Shanghai International Studies University
On Translating Cultural Expressions of Hong Lou Meng
from Perspective of Semantics
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate School and College of English
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Master of Art
By
Zhong Rui
Under Supervision of Professor Luo Ping
May 2010
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heart-felt thanks to all people for their generous help
and encouragement during my writing this thesis.
First and foremost, I would like to extend my gratitude to Professor Luo Ping, my
supervisor. Without his academic expertise, critical insights, his kindness and patience,
this thesis would not have been possible. He has helped me as much as he can.
For
example, he has provided me a lot of useful research materials.
I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to all the professors of the Shanghai
International Studies University. Because of their excellent lectures, I have improved
my theory and practice of translation.
Secondly, I would like to thank my parents, my colleagues, and all my friends,
who have always been supporting me with their love and patience throughout my
preparing this thesis. They all take good care of me.
Last but not least, my sincere thanks go to all my classmates in the Shanghai
International Studies University, especially Lu Chunguang and Xu Jiali, for their
academic excellence and generous help.
摘 要
《红楼梦》是一部有深远意义的伟大的小说。她反映了中华民族博大精深、
灿烂璀璨的文化民俗。《红楼梦》不仅对中国文学及文化造成了很大的影响，同
时，对外国文学及文化也有极其广泛的影响。
在《红楼梦》琳琅满目的文体中，包含着数不胜数的中国博大精深的文化特
性词语。成语、谚语、典故、俗语、歇后语、习语等在翻译上有其特殊性和复杂
性。要让西方人读懂《红楼梦》这部伟大小说，解决好这些恰到好处而最具文化
底蕴与特色的文化特性词语的翻译是关键。本论文正是站在这样一个高度，从理
论、技巧和艺术等方面对这些文化特性词语的翻译进行研究。
《红楼梦》有两个英语全译本，即杨宪益和戴乃迭版本、霍克斯与敏福德版
本。两家的翻译各有千秋，在文化特性词语的翻译上尤为如此。本论文灵活地将
纽马克的语义翻译理论与《红楼梦》文化特性词语的翻译实践结合起来，对以上
两家译文进行了深入的对比研究。
本论文有效地运用了语义学的分析方法，对照比较两家译本，在某种程度上
揭示了《红楼梦》文化特性词语翻译的艺术奥妙。
关键词：《红楼梦》；翻译；文化特性词语；语义学
i
Abstract
“Hong Lou Meng”, a great Chinese classical novel, embraces the profound and
brilliant Chinese culture and folk customs that have been greatly influential in the
history of exchanging cultures between the East and the West.
There are a great many literary forms and special cultural expressions in this
classical novel, such as allusions, idioms, proverbs, “Xie Hou Yu” (two-part
allegorical sayings), vulgarisms, etc. All these have specialty and complexity. In order
to make this novel understood and accepted by the Westerners, here is a high
demanding work of translating these cultural expressions into English. This thesis
tries to carry out a convincing study on these expressions from the points of theory,
technique and artistic value.
There are two English versions of “Hong Lou Meng”. One is translated by Yang
Hsien-Yi and Gladys Yang and the other is translated by David Hawkes and John
Minford. Each of them has its own merits in reproducing the special cultural
expressions. From a new perspective, this thesis tries to integrate Peter Newmark’s
semantic translation theory with the translation practice of the cultural expressions in
“Hong Lou Meng” by comparing the versions of Yang and Hawkes.
Key Words: Hong Lou Meng; translation; cultural expressions; semantics
Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract (Chinese)…………………………………………………………………….. i
Abstract (English)……………………………………………………………………..
ii
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. …….
1
Chapter One
3
Cultural Expressions………………………………………………….
1.1 Definition, Causation, Categorizations……………………………………..
3
1.2 Literary Significance of Cultural Expressions………………………………
6
1.3 Difficulties and Several Outcomes in Translation…………………………..
8
Chapter Two Different Approaches to Translating Cultural Expressions………….
10
2.1 A Study of Earlier Approaches to Translating Cultural Expressions………
10
2.1.1 Prescriptive Approach…………………………………………….. …
10
2.1.2 Pragmatic Approach………………………………………………….
10
2.1.3 Cross-Cultural Approach…………………………………………….
11
2.1.4 Rhetorical Approach…………………………………………………
11
2.2 New Concept from Peter Newmark……………………………………….
11
2.2.1 Main Functions of Language and Categorizations of Texts…………
12
2.2.2 Semantic Translation…………………………………………………
14
2.2.3 Communicative Translation………………………………………….
15
Chapter Three Semantic Approach to Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou
Meng”………………………………………………………………………………
17
3.1 Expressive Function of “Hong Lou Meng”………………………………
17
3.2 Translating of Allusions…………………………………………………..
19
3.3 Translating of Idioms…………………………………………………….
25
3.4 Translating of Proverbs…………………………………………………..
28
3.5 Translating of Two-part Allegorical Sayings…………………………….
30
3.6 Translating of Vulgarisms………………………………………………..
35
3.7 Translating of Other Special Expressions…………………………………
37
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………
42
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………….
44
On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
Introduction
Ideologies, emotion, all of people’s activities and even neural reflexes all have a
close relationship to language. In the same way, the slightest part of ideology, the
deepest part of the emotions, the most wonderful part of wisdom and the most
profound part of insight all have a close relationship with language.
People living in different societies have different language systems. The language
is a component of its culture.
Cultural expressions show distinct characteristics of language. Their vividness,
conciseness and specialty are the reason why they can remain in the language for such
a long time, why they are used frequently, and why they are used so commonly both
in daily life and literary work.
“Hong Lou Meng”, the great classical Chinese novel written by Cao Xueqin in
the mid-eighteenth century, has been widely read throughout the last two hundred
years and more. The novel is an encyclopedia of society during the Qing Dyna sty. It
integrates Cao’s own opinion and various local customs and cultural objects of ancient
China in such a brilliant way that the poems, couplets, vivid descriptions, and precise
comments make contributions to the high art of this work with strong local flavors.
Cultural expressions are also widely used in “Hong Lou Meng”. Cultural
expressions include allusions, idioms, proverbs, “Xie hou yu” (Allegorical Sayings),
vulgarisms, and other special expressions. They are included in a variety of literary
styles: poems, ci, antithetical couplets, lantern riddles and so on. They’re also used
with translation of figures of speech, such as similes, metaphors, personifications,
hyperboles, euphemisms, antithesis, rhymes, puns, zeugmas, paradoxes, oxymorons,
antonomasia, alliterations, enallage, palindromes, anagrams 1 etc. In my opinion,
cultural expressions create semantic unity. Secondly, cultural expressions and their
1
In Chinese, simile means “明喻”, metaphor means “暗喻”, personification means “拟人”, hyperbole means “夸
张”, euphemism means “讳饰”, antithesis means “对偶”, rhyme means “脚韵”, pun means “双关”, zeugma means
“拈连”, oxymoron means “精警”, antonomasia means “借代”, alliteration means “头韵”, enallage means “转品”,
palindrome means “回文”, anagram means “析字”.
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On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
own fixed structures. Thirdly, cultural expressions have shortened forms. Fourthly,
cultural expressions have double-layered meanings, i.e. literal meaning and
metaphorical meaning. Fifthly, cultural expressions carry cultural peculiarities.
Sixthly, cultural expressions carry vivid images.
However, due to different lexical systems and cultural gaps, when being
translated into Western language, much information conveyed in puns and metaphors
in this Chinese classic novel is lost, which inevitably damages its original artistic
effect or even causes misunderstanding. This phenomenon is especially reflected by
cultural expressions because of their particularity and characteristic features.
As a result, translating “Hong Lou Meng” is a rather difficult task because of the
barriers of so many cultural expressions with so many figures of speech, and so
many literary styles. However, translating cultural expressions is the basic. It is the
key point as well.
In this thesis, I make comparison between the two English complete translated
versions –“A Dream of Red Mansions” by Yang Hsien-Yi and Gladys Yang and “The
Story of the Stone” by David Hawkes -- in order to explore a useful way to preserve
the unique Chinese features and to introduce Chinese culture during the process of
translating.
The definition of translation, as Newmark points out, often though by no any
means always, is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that
the author intended the text. The meaning of a text regards the text as a core. The
principle of text core is thought as the pillar of Newmark’s theory. In Newmark’s
opinion, translations are based on linguistic theory. If we analyze the texts but ignore
the functions of language, the analysis is meaningless. Newmark developed his
categorization of texts according to the functions of language. Semantics is a term that
involves linguistics, computer science, cognitive science, and psychology. Semantics
has the key place among these branches of learning, and it goes without saying that it
has significant impact on translating and translation.
Translating cultural expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from the perspective of
semantics is the true point that I want to explore and discuss.
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On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
Chapter One
Cultural Expressions
Cultural expressions are peculiar gems of language, and they are remarkable
extracts of the culture too．Because of their vivid images and special effects, cultural
expressions are widely used by people of all strata in both daily conversations and
literary works．
1.1 Definition, Causation, Categorizations
Cultural expressions are many expressions called by the same name. They are
made up of allusions, idioms, proverbs, “Xie hou yu” (Allegorical Sayings),
vulgarisms, and other special expressions. Cultural expressions are a part of
“culture-specific concepts”. (Fernando (2000:111)). They are “culturally-loaded
words” by Jin Huikang (2003:277) and “cultural specific expressions” by Li Yunxing
(2000). The definite features of cultural expressions according to the definitions
whether in Chinese or English, are fixed. They are not easily changed and long-lasting.
They show distinct characteristics of the language. Selection of words and the special
ways of expressing are peculiar to other languages, for instance, there are so many
four-character idioms in Chinese. They are unique. In this aspect, other languages are
totally different.
Cultural expressions are crystallization of cultures. They can reflect their cultures
in both direct and profound ways. “…usually carry more impact than non-idiomatic
expressions because of their close identification with a particular language and culture.” (Nida,
2001:28) Because cultural expressions in both Chinese and English are heavily bound
up with cultural elements, there are cultural differences in translating.
Language is the carrier of culture, and culture is the soil of language. Languages
are all based on certain particular cu1tural settings and reflect their particular culture.
There are abundant cultural expressions in the Chinese and English languages.
Speaking or writing in a dull is insipid, so rich and colorful cultural expressions are
3
On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
invented by both toilers and intellectuals. Different geographical conditions, religions
and beliefs and historical cu1ture are the most important causations of cultural
expressions.
Cultural expression is used as a unitary unit. We can’t get the meaning from the
small constituent part. It’s a fixed expression, and its word order and structure can’t be
altered and replaced freely. Translation has become especially crucial as an instrument
of inter-lingual communication. Translation is ever more significant. Translation
serves not only as a means of communication, but also as a means of cultural
exchange and political strategy.
In this paper, cultural expressions are classified into six categorizations that
appear frequently in “Hong Lou Meng”: allusions, idioms, proverbs, “Xie hou yu”
(Allegorical Sayings), vulgarisms, other special expressions.
Allusions are usually defined as “a tacit reference to another literary work，to another art,
to history, to contemporary figures, or the like.” According to “Encyclopedia”, allusions are
the cream of language, rich in content and succinct in style. Allusions are sedimentary
deposits of ethical history and culture. There are many allusions in Chinese and
English. So are there in the fiction of “Hong Lou Meng”. The translating of allusions
is the transformation of cultural connotations which are included inside. You must be
familiar with the source of allusions and the language’s background; otherwise you
can’t interpret the profound meaning of allusions. Such as “牛郎织女”2, “完璧归赵” and
so on.
Idioms are usually defined as fixed phrases that are compact, incisive and
established. Most of Chinese idioms are four-character ones, amounting to 95% of the
total. Idioms play an important role in Chinese, classical literary works, and also in
“Hong Lou Meng”. Some of idioms are explicit; some are implicit and have varieties
of associations; some may contain more than one meaning and must be judged from
the context. Furthermore, idioms are centralized expression of rhetorical devices.
2 The Cowherd and the Weaving Maid [Girl Weaver] (In a Chinese legend who, once a happy couple, become
stars separated by the Milky Way. They can meet only once in a year when magpies fly together to form a bridge
over the Milky Way.); a metaphor for a couple living separately; in different places; the Herd-boy and the Spinning
Maid (mythical) lovers separated by the Milky Way -- husband and wife living apart.
4
On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
Therefore, idioms are often hard to understand and harder to use correctly. Translating
is particularly harder. Such as “掩耳盗铃”, “自相矛盾” and so on.
Proverbs are brief familiar and maxim of folk wisdom, usually are easy to
remember, often involving a bold image and frequently a jingle that catches the
memory. Proverbs are usually brief and compact and short fixed-expressions in
general use. Proverbs usually state common place truths or familiar experiences or
pieces of advice. Proverbs are usually written in simple language with vivid images.
Proverbs are concise and vigorously expressive coming from ancient origins.
Proverbs expressing different cultures are extremely charming to the target-language
receptors but they also give rise to special difficulties in its translating. Such as “人往
高处走，水往低处流”, “吃一堑，长一智” and so on.
“Xie hou yu” (Allegorical Sayings) is a special Chinese structure, which
concludes two parts that are separated with a dash. The first part carries a vivid image,
the second part carries homonyms. It is heavily culture-loaded and matches by
equivalent expressions. Some “Xie hou yu” are archaic, while others are in common
use in today’s China. There are many aspects, such as history, culture, nature,
structure, denomination, categorization, rhetoric effects. Visualization is seemed to be
the fundamental rhetoric effect of which “Xie hou yu” can be grasped. This result is
mainly from the vivid image created by the first part of it. “Xie hou yu” can transfer
humor, irony and sarcasm to us. This type of cultural expression is also difficult to
translate into English for the Western and other readers. Example includes “哑巴吃黄
连 3——有苦说不出”, “肉包子打狗——有去无回” and so on.
Vulgarisms, sees the name of a thing and thinks of its function, is an expression
that is more common and vulgar. The vulgarism is a bit alike slang. The translation of
vulgarisms can’t take literal meaning into account frequently, and can only adopt
connotative meaning and associates meanings because of the difference between
source language and the target language. The translating of vulgarism is the same as
other cultural expressions, striving to express the idea and getting the feeling as well.
3 {植} Coptis chinensis （毛莨科多年生草本， 根状茎入中药）; {中药} the rhizome of Chinese goldthread;
goldthread; rhizoma coptidis; coptis. “黄连” as a symbol, always refers to the bitterest medicine and thing.
5
On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
As a result, vulgarisms are established by the people through long social practice.
Such as “打开天窗说亮话”, “打破砂锅问到底” and so on.
Other special expressions are brilliant pearls in the treasury of Chinese culture,
too. This type of expressions’ coverage is the widest. Almost all the common sayings
can be classified as this type. The number of these cultural expressions is the hugest
too.
The essence of translation is the transmission of language and culture especially
reflects in literature. Special cultural expressions in Chinese can be found everywhere
in “Hong Lou Meng” which is a Chinese cultural treasure. “Hong Lou Meng” has
important value in the history of Chinese literature. In the history of world literature,
“Hong Lou Meng” can’t be neglected either. The translation of “Hong Lou Meng”
impresses the transmission and communication of cultures. The level of cultural
expressions’ translation is crucial to the success or failure of the translated version.
1.2 literary Significance of Cultural Expressions
According to the referential theory (Hu, 2001; Lyons, 1977), language, as a
semiotic system, is meaningful only when it refers to the natural world. The
conceptual meaning of a language is the reflection of its user’s cognition of the
natural world. People use language to express their minds, to establish interpersonal
relations and to recognize nature. The generative and functional features of language
(Chomsky, 1972; Halliday, 2000) show that language is human innateness on the one
hand and a tool of human contacting society on the other, thus making language
culturally loaded. People living in different societies have different language systems.
The language of a certain society is a component of its culture. Differences in
expression are the main feature reflecting the cultural aspects of the entity,
conventions, and various activities of the society in which the language is applied.
It is well acknowledged that language and culture are closely and intricately
related. Since culture is defined as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society”,
nothing is of greater strategic importance than the language through which its belief
are expressed and transmitted and by which most interactions of its members happens.
6
On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
In B.W. Robinelt’s view, language usage reflects culture of a society. Cultural
expressions are the reflection of differences between source and target cultural
phenomena or the simple non-existence of a target language word to label a given
item or concept. Many cultural expressions don’t have equivalents in English.
Newmark said that “frequently where there is cultural focus, there is a translation problem due
to the cultural gap, or distance, between the source and target languages and most cultural words
are easy to detect, since they are associated with a particular language and cannot be literally
translated. But many cultural customs are described in ordinary language, where literal translation
would distort the meaning and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive-functional
equivalent. Cultural objects may be referred to by a relatively culture-free generic term or
classifier plus the various additions in different cultures and you have to account for these
additions which may appear in the course of the source language text.”(1988, 172)
Images and figures of speech are important facts of the literary language, and
cultural expressions are also significant in the literary language. The cultural
expressions in “Hong Lou Meng” also abound with images and figures of speech that
make the novel more appreciated and praised. From big to small, without rhetorical
and stylistic, without graceful and meaningful images, without a variety of figures of
speech, without cultural expressions, “Hong Lou Meng” would lose the great mass of
elegant appearance. Cultural expressions are just like the things which bring the
painted dragon to life by putting in the pupils of its eyes; add the finishing touch; add
the touch that brings a work of art to life. The importance of cultural expressions to
“Hong Lou Meng” is like the importance of eyes to dragon. Cao Xueqing’s choice of
cultural expression words, the characteristic form of language, the figurative use of
language, the vivid description of the characters and the sparkling humanistic
thoughts in it. In translating such a marvelous work of art, “the manner is as important as
the matter and all the words a vital component of the idea” (Newmark, 200la:21). What is
conveyed in the translation is not only the content but also the form of the original.
Translating “Hong Lou Meng” offers a big challenge to translators.
In conclusion, as cultural expressions are the representative of a language, they
closely relate to culture. So they record all the details or trace of the culture. They are
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On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
like the mirror which reflects culture clearly. Thus, when we discuss the translation of
cultural expressions，we are supposed to consider cultural factors. It is necessary to
articulate cultural characteristics of cultural expressions when they are introduced to
foreigners.
1.3 Difficulties and Several Outcomes in translation
The difference of cultural background and the ungrammatical phenomena of such
expressions make it hard nut for foreign learners to crack. Features of cultural
expressions present
interpretive difficulties
in
intercultural communication.
Translating is considered to be cross-cultural communication, which concerns not
only the transfer between languages, but also the transfer between cultures. There are
extent narrows between the emphasis in the source and the target language. Rendering
cultural expressions of one language into another is always complex and much harder
when idioms are involved. The overriding problem is remaining we are both in
translation theory and in practice. Lyrical poetry is the most intimate when translating.
Coming into being against the specific cultural backgrounds, cultural expressions are
endowed with special historical origins and loaded with profound cultural
connotations.
If two languages are involved, such as English and Chinese, which are of
backgrounds and cultures so unlike each other cultural expressions can not be derived
from the meaning of the individual words alone. Otherwise, we will make a fool of
oneselves. There exist differences in forms, sources, and motivations of
culture-specific expressions between Chinese and English. As a systematic,
monumental literary work, it is especially hard to find out equivalents in their
translation of “Hong Lou Meng”. If we want to hold the art characteristics, it’s much
harder. Usually, the cultural expressions are humor, irony and sarcasm.
There are several translation strategies: literal translation, literal translation plus
annotation, literal-cum-liberal translation, borrowing, liberal translation, amplification,
omission and avoidance of vulgar saying. There are also several categories of
approach: prescriptive approach, pragmatic approach, cross-cultural approach,
8
On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
rhetorical approach, psychological approach, functional approach, national-cultural
approach. Cultural expressions can also be separated into two categories: lexically and
grammatically regular ones, and idiosyncratic ones.
Cultural expressions contribute a lot to the writing style and characterization. It’s
hard to reproduce the original style and character in translation. Cultural expressions
are unique in their historical quotations, customs, religious belief, and ecology. All in
all, cultural expressions’ translation is much grander and much more formidable
compared with ordinary translation.
9
On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
Chapter Two
Different Approaches to Translating Cultural Expressions
Despite its importance, translation has been a complex subject of human
reflection. The discussion about translation theories and methods was characterized
by the juxtaposition and opposition of various points of view. Various kinds of
translation theories have been put forward. Thus translation becomes better and better.
2.1 A Study of Ealier Approaches to Translating Cultural
Expressions
2.1.1 Cross-Cultural Approach
Cross-cultural approach is a fast developing field of study nowadays. Many
translators try to test cultural expressions’ translation from this point. The comparison
between English and Chinese is a large task and this comparison is settled as the
theoretical base. There are many scholars, Bao Huinan and Chen Wenbo published
thesises on cultural expressions’ translation in 2001 and 2005. The cross-cultural
approach suggests that cultural expressions’ translation the best transfer of the
figurative meaning and the key guideline. The cross-cultural approach also suggests
that translation should overcome the conflicts of language and culture and ensure the
transmission’s effectiveness and informativeness especially that embodied in cultural
expressions. In my opinion, the translation with cross-cultural approach should be
seen diachronically and translation strategies should not be invariable prescriptive.
Thus, cross-cultural approach has a limitation: a little overemphasis on the
idiomaticity of cultural expressions and the prescription-oriented research model.
2.1.2 Prescriptive Approach
The prescriptive approach shows that cultural expressions usually reflect different
aspects of nation’s people and the literal translation is chosen. According to this
approach, literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with free
10
On Translating Cultural Expressions of “Hong Lou Meng” from Perspective of Semantics
translation, translation with the transformed English idioms, omission and addition are
all involved. A little overemphasis on the idiomaticity of cultural expressions and the
prescription-oriented research model also exists. However, in translating cultural
expressions, the prescriptive approach is comprehensive, successful, helpful, and
exhaustive.
2.1.3 Rhetorical Approach
Rhetorical approach is related to the aesthetic function. In communication and
literary writing, cultural expressions have abundant use of rhetorical devices. Many
scholars tend to point out the importance of comprehensiveness and exhaustiveness
when translating Chinese into English. The rhetorical approach also advises four
approaches: full translation, partial translation, free translations and extension in
cultural expressions. The elaborate discussion of the cultural expressions’ translation
is very useful. These studies tend to discuss the translation of cultural expressions as
an ordinary category of Chinese idioms or rhetorical devices. Rhetorical approach can
be replaced, preserved, generalized, particularized, annotated and abandoned under
different conditions and for different purposes.
2.1.4 Pragmatic Approach
Cultural expressions have communicative functions, so many experts realize
pragmatics. As a result, it’s clear which amplification is made possible by the peculiar
structure of cultural expressions. It’s a good method for practicable solutions. The
theory of conversational implicature is very significant. This approach pays more
attention to the translating of the connotative meaning of cultural expressions and the
appropriate convey of the emotive color. The translator chooses to first translate the
literal meaning and secondly decorates the connotative meaning to transmit the
original and emotive color. The translator also puts emphasis on avoiding possible
pragmatic failure. However, no translation principles can accomplish the one-to-one
guiding task in translating. As far as literary translation is concerned, reception
aesthetics provides us with new insights.
2.2 New Concepts from Peter Newmark
11