensyn til effektene av
samspillet mellom miljø- og ressursrelaterte problemer og politiske faktorer. Verktøyet forventes å
produsere verdifull input til FNs operasjonelle virksomhet på området miljø- og ressurskonflikter.
20 NGO coordination, to the benefit of forced migrants?
Prosjektansvarlig:
Strand, Arne (Doktorgradsstipendiat)
Prosjektleder:
Strand, Arne (Doktorgradsstipendiat)
Prosjektnr:
122202/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.9.1998-31.12.2002
1998: 128,227 1999: 434,640 2000: 374,545 2001: 254,108
The success and failures of NGO coordinating bodies in their effort to coordinate humanitarian assistance
and protection of forced migrants has been a neglected topic in research.
The project will critically review the NGO coordination efforts taking place in complex emergencies,
focusing on how these are able to add to the assistance and protection work being implemented by single
NGOs towards forced migrants.
The project will establish a typology of the actors within the coordination; analyse the NGO coordinating
bodies’ relationship with external actors; analyse their effectiveness and potential extended roles, examine
the existing opportunities and obstacles to the coordination; and examine possible negative effects of a
stronger coordinated role.
The overall ambition of the project is to be able to present recommendations for an enhanced role of NGO
coordinating bodies, with special consideration of a closer involvement of the rights and capacities of the
forced migrants.
21 Politics of Identity & Identity of Politics: Changing
Mechanisms of Response to Forced Migration in
Scandinavia
Prosjektansvarlig:
Institutt for sammenliknende politikk, Universitetet i Bergen
Prosjektleder:
Stein Ugelvik Larsen (Førsteamanuensis)
Prosjektnr:
122468/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
5.2.1998-31.12.2003
1998: 312,000 1999: 396,000 2000: 395,831 2001: 124,100
Prosjektet setter søkelys på de skandinaviske nasjonale asyl- og flyktningregimers (NFR) økende grad av
uavhengighet fra etterkrigstidens internasjonale asyl- og flyktningregimer (IFR). Det skildrer IFRs og de
skandinaviske NFRs innhold ved hjelp av kommunitaristiske og liberalistiske modeller for asyl- og
flyktningpolitikk. Modellene blir anvendt som weberianske idealtyper i en komparativ analyseramme. Som
måleverktøy bruker prosjektet det analytiske skillet og den analoge sammenhengen mellom begrepene
"policy" og "regime" for å avdekke de skandinaviske NFRs styrke og holdbarhet. Prosjektet tester følgende
hypoteser:
1. Tidspunkt for NFRs fremvekst vil avhenge av karakteristika ved flyktningstrømmene (grad av nød,
skala, sted, konfliktenes type og varighet) og av innenlandsk-økonomiske forhold (arbeidsløshet,
levekostnader, nasjonal produkt per innbygger, økonomisk ulikhet).
2. NFRs styrke vil avhenge av motsetningsforholdet mellom innenlandske politiske faktorer (NGOs og
andre interssegruppers engasjement, partipolitisk press) og av internasjonale forhold (IGOs engasjement,
IFR, regionale maktbalanser, internasjonale forpliktelser og nabolandets NFR).
51
3. NFRs innhold vil avhenge av statsideologier, statsborgerskapsidealer og fremmedbilder som er blitt
utformet gjennom historiske stats- og nasjonsbyggings prosesser, og av asylsøkeres og flyktningers faktiske
egenskaper (alder, kjønn, rase, religion, morsmål, etnisk bakgrunn, nasjonalitet og politisk overbevisning).
The project inquires into the growing independence of the Scandinavian National Refugee Regimes (NRR)
from the post-war International Refugee/Asylum Regime (IRR). It deliniates the policy contents of the
post-war IRR and the Scandinavian NRRs by employing the communitarian and liberal NRP-models as
Weberian ideal types in a comparative framework. As a measuring device it employs the analytical
distinction and analogue continuum between the ‘policy’ and ‘regime’ concepts in order to detect the
strength and durability of NRRs. The project puts forward and tests the hypotheses:
1. The timing of NRRs’ emergence is determined combinatorially by refugee inflows’ characteristics (e.g.
emergency, scale, geographic location, conflicts’ type and duration) and by the state of domestic economic
affairs (unemployment, living costs, per capita gross national product, economic inequality).
2. The strength of NRRs is determined by the tension between internal political factors (e.g. NonGovernmental Organisations’ (NGO) and other pressure groups’ activities, political parties’ pressures) and
international relations (e.g. Intergovernmental Organisations’ (IGO) pressures, the IRR, regional power
balances, international commitments and neighbouring countries’ NRRs).
3. The policy content of NRRs is combinatorially determined by state ideology, citizenship ideal and alien
models which are formed by historical state- and nation-building processes, and refugees’ features (e.g.
age, gender, race, religion, language, ethnicity, nationality, political persuasion).
22 The quest for a new epistemology of studies on forced
migration
Prosjektansvarlig:
Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige
universitet
Prosjektleder:
Lund, Ragnhild (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
128656/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.8.1999-30.4.2001
1999: 62,000 2000: 39,000
The project will serve as an input to facilitate analytical approaches to the study of forced migration such as
internal displacement (IDP), and at the same time critically examine their relevancy.
At this stage, a few relevant approaches have been identified. These are: migration studies, development
studies, structuration theory, political geography and hazard research. With regard to explanatory value,
these studies may be seen as complementary, and able to cross-fertilise the focus and level of analysis.
While a primary focus in migration studies is to analyse forced migration as a result of disaster and
conflict, developmental studies may focus more on migration as an impact of the new globalised world.
While political geography focuses on political processes which create different political institutions and
actions such as resistance movements and tension/eviction, structuration theory in social science looks at
the interface situations of the local-global and the local-individual which may explain the situation of flight
and eviction in a more holistic way. Considering the complexities of forced migration and internal
displacement, it is also a challenge to look beyond disciplinary boundaries and other research fields (e.g.
hazard research).
Parallel to the study and analysis of relevant research projects, there is a need to examine choice of methods
and data collection, critically examining their use of indicators and how refugees and IDPs are perceived
and classified.
The project concerns a two-month stay at the Programme for Post-war Reconstruction and Development
Unit at the University of York to do literature studies, and a one-month fieldwork session in Sri Lanka.
52
23 The Dynamics of Displacement in Situations of Conflict –
Nettverk
Prosjektansvarlig:
Senter for utvikling og miljø, Universitetet i Oslo
Prosjektleder:
Kristi Anne Stølen (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
128718/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.1.1999-30.6.2003
1999: 71,488 2000: 128,512 2001: 30,500 2002: 104,500 2003: 14,666
The project comprises programme activities intended to consolidate the training and networking
components of the Centre for Development and the Environment's (SUM) research within the frames of
‘The Dynamics of Displacement programme, in order to achieve its objectives and optimise the results and
synergies of the individual proposals into a comprehensive programme. Programme activities include
internal programme seminars, a PhD course, student stipends, and some support to networking.
24 Nettverksmidler for forskergruppa for tvungen migrasjon,
Geografisk institutt, NTNU
Prosjektansvarlig:
Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige
universitet
Prosjektleder:
Lund, Ragnhild (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
128743/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.1.1999-31.12.2001
1999: 50,000 2000: 50,000 2001: 50,000
Forskergruppa for tvungen migrasjon ble etablert ved Geografisk institutt, Norges teknisknaturvitenskapelige universitet (NTNU), høsten 1995, og er et tiltak for å samordne ulike
forskningsaktiviteter på temaet tvungen migrasjon. Flere prosjekter har fått støtte fra Norges forskningsråd,
Miljø og utvikling, Program for migrasjon, ressurskonflikter og utvikling. I tillegg har studenter fått støtte
fra Nordiska afrikainstitutet. Prosjektenes samlende profil er analytisk gjennomgang av begrepet tvungen
migrasjon samt identifikasjon, av sammenhengene mellom fordriving, krig og konflikt, miljø og utvikling.
Teoretisk støtter de fleste prosjektene seg til aktør-orienterte perspektiv. Utviklingen av
nettverksfunksjoner har vært en prioritert arbeidsoppgave. Seminarer og forskermøter, samt formalisering
av samarbeid mellom partnere har vært del av dette arbeidet. Samarbeidende forskningsmiljø er
Programme for Reconstruction and Development, Fakultetet for arkitektur og billedkunst ved NTNU; the
Refugee Studies Programme ved University of Oxford; Sussex Centre for Migration Research ved
University of Sussex; the Post-war Reconstruction and Development Unit ved University of York;
Department of Geography ved University of Peradeniya; Center for udviklingsforskning, København; flere
institutter ved universitetet i Sarajevo, samt frivillige organisasjoner i Norge, Angola, Bangladesh og Sri
Lanka.
The research group on forced migration at the Department of Geography, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU) was established in 1995. During 1997 several projects were launched, funded by
the Norwegian Research Council, and the Nordic Africa Institute. The aim is to formulate broader, and
analytically more applicable, definitions of forced migration. The project also wants to make visible the
connections between displacement, war, environment and development. Theoretically, the group develops
actor-oriented approaches for the study of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). Networking is a priority
task of the research group, including organising meetings and seminars, and developing an academic
network of collaborating Norwegian and European research environments which now includes the
Programme for Reconstruction and Development, Faculty of Architecture, NTNU; the Refugee Studies
53
Programme, University of Oxford; Sussex Centre for Migration Research, University of Sussex; the Postwar Reconstruction and Development Unit, University of York; Department of Geography, University of
Peradeniya; Centre for Development Research, Copenhagen; various departments at the University of
Sarajevo, and NGOs in Norway, Angola, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
25 Environmental monitoring of refugee camps using high
resolution satellite images – ENVIREF
Prosjektansvarlig:
Nansen Senter for Miljø og Fjernmåling
Prosjektleder:
Johannessen, Ola M. (Professor)
Prosjektnr:
129726/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.1.1999-31.12.2000
1999: 250,000 2000: 250,000
The project aims to demonstrate the pre-operational use of EO data for more efficient and cost-effective
planning and management of refugee camps. This will be done by developing products and procedures, in
close co-operation with major relief-organizations, that can integrate information available from highresolution EO satellite data directly into the decision-making and operational processes of relieforganizations. The customers will also be involved in product evaluation as the project advances.
Envisaged products are high-quality space maps of refugee camps, roads, surrounding water resources,
forests, etc. in digital and hard copy format. Products are to be included in GIS databases. The products and
methods will be actively promoted through the Internet-based CEO European Wide Service Exchange
(EWSE).
By improving existing and developing new products and methods based on high and very high resolution
EO data for the relief-community, humanitarian operations can become more efficient and EO data can
thus assist in increasing the number of human lives saved.
26 Resource conflict and migration among rural and urban
communities in India and Africa
Prosjektansvarlig:
Norsk institutt for by- og regionforskning
Prosjektleder:
Vedeld, Trond (Forsker)
Prosjektnr:
129729/730
Bevilgningsperiode og finansiering fra Norges forskningsråd:
1.9.1999-31.12.2002
1999: 105,767 2000: 210,370 2001: 234,169 2002: 149,694
Background: Access to land and common-pool resources is of fundamental importance for small farmers,
women and pastoral groups in India and Africa. Even so, poor people face increasing access problems as
community-based regimes are continuously being privatised, and land concentrated to large farms and
influential farmers (under state-mandated private titles and property regimes). At the same time, there is
growing evidence that agricultural development and resource management is more efficiently achieved
through small rural family farms and herd units than through large mechanized private farms (with state
subsidies), where mismanagement and under utilization is often observed.
Hypothesis: Provided property rights institutions are well defined and enforced, community-based regimes
can: i) ensure reasonable individual security and access to land for the rural poor, ii) mediate the link
between poverty, population increase and environmental degradation and foster improved resource
management, and iii) enable equitable and efficient agricultural development and common-pool resource
management.
54
Data and method: The project combines a historical-institutional perspective with microanalysis of village
communities. The project uses a political interaction framework, observing and collecting data on the
dynamic resource base, the actors, and institutions determining land use and property regimes.
Theory contributions: In response to the empirical findings, the limits of existing property rights theory will
be established, and modification suggested in order to make these theories more applicable (especially in
relation to common-property theory).
55
Appendix 3: Selected publications
(source: Forskdok)
Andersen, Regine, A. Tostensen, R. Øygard & J. Carlsson 1998: Building research
capability in Africa. A review of NORAD’s assistance to regional research
organizations. Oslo: Norges Forskningsråd.
Andersen, Regine, N. Gornitzka, C. Murphy, Nikundiwe & K. Sverdrup 1999:
Norwegian Research Support to Developing Countries: The Case of Tanzania.
Oslo: NORAD.
Birkeland, Nina M. 2000: War, environment and displacement in Angola – Causes of
forced migration and the ‘deslocado’ identity in the Huambo province. London:
BAF, Royal Institute of International Affairs.
Birkeland, Nina M. 2003: Last time I fled because of war, this time because of hunger:
environmental change and internal displacement in the Huambo province,
Angola. In Shanmugaratnam, N., Lund, R. & Stølen, K. (eds.): In the Maze of
Displacement: Conflict, Migration and Change. Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget
AS [Norwegian Academic Press].
Birkeland, Nina M. & C. Brun (eds.) 2003: Researching internal displacement: State of
the art. Conference proceedings, Trondheim, Norway, 7–8 February 2003.
Brun, Cathrine 2000: Newcomers and hosts. Muslim internally displaced persons and
their hosts in Sri Lanka – challenges for social research. Proceedings from
Conference, Trondheim, 5–6 April 2000: Recovery and development after
conflict and disaster. Trondheim: NTNU.
Brun, Cathrine 2000: Spatial practices of integration and segregation among internally
displaced persons and their hosts in Sri Lanka. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–
Norwegian Journal of Geography Vol. 54, No. 3.
Brun, Cathrine 2003: Local citizens or internally displaced persons? Dilemmas of longterm displacement in Sri Lanka. Journal of Refugee Studies Vol. 16, No. 4.
Larsen, Kjersti 1999: Forced to migrate – told to return: Land, identity and belonging
among the Hawawir of Northern Sudan. Guest lecture at Centre d'études
africaines, St. Denise University, Paris, June 1999.
Larsen, Kjersti 2001: Forced to migrate – told to return: the case of the Hawawir pastoral
nomads of Northern Sudan. NORAGRIC Working Paper No. 23. Ås: NORAGIC,
Norges Landbrukshøgskole.
56
Larsen, Kjersti 2003: Mobility, identity and belonging: the case of the Hawawir, northern
Sudan. In Shanmugaratnam, N., Lund, R. & Stølen, K. A. (eds.): In the Maze of
Displacement: Conflict, Migration and Change. Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget
AS [Norwegian Academic Press].
Larsen, Kjersti & F. H. Johnsen 2001: The Um Jawasir Project, Sudan: irrigated
agriculture and repatriation of displaced nomads. In Haug, R. & Teurlings, J.
(eds.): Successes in Rural Development. Ås: NORAGRIC (Norges
Landbrukshøgskole).
Lein, Haakon 2000: Hazards and ‘forced’ migration in Bangladesh. Norsk Geografisk
Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of Geography Vol. 53, No. 4.
Lein, Haakon 2000: Disasters and society-competing stories about floods in Bangladesh.
Recovery and development after conflict and disaster. Proceedings from the
Conference, Trondheim, 5–6 April 2000. Trondheim: NTNU.
Lein, Haakon 2000: Natural hazards and forced migration: A Bangladesh case study.
Guest lecture at the Asian Institute of Technology, SERD, 8 November 2000.
Lund, Ragnhild 2000: Geographies of eviction, expulsion and marginalization: Stories
and coping capacities of the Veddhas, Sri Lanka. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–
Norwegian Journal of Geography Vol. 54, No. 3.
Lund, Ragnhild 2001: Creating Livelihoods for IDPs: Some conceptual and practical
considerations. Lecture at conference: Response strategies of the internally
displaced – Changing the migration and development Vol. 54, No. 3.
Lund, Ragnhild 2002: Plenary: Methodological choices and dilemmas in contested
spaces. Researching minorities and the displaced. Acta Geographica–Trondheim
Serie A, No. 2. Trondheim: Geografisk institutt, NTNU.
Lund, Ragnhild 2002: Introduction to workshop: Studying other people’s places and
spaces, Trondheim, 4 April 2002: ‘Ethics and Fieldwork as Intervention’, in Acta
Geographica – Trondheim. 4 pp.
Lund, Ragnhild 2002: Keynote speaker, Norwegian Geographical Society’s Annual
Conference, Trondheim 6–7 April, 2002: ‘Methodological Choices and Dilemmas
in Contested Spaces: Researching Minorities and the Displaced’, in Acta
Geographica–Trondheim. 14 pp.
Lund, Ragnhild 2003: Representations of forced migration in conflicting spaces:
Displacement of the Veddas in Sri Lanka. In Shanmugaratnam, N., Lund, R. &
Stølen, K. (eds.): In the Maze of Displacement: Conflict, Migration and Change.
Introduction. Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget AS [Norwegian Academic Press].
57
Lund, Ragnhild 2003: Forced Migration, Resource Conflicts and Development. Final
Report to the Research Council of Norway.
Lund, Ragnhild 2003: Presentation of the final report of the forced migration, resource
conflict and development program at the Research Council of Norway. Speech at
conference, Høyskolen i Nord-Trøndelag, Levanger: Alternative methodologies
for new understandings of conflict and displacement. Methodology, conflict and
memorial sites. 26 September 2003, Falstadsenteret and Høyskolen i NordTrøndelag, Levanger.
Lund, Ragnhild & S. M. Panda 2000: Asian financial crisis, women’s work and forced
migration. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of Geography Vol.
54, No. 3.
Roxstrøm, Erik 1998: Klagebehandlingen innen Torturkomiteen. Innvandringspolitikk og
utlendingslov - samtidens klagemur. Oslo: Fagbokforlaget.
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah 2001: Forced migration and changing local political
economies: a study of north-western Sri Lanka. Proceedings international
seminar: Reframing Post-Conflict Rehabilitation: Beyond Clichés from the Past
The Hague 2001.
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah 2001: Forced migration and changing local political
economies: a study of north-western Sri Lanka Colombo: Social Scientist’
Association, Sri Lanka.
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah 2001: Linking peace and development in Sri Lanka: facing
the challenge. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Institute of Social Development.
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah 2001: Poverty, conflict and access to resources in Sri
Lanka. Speech at conference 8 March 2001: NORADs regionale
bistandskonferanse, Norges Landbrukshøgskole, Ås.
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah 2003: The peace process and reconstruction needs of the
North East. Lecture at seminar on the Japan Bank for International Cooperation
(JBIC) study ‘Development Assistance Strategy for Peace Building and
Reconstruction in Sri Lanka’. Tokyo, 29 January 2003.
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah, D. Mamer & R. Kenyi 2002: From emergency relief to
local development and civil society building. Report. Dryland Coordination
Group. Ås: Dryland Coordination Group.
Shanmugaratnam, Nadarajah, R. Lund & K. A. Stølen (eds.) 2003: In the Maze of
Displacement: Conflict, Migration and Change. Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget
AS [Norwegian Academic Press].
58
Sicakkan, Hakan Gürcan 1998: Politics of Identity & Identity of Politics. A MacroComparative Analysis of West European Models of Alien and Response to
Immigration (1945–1995). International Migration and Ethnic Relations Vol. 13.
Bergen: IMER/Norway-Bergen Publications.
Sicakkan, Hakan Gürcan 1999: Senses That Make Noise & Noises That Make Sense.
Three Techniques for Scaling Norwegian Responses to Immigration: A
Comparison of Results from Applications of Mokken, Factor and ClusterDiscriminant Models. IMER Norge/Bergen Rapport No.19, Bergen: IMER
Norge/Bergen.
Smith, Dan & W. Østreng (eds.) 1997: Research on Environment, Poverty and Conflict.
A Proposal. FNI & PRIO Report No. 3.
Stølen, Kristi A., I. Nesheim & S. Dhillion 2003: Traditional knowledge of plant
resources in a resettlement community, La Quetzal, Petén, Guatemala. Working
Paper 2003.1, Universitetet i Oslo: Centre for Development and Environment.
Suhrke, Astri, N. P. Gleditsch, A. Knudsen & H. Urdal 2003: Conflict and development:
Framework for a proposed research area. Oslo & Bergen: PRIO & Christian
Michelsens Institutt.
Vedeld, Trond 2000: The new development agenda and involuntary resettlement – a view
from India [review article]. Forum for Development Studies Vol. 27, No. 1.
Vedeld, Trond 2001: History, continuity and change in Fulani resource regimes. Politics,
property and production in the West African Sahel. Understanding natural
resource management. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
59