Japanese American internment
1
Japanese American internment
Japanese American internment
Internment camps and further institutions of the War Relocation Authority in the western United States.
Location
United States
Date
1942 - 1946
[1]
Japanese-American internment was the relocation and internment by the United States government in 1942 of
about 110,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese who lived along the Pacific coast of the United States to camps
called "War Relocation Camps," in the wake of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.[2][3] The internment of
Japanese Americans was applied unequally throughout the United States. All who lived on the West Coast of the
United States were interned, while in Hawaii, where the 150,000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third
of the population, an estimated 1,200[4] to 1,800 were interned.[5] Of those interned, 62% were American
citizens.[6][7]
President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the internment with Executive Order 9066, issued February 19, 1942,
which allowed local military commanders to designate "military areas" as "exclusion zones," from which "any or all
persons may be excluded." This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from
the entire Pacific coast, including all of California and much of Oregon, Washington and Arizona, except for those in
internment camps.[8] In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion orders,[9] while noting
that the provisions that singled out people of Japanese ancestry were a separate issue outside the scope of the
proceedings.[10] The United States Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by providing confidential
neighborhood information on Japanese Americans. The Bureau's role was denied for decades, but was finally proven
in 2007.[11][12]
In 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed legislation which apologized for the internment on
behalf of the U.S. government. The legislation said that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war
hysteria, and a failure of political leadership".[13] The U.S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion
in reparations to Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs.[14]
Historical context
In the first half of the 20th century, California experienced a wave of anti-Japanese prejudice, in part because of the
concentration of new immigrants. This was distinct from the Japanese American experience in the broader United
States. Over 90% of Japanese immigrants to the USA settled in California, where labor and farm competition fed
into general anti-Japanese sentiment.[15] In 1905, California's anti-miscegenation law outlawed marriages between
Caucasians and "Mongolians", an umbrella term that was used to refer to the Japanese and other ethnicities of East
Asian ancestry.[15] In October 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education separated Japanese students from
Caucasian students. It ordered 93 Japanese students in the district to attend a segregated school in Chinatown.[16]
Japanese American internment
2
Twenty-five of the students were American citizens. In 1924, the "Oriental Exclusion Law" eliminated all Japanese
immigration. Japanese immigrants had already been unable to attain citizenship by naturalization.[15]
In 1939 through 1941, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) compiled the Custodial Detention Index (CDI) on
citizens, enemy aliens and foreign nationals, citing national security. On June 28, 1940, the Alien Registration Act
was passed. Among many other loyalty regulations, Section 31 required the registration and fingerprinting of all
aliens older than 14, and Section 35 required aliens to report any change of address within five days. In the
subsequent months, nearly five million foreign nationals registered at post offices around the country.[17][18]
Of 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack,
112,000 resided on the West Coast.[19] About 80,000 were nisei (literal translation: "second generation"; Japanese
people born in the United States and holding American citizenship) and sansei (literal translation: "third generation";
the sons or daughters of nisei). The rest were issei (literal translation: "first generation"; immigrants born in Japan
who were ineligible for U.S. citizenship).[20]
After Pearl Harbor
The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 led military and
political leaders to suspect that Imperial Japan was preparing a
full-scale attack on the West Coast of the United States. Japan's rapid
military conquest of a large portion of Asia and the Pacific between
1936 and 1942 made its military forces seem unstoppable to some
Americans. Civilian and military officials had serious concerns about
the loyalty of the ethnic Japanese after the Niihau Incident which
immediately followed the attack on Pearl Harbor, when a civilian
Japanese national and two Hawaiian-born ethnic Japanese on the island
of Ni'ihau violently freed a downed and captured Japanese naval
airman, attacking their fellow Ni'ihau islanders in the process.
Several concerns over the loyalty of ethnic Japanese seemed to stem
from racial prejudice rather than evidence of actual malfeasance. Major
Karl Bendetsen and Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, head of the
Western Command, each questioned Japanese American loyalty.
DeWitt, who administered the internment program, repeatedly told
newspapers that "A Jap's a Jap" and testified to Congress,
I don't want any of them [persons of Japanese ancestry] here.
They are a dangerous element. There is no way to determine
their loyalty... It makes no difference whether he is an American
citizen, he is still a Japanese. American citizenship does not
necessarily determine loyalty... But we must worry about the
Japanese all the time until he is wiped off the map.[21][22]
San Francisco Examiner, February 1942.
A Japanese American unfurled this banner the
day after the Pearl Harbor attack. This Dorothea
Lange photograph was taken in March 1942, just
prior to the man's internment.
DeWitt also sought approval to conduct search and seizure operations
aimed at preventing alien Japanese from making radio transmissions to
Japanese ships.[23] The Justice Department declined, stating that there
was no probable cause to support DeWitt's assertion, as the FBI concluded that there was no security threat.[23] On
January 2, the Joint Immigration Committee of the California Legislature sent a manifesto
Japanese American internment
3
to California newspapers which attacked "the ethnic Japanese," who it
alleged were "totally unassimilable."[23] This manifesto further argued
that all people of Japanese heritage were loyal subjects of the Emperor
of Japan; Japanese language schools, furthermore, according to the
manifesto, were bastions of racism which advanced doctrines of
Japanese racial superiority.[23]
The manifesto was backed by the Native Sons and Daughters of the
Golden West and the California Department of the American Legion,
which in January demanded that all Japanese with dual citizenship be
placed in concentration camps.[23] Internment was not limited to those
who had been to Japan, but included a small number of German and
Italian enemy aliens.[23] By February, Earl Warren, the Attorney
General of California, had begun his efforts to persuade the federal
government to remove all people of Japanese heritage from the West
Coast.[23]
Children at the Weill public school in San
Francisco pledge allegiance to the American flag
in April 1942, prior to the internment of Japanese
Americans.
Those that were as little as 1/16 Japanese could be placed in internment
camps.[24] There is evidence supporting the argument that the
measures were racially motivated, rather than a military necessity. For
example, orphaned infants with "one drop of Japanese blood" (as
explained in a letter by one official) were included in the program.
Upon the bombing of Pearl Harbor and pursuant to the Alien Enemies
Act, Presidential Proclamations 2525, 2526 and 2527 were issued
designating Japanese, German and Italian nationals as enemy aliens.[25]
Information from the CDI was used to locate and incarcerate foreign
nationals from Japan, Germany and Italy (although Germany and Italy
did not declare war on the U.S. until December 11).
Presidential Proclamation 2537 was issued on January 14, 1942,
requiring aliens to report any change of address, employment or name
to the FBI. Enemy aliens were not allowed to enter restricted areas.
Violators of these regulations were subject to "arrest, detention and
internment for the duration of the war."
Taken by Russell Lee, this photograph is labeled
"Tagged for evacuation, Salinas, California, May
1942".
Executive Order 9066 and related actions
Executive Order 9066, signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, allowed authorized military
commanders to designate "military areas" at their discretion, "from which any or all persons may be excluded."
These "exclusion zones," unlike the "alien enemy" roundups, were applicable to anyone that an authorized military
commander might choose, whether citizen or non-citizen. Eventually such zones would include parts of both the East
and West Coasts, totaling about 1/3 of the country by area. Unlike the subsequent detainment and internment
programs that would come to be applied to large numbers of Japanese Americans, detentions and restrictions directly
under this Individual Exclusion Program were placed primarily on individuals of German or Italian ancestry,
including American citizens.[26]
• March 2, 1942: General John L. DeWitt issued Public Proclamation No. 1, declaring that "such person or classes
of persons as the situation may require" would, at some later point, be subject to exclusion orders from "Military
Area No. 1" (essentially, the entire Pacific coast to about 100 miles (160.9 km) inland), and requiring anyone who
had "enemy" ancestry to file a Change of Residence Notice if they planned to move.[8] A second exclusion zone
Japanese American internment
•
•
•
•
was designated several months later, which included the areas chosen by most of the Japanese Americans who
had managed to leave the first zone.
March 11, 1942: Executive Order 9095 created the Office of the Alien Property Custodian, and gave it
discretionary, plenary authority over all alien property interests. Many assets were frozen, creating immediate
financial difficulty for the affected aliens, preventing most from moving out of the exclusion zones.[8]
March 24, 1942: Public Proclamation No. 3 declares an 8:00 pm to 6:00 am curfew for "all enemy aliens and all
persons of Japanese ancestry" within the military areas.[27]
March 24, 1942: General DeWitt began to issue Civilian Exclusion Orders for specific areas within "Military
Area No. 1."[27] Japanese Americans on Bainbridge Island, Washington were the first in the country to be subject
to such an order, due to the island's proximity to naval bases; they were given until March 30 to prepare
themselves for removal from the island, an event commemorated by the Bainbridge Island Japanese American
Exclusion Memorial.[28][29]
March 27, 1942: General DeWitt's Proclamation No. 4 prohibited all those of Japanese ancestry from leaving
"Military Area No. 1" for "any purpose until and to the extent that a future proclamation or order of this
headquarters shall so permit or direct."[8]
• May 3, 1942: General DeWitt issued Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34, ordering all people of Japanese ancestry,
whether citizens or non-citizens, who were still living in "Military Area No. 1" to report to assembly centers,
where they would live until being moved to permanent "Relocation Centers."[8]
These edicts included persons of part-Japanese ancestry as well. Anyone with at least one-sixteenth Japanese
ancestry was eligible.[30] Korean-Americans and Taiwanese, considered to have Japanese nationality (since Korea
and Taiwan were both Japanese colonies), were also included.
Non-military advocates for exclusion, removal, and detention
Internment was popular among many white farmers who resented the Japanese-American farmers. "White American
farmers admitted that their self-interest required removal of the Japanese."[23] These individuals saw internment as a
convenient means of uprooting their Japanese-American competitors. Austin E. Anson, managing secretary of the
Salinas Vegetable Grower-Shipper Association, told the Saturday Evening Post in 1942:
"We're charged with wanting to get rid of the Japs for selfish reasons. We do. It's a question of whether the
white man lives on the Pacific Coast or the brown men. They came into this valley to work, and they stayed to
take over... If all the Japs were removed tomorrow, we'd never miss them in two weeks, because the white
farmers can take over and produce everything the Jap grows. And we do not want them back when the war
ends, either."[31]
The Roberts Commission Report, prepared at President Franklin D. Roosevelt's request, has been cited as an
example of the fear and prejudice informing the thinking behind the internment program.[23] The Report sought to
link Japanese Americans with espionage activity, and to associate them with the bombing of Pearl Harbor.[23]
Columnist Henry McLemore reflected growing public sentiment fueled by this report:
"I am for the immediate removal of every Japanese on the West Coast to a point deep in the interior. I don't
mean a nice part of the interior either. Herd 'em up, pack 'em off and give 'em the inside room in the
badlands... Personally, I hate the Japanese. And that goes for all of them."[32]
Other California newspapers also embraced this view. According to a Los Angeles Times editorial,
"A viper is nonetheless a viper wherever the egg is hatched.... So, a Japanese American born of Japanese
parents, nurtured upon Japanese traditions, living in a transplanted Japanese atmosphere... notwithstanding his
nominal brand of accidental citizenship almost inevitably and with the rarest exceptions grows up to be a
Japanese, and not an American.... Thus, while it might cause injustice to a few to treat them all as potential
enemies, I cannot escape the conclusion... that such treatment... should be accorded to each and all of them
while we are at war with their race."[33]
4
Japanese American internment
State politicians joined the bandwagon that was embraced by Leland Ford of Los Angeles, who demanded that "all
Japanese, whether citizens or not, be placed in [inland] concentration camps."[23] Internment of Japanese Americans,
who provided critical agricultural labor on the West Coast, created a labor shortage, which was exacerbated by the
induction of many American laborers into the Armed Forces. This vacuum precipitated a mass immigration of
Mexican workers into the United States to fill these jobs,[34] largely under the banner of what became known as the
Bracero Program. Many Japanese internees were even temporarily released from their camps – for instance, to
harvest Western beet crops – to address this wartime labor shortage.[35]
Statement of military necessity as justification for internment
Niihau Incident
The Niihau Incident occurred in
December 1941, just after the Japanese
attack on Pearl Harbor. It involved three
Japanese Americans on the Hawaiian
island of Niihau assisting a Japanese
pilot who crashed there. Despite the
incident, the Territorial Governor of
Hawaii rejected calls for mass
internment of the Japanese Americans
living there.
Cryptography
In Magic: The Untold Story of US
A Challenge to Democracy was a twenty-minute film produced in 1944 by the War
Intelligence and the Evacuation of
Relocation Authority
Japanese Residents From the West
Coast During World War II, David
Lowman, a former National Security Agency (NSA) operative, argues that Magic intercepts ("Magic" was the
code-name for American code-breaking efforts) posed "the frightening specter of massive espionage nets," thus
justifying internment.[36] Lowman contended that internment served to ensure the secrecy of US code-breaking
efforts, because effective prosecution of Japanese Americans might necessitate disclosure of secret information. If
US code-breaking technology was revealed in the context of trials of individual spies, the Japanese Imperial Navy
would change its codes, thus undermining US strategic wartime advantage.
Some scholars have criticized or dismissed Lowman's reasoning that "disloyalty" among some individual Japanese
Americans could legitimize "incarcerating 120,000 people, including infants, the elderly, and the mentally
ill".[37][38][39] Lowman's reading of the contents of the Magic cables has also been challenged, as some scholars
contend that the cables demonstrate the opposite of what Lowman claims: that Japanese Americans were not heeding
the overtures of Imperial Japan to spy against the United States.[40] According to one critic, Lowman's book has long
since been "refuted and discredited".[41]
The controversial conclusions drawn by Lowman were defended by pundit Michelle Malkin in her book In Defense
of Internment; The Case for 'Racial Profiling' in World War II and the War on Terror.[42] Malkin's defense of
Japanese internment was in part the result of what she describes as the "constant alarmism from Bush-bashers who
argue that every counter-terror measure in America is tantamount to the internment".[43] The text was critical of
academia's treatment of the subject, and suggested that academics critical of Japanese internment had ulterior
motives. She received much criticism for her text, particularly in regards to her reading of the "Magic"
5
Japanese American internment
cables.[44][45][46] Daniel Pipes, also drawing on Lowman, has defended Malkin's stance, and asserted that Japanese
American internment was "a good idea" which offers "lessons for today".[47]
United States District Court opinions
A report by General DeWitt and Colonel Bendetsen depicting racist
bias against Japanese Americans was circulated and then hastily
redacted in 1943–1944. The report stated flatly that, because of their
race, it was impossible to determine the loyalty of Japanese Americans,
thus necessitating internment.[48] The original version was so offensive
– even in the atmosphere of the wartime 1940s – that Bendetsen
ordered all copies to be destroyed.
In 1980, a copy of the original Final Report: Japanese Evacuation
from the West Coast – 1942 was found in the National Archives, along
Official notice of exclusion and removal
with notes showing the numerous differences between the original and
redacted versions. This earlier, racist and inflammatory version, as well as the FBI and Office of Naval Intelligence
(ONI) reports, led to the coram nobis retrials which overturned the convictions of Fred Korematsu, Gordon
Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui on all charges related to their refusal to submit to exclusion and internment.[49] The
courts found that the government had intentionally withheld these reports and other critical evidence, at trials all the
way up to the Supreme Court, which would have proved that there was no military necessity for the exclusion and
internment of Japanese Americans. In the words of Department of Justice officials writing during the war, the
justifications were based on "willful historical inaccuracies and intentional falsehoods."
The Ringle Report
In May 2011, U.S. Solicitor General Neal Katyal, after a year of investigation, found Charles Fahy intentionally
withheld The Ringle Report, drafted by the Office of Naval Intelligence, in order to justify the Roosevelt
administration in the cases of Hirabayashi v. United States and Korematsu v. United States. The report would have
undermined the administration's position of the military necessity for such action, finding most Japanese-Americans
were not a national security threat, along with allegations of communication espionage being unfounded by the FBI
and Federal Communications Commission.[50][51]
6
Japanese American internment
7
Facilities
While this event is most commonly called the internment of Japanese
Americans, in fact there were several different types of camps
involved. The best known facilities were the Assembly Centers run by
the Wartime Civil Control Administration (WCCA), and the
Relocation Centers run by the War Relocation Authority (WRA),
which are generally (but unofficially) referred to as "internment
camps." The Department of Justice (DOJ) operated camps officially
called Internment Camps, which were used to detain those suspected of
actual crimes or "enemy sympathies." German American internment
and Italian American internment camps also existed, sometimes
"Members of the Mochida family awaiting
evacuation bus. Identification tags are used to aid
sharing facilities with the Japanese Americans. The WCCA and WRA
in keeping the family unit intact during all phases
facilities were the largest and the most public. The WCCA Assembly
of evacuation. Mochida operated a nursery and
Centers
were temporary facilities that were first set up in horse racing
five greenhouses on a two-acre site in Eden
tracks, fairgrounds and other large public meeting places to assemble
Township. He raised snapdragons and sweet
peas."
and organize internees before they were transported to WRA
Relocation Centers by truck, bus or train. The WRA Relocation
Centers were camps that housed persons removed from the exclusion zone after March 1942, or until they were able
to relocate elsewhere in America outside the exclusion zone.
DOJ Internment Camps
During World War II, over 7,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese from Latin America were held in internment
camps run by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, part of the Department of Justice. In this period, Latin
Americans of Japanese ancestry were rounded up and transported to American internment camps run by the U.S.
Justice Department.[52][53][54] These Latin American internees were eventually, through the efforts of civil rights
attorney Wayne M. Collins,[55][56] offered "parole" relocation to the labor-starved farming community in Seabrook,
New Jersey.[57] Many became naturalized American citizens or Japanese Americans after the war.
There were twenty-seven U.S. Department of Justice Camps, eight
of which (in Texas, Idaho, North Dakota, New Mexico, and
Montana) held Japanese Americans. The camps were guarded by
Border Patrol agents rather than military police and were intended
for non-citizens including Buddhist ministers, Japanese language
instructors, newspaper workers, and other community leaders.
In addition 2,264 persons of Japanese ancestry[53] taken from 12
Latin American countries by the U.S. State and Justice
Departments were held at the Department of Justice Camps.[58]
About two-thirds of these persons were Japanese Peruvians.[53]
There has been some speculation that the United States intended to
use them in hostage exchanges with Japan,[59] a plot in part
facilitated by local prejudice against Japanese communities in
various South American countries.[53] After the war, Peru refused
to accept the return of the Japanese Peruvians they had acquiesced
to interning in American camps; of this group, some were
Friends say good-bye as family of Japanese ancestry
await evacuation bus. Hayward, California, 8 May
1942
Japanese American internment
8
transferred to Japan, some were granted American citizenship, and a small minority of about 100 managed to achieve
repatriation into Peru by asserting special circumstances, such as marriage to a non-Japanese Peruvian.[53] Three
hundred of the Japanese Peruvians who fought deportation in the courts were allowed to settle in the United States,
and were granted American citizenship in 1953.[53]
WCCA Civilian Assembly Centers
Executive Order 9066 authorized the evacuation of all persons of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast; it was
signed when there was no place for the Japanese Americans to go. When voluntary evacuation proved impractical,
the military took over full responsibility for the evacuation; on April 9, 1942, the Wartime Civilian Control Agency
(WCCA) was established by the military to coordinate the evacuation to inland relocation centers. The relocation
centers were far from ready for large influxes of people. For some, there was still contention over the location, but
for most, their placement in "isolated" undeveloped areas of the country exacerbated problems of building
infrastructure and housing. Since the Japanese Americans living in the restricted zone were considered too dangerous
to freely conduct their daily business, the military decided it was necessary to find temporary "assembly centers" to
house the evacuees until the relocation centers were completed.[60]
[61]
WRA Relocation Centers
Name
State
Opened
Max. Pop'n
Manzanar
California March 1942
10,046
Tule Lake
California May 1942
18,789
Poston
Arizona
May 1942
17,814
Gila River
Arizona
July 1942
13,348
Granada
Colorado
August 1942
7,318
Heart Mountain Wyoming August 1942
10,767
Minidoka
Idaho
August 1942
9,397
Topaz
Utah
September 1942 8,130
Rohwer
Arkansas
September 1942 8,475
Jerome
Arkansas
October 1942
8,497
WRA Relocation Centers
The War Relocation Authority (WRA) was the U.S. civilian agency responsible for the relocation and detention. The
WRA was created by President Roosevelt on March 18, 1942 with Executive Order 9102 and officially ceased to
exist June 30, 1946. Milton S. Eisenhower, then an official of the Department of Agriculture, was chosen to head the
WRA. Dillon S. Myer replaced Milton Eisenhower on June 17, 1942, three months after Milton took control. Myer
served as Director of the WRA until the centers were closed.[62] Within nine months, the WRA had opened ten
facilities in seven states, and transferred over 100,000 people from the WCCA facilities.
The WRA camp at Tule Lake, though initially like the other camps, eventually became a detention center for people
believed to pose a security risk. Tule Lake also served as a "segregation center" for individuals and families who
were deemed "disloyal" and for those who were to be deported to Japan.
Japanese American internment
9
List of camps
There were three types of camps. Civilian Assembly Centers were temporary camps, frequently located at horse
tracks, where the Nisei were sent as they were removed from their communities. Eventually, most were sent to
Relocation Centers, also known as internment camps. Detention camps housed Nikkei considered to be disruptive or
of special interest to the government.
Civilian Assembly Centers
•
•
•
•
•
Arcadia, California (Santa Anita Racetrack, stables)
Fresno, California (Big Fresno Fairgrounds, racetrack, stables)
Marysville / Arboga, California (migrant workers' camp)
Mayer, Arizona (Civilian Conservation Corps camp)
Merced, California (county fairgrounds)
• Owens Valley, California
• Parker Dam, Arizona
• Pinedale, California (Pinedale Assembly Center, warehouses)
• Pomona, California (Los Angeles County Fairgrounds, racetrack,
stables)
• Portland, Oregon (Pacific International Livestock Exposition,
including 3,800 housed in the main pavilion building)
• Puyallup, Washington (fairgrounds racetrack stables, Informally
known as "Camp Harmony")
• Sacramento, California / (Site of Present-Day Walerga Park)
(migrant workers' camp)
Eleanor Roosevelt at the Gila River Relocation
Center, April 23, 1943
• Salinas, California (fairgrounds, racetrack, stables)
• San Bruno, California (Tanforan racetrack, stables)
•
•
•
•
Stockton, California (San Joaquin County Fairgrounds, racetrack, stables)
Tulare, California (fairgrounds, racetrack, stables)
Turlock, California (Stanislaus County Fairgrounds)
Woodland, California
Relocation Centers
• Gila River War Relocation Center, Arizona
• Granada War Relocation Center, Colorado (AKA "Amache")
• Heart Mountain War Relocation Center, Wyoming
• Jerome War Relocation Center, Arkansas
• Manzanar War Relocation Center, California
• Minidoka War Relocation Center, Idaho
• Poston War Relocation Center, Arizona
• Rohwer War Relocation Center, Arkansas
• Topaz War Relocation Center, Utah
• Tule Lake War Relocation Center, California
Heart Mountain Relocation Center, January 10,
1943
Japanese American internment
10
Justice Department detention camps
These camps often held German and Italian detainees in addition to Japanese Americans:[63]
•
•
•
•
Crystal City, Texas[64]
Fort Lincoln Internment Camp
Fort Missoula, Montana
Fort Stanton, New Mexico
•
•
•
•
Kenedy, Texas
Kooskia, Idaho
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Seagoville, Texas
Citizen Isolation Centers
The Citizen Isolation Centers were for those considered to be problem
inmates.[63]
• Leupp, Arizona
• Moab, Utah (AKA Dalton Wells)
• Fort Stanton, New Mexico (AKA Old Raton Ranch)
Harvesting spinach. Tule Lake Relocation Center,
September 8, 1942
Federal Bureau of Prisons
Detainees convicted of crimes, usually draft resistance, were sent to these camps:[63]
• Catalina, Arizona
• Fort Leavenworth, Kansas
• McNeill Island, Washington
US Army facilities
These camps often held German and Italian detainees in addition to Japanese Americans:[63]
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Angel Island, California/Fort McDowell
Camp Blanding, Florida
Camp Forrest
Camp Livingston, Louisiana
Camp Lordsburg, New Mexico
Camp McCoy, Wisconsin
Florence, Arizona
Fort Bliss
Fort Howard
Fort Lewis
Fort Meade, Maryland
Fort Richardson
Fort Sam Houston
•
•
•
•
Fort Sill, Oklahoma
Griffith Park
Honolulu, Hawaii
Sand Island, Hawaii
Japanese American internment
11
• Stringtown, Oklahoma
Exclusion, removal, and detention
Somewhere between 110,000 and 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry
were subject to this mass exclusion program, of whom about two-thirds
were U.S. citizens.[3] The remaining one-third were non-citizens
subject to internment under the Alien Enemies Act; many of these
"resident aliens" had long been inhabitants of the United States, but
had been deprived the opportunity to attain citizenship by laws that
blocked Asian-born nationals from ever achieving citizenship.
Internees of Japanese descent were first sent to one of 17 temporary
"Civilian Assembly Centers," where most awaited transfer to more
Field laborers of Japanese ancestry stand in front
permanent relocation centers being constructed by the newly formed
of a Wartime Civil Control Administration site,
War Relocation Authority (WRA). Some of those who did report to the
where they are seeking instruction in regards to
their "evacuation".
civilian assembly centers were not sent to relocation centers, but were
released under the condition that they remain outside the prohibited
zone until the military orders were modified or lifted. Almost 120,000[3] Japanese Americans and resident Japanese
aliens would eventually be removed from their homes in California, the western halves of Oregon and Washington
and southern Arizona as part of the single largest forced relocation in U.S. history.
Most of these camps/residences, gardens, and stock areas were placed on Native American reservations, for which
the Native Americans were formally compensated. The Native American councils disputed the amounts negotiated
in absentia by US government authorities and later sued finding relief and additional compensation for some items of
dispute.[65]
Under the National Student Council Relocation Program (supported primarily by the American Friends Service
Committee), students of college age were permitted to leave the camps to attend institutions willing to accept
students of Japanese ancestry. Although the program initially granted leave permits to only a very small number of
students, this eventually grew to 2,263 students by December 31, 1943.[66]
Curfew and exclusion
The exclusion from Military Area No. 1 initially occurred through a
voluntary relocation policy. Under the voluntary relocation policy, the
Japanese Americans were free to go anywhere outside of the exclusion
zone; the arrangements and costs of relocation were borne by the
individuals. The night-time curfew, initiated on March 27, 1942, was
the first mass-action restricting the Japanese Americans.
Conditions in the camps
The baggage of Japanese Americans from the
west coast, at a makeshift reception center located
at a racetrack.
According to a 1943 War Relocation Authority report, internees were
housed in "tar paper-covered barracks of simple frame construction
without plumbing or cooking facilities of any kind." The spartan facilities met international laws, but still left much
to be desired. Many camps were built quickly by civilian contractors during the summer of 1942 based on designs
for military barracks, making the buildings poorly equipped for cramped family living.
Japanese American internment
12
An evacuee with family belongings en route to an
"assembly center", Spring 1942
To describe the conditions in more detail, the Heart Mountain War
Relocation
Center
in
northwestern
Wyoming
was
a
barbed-wire-surrounded enclave with unpartitioned toilets, cots for
beds, and a budget of 45 cents daily per capita for food rations.[67]
Because most internees were evacuated from their West Coast homes
on short notice and not told of their assigned destinations, many failed
to pack appropriate clothing for Wyoming winters which often reached
temperatures below zero Fahrenheit. Many families were forced to
simply take the "clothes on their backs."
Armed guards were posted at the camps, which were all in remote,
desolate areas far from population centers. Internees were typically
allowed to stay with their families, and were treated well unless they
violated the rules. There are documented instances of guards shooting
internees who reportedly attempted to walk outside the fences. One
such shooting, that of James Wakasa at Topaz, led to a re-evaluation of
the security measures in the camps. Some camp administrations
eventually allowed relatively free movement outside the marked
boundaries of the camps. Nearly a quarter of the internees left the
camps to live and work elsewhere in the United States, outside the
exclusion zone. Eventually, some were authorized to return to their
hometowns in the exclusion zone under supervision of a sponsoring
American family or agency whose loyalty had been assured.[68]
Dust storm at Manzanar War Relocation Center.
A baseball game at Manzanar. Picture by Ansel
Adams c. 1943.
The phrase "shikata ga nai" (loosely translated as "it cannot be helped") was commonly used to summarize the
interned families' resignation to their helplessness throughout these conditions. This was even noticed by the
children, as mentioned in the well-known memoir Farewell to Manzanar.
Loyalty questions and segregation
Some Japanese Americans did question the American government, after finding themselves in internment camps.
Several pro-Japan groups formed inside the camps, particularly at the Tule Lake location.[69] When the government
passed a law that made it possible for an internee to renounce American citizenship, 5,589 internees opted to do so;
5,461 of these were at Tule Lake.[69] Of those who renounced their citizenship, 1,327 were repatriated to Japan.[69]
Many of these individuals would later face stigmatization in the Japanese-American community, after the war, for
having made that choice, although even at the time they were not certain what their futures held were they to remain
Japanese American internment
American, and remain interned.[69]
These renunciations of American citizenship have been highly controversial, for a number of reasons. Some
apologists for internment have cited the renunciations as evidence that "disloyalty" or anti-Americanism was well
represented among the interned peoples, thereby justifying the internment.[70] Many historians have dismissed the
latter argument, for its failure to consider that the small number of individuals in question were in the midst of
persecution by their own government at the time of the "renunciation":[71][72]
[T]he renunciations had little to do with "loyalty" or "disloyalty" to the United States, but were instead
the result of a series of complex conditions and factors that were beyond the control of those involved.
Prior to discarding citizenship, most or all of the renunciants had experienced the following misfortunes:
forced removal from homes; loss of jobs; government and public assumption of disloyalty to the land of
their birth based on race alone; and incarceration in a "segregation center" for "disloyal" ISSEI or
NISEI...[72]
Minoru Kiyota, who was among those who renounced his citizenship and swiftly came to regret the decision, has
stated that he wanted only "to express my fury toward the government of the United States," for his internment and
for the mental and physical duress, as well as the intimidation, he was made to face.[73]
[M]y renunciation had been an expression of momentary emotional defiance in reaction to years of
persecution suffered by myself and other Japanese Americans and, in particular, to the degrading
interrogation by the FBI agent at Topaz and being terrorized by the guards and gangs at Tule Lake.[74]
Civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins successfully challenged most of these renunciations as invalid, owing to the
conditions of duress and intimidation under which the government obtained them.[73][75] Many of the deportees were
Issei (first generation Japanese immigrants) who often had difficulty with English and often did not understand the
questions they were asked. Even among those Issei who had a clear understanding, Question 28 posed an awkward
dilemma: Japanese immigrants were denied US citizenship at the time, so when asked to renounce their Japanese
citizenship, answering "Yes" would have made them stateless persons.[76]
When the government circulated a questionnaire seeking army volunteers from among the internees, 6% of
military-aged male respondents volunteered to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces. Most of those who refused tempered
that refusal with statements of willingness to fight if they were restored their rights as American citizens. 20,000
Japanese American men and many Japanese American women served in the U.S. Army during World War II.[77]
13
Japanese American internment
14
The famed 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which fought in Europe,
was formed from those Japanese Americans who did agree to serve.
This unit was the most highly decorated US military unit of its size and
duration.[78] Most notably, the 442nd was known for saving the 141st
(or the "lost battalion") from the Germans. The 1951 film Go For
Broke! was a fairly accurate portrayal of the 442nd, and starred several
of the RCT's veterans.
Other detention camps
The 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which was
composed primarily of Japanese Americans,
served with uncommon distinction in the
European Theatre of World War II. Many of the
US soldiers serving in the unit had their families
interned at home while they fought abroad.
As early as 1939, when war broke out in Europe and while armed
conflict began to rage in East Asia, the FBI and branches of the
Department of Justice and the armed forces began to collect
information and surveillance on influential members of the Japanese
community in the United States. These data were included in the
Custodial Detention index (CDI). Agents in the Department of Justice's
Special Defense Unit classified the subjects into three groups: A, B and
C, with A being "most dangerous," and C being "possibly dangerous."
After the Pearl Harbor attacks, Roosevelt authorized his attorney
general to put into motion a plan for the arrest of individuals on the potential enemy alien lists. Armed with a blanket
arrest warrant, the FBI seized these men on the eve of December 8, 1941. These men were held in municipal jails
and prisons until they were moved to Department of Justice detention camps, separate from those of the Wartime
Relocation Authority (WRA). These camps operated under far more stringent conditions and were subject to
heightened criminal-style guard, despite the absence of criminal proceedings.
Crystal City, Texas, was one such camp where Japanese Americans, German Americans, Italian Americans, and a
large number of US-seized, Axis-descended nationals from several Latin-American countries were interned.[55][64]
Canadian citizens with Japanese ancestry were also interned by the Canadian government during World War II (see
Japanese Canadian internment). Japanese people from various parts of Latin America, including Peru, were brought
to the United States for internment or interned in their countries of residence,[55] and there were varied restrictions
placed on Japanese Brazilians.[79]
Hawaii
Although there was a strong push from mainland Congressmen (Hawaii was only a US territory at the time, and did
not have a voting representative or senator in Congress) to remove and intern all Japanese Americans and Japanese
immigrants in Hawaii, it never happened. 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans from Hawaii
were interned, either in five camps on the islands or in one of the mainland internment camps.[80]
The vast majority of Japanese Americans and their immigrant parents in Hawaii were not interned because the
government had already declared martial law in Hawaii and this allowed it to significantly reduce the supposed risk
of espionage and sabotage by residents of Japanese ancestry. Also, Japanese Americans comprised over 35% of the
territory's population, with about 150,000 inhabitants; detaining so many people would have been enormously
challenging in terms of logistics. Also, the whole of Hawaiian society was dependent on their productivity.
Lieutenant General Delos C. Emmons, commander of the Hawaii Department, promised the local
Japanese-American community that they would be treated fairly so long as they remained loyal to the United States,
and he succeeded in blocking efforts to relocate them to the outer islands or mainland by pointing out the logistical
difficulties.[81] Among the small number interned were a number of community leaders and prominent politicians,
including territorial legislators Thomas Sakakihara and Sanji Abe.[82]
Japanese American internment
There were five internment camps in Hawaii, referred to as "Hawaiian Island Detention Camps".[83] One camp was
located at Sand Island at the mouth of Honolulu Harbor. This camp was prepared in advance of the war's outbreak.
All prisoners held here were "detained under military custody... because of the imposition of martial law throughout
the Islands". Another Hawaiian camp was the Honouliuli Internment Camp, near Ewa, on the southwestern shore of
Oahu; it was opened in 1943 to replace the Sand Island camp. One was also located on the island of Maui in the
town of Haiku.[84] In total, five internment camps operated in Hawaii.[83][85]
Internment ends
On December 18, 1944, the Supreme Court of the United States clarified the legality of the exclusion process under
Order 9066 by handing down two decisions. Korematsu v. United States, a 6–3 decision, stated that the exclusion
process in general was constitutional. Ex parte Endo unanimously declared that loyal citizens of the United States,
regardless of cultural descent, could not be detained without cause.
On January 2, 1945, the exclusion order was rescinded entirely. The internees then began to leave the camps to
rebuild their lives at home, although the relocation camps remained open for residents who were not ready to make
the move back. The freed internees were given $25 and a train ticket to their former homes. While the majority
returned to their former lives, some of the Japanese Americans emigrated to Japan.[86] The last internment camp was
not closed until 1946;[87] Japanese taken by the U.S. from Peru that were still being held in the camp in Santa Fe
took legal action in April 1946 in an attempt to avoid deportation to Japan.[88]
One of the WRA camps, Manzanar, was designated a National Historic Site in 1992 to "provide for the protection
and interpretation of historic, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans
during World War II" (Public Law 102-248). In 2001, the site of the Minidoka War Relocation Center in Idaho was
designated the Minidoka National Historic Site.
Hardship and material loss
Many internees lost irreplaceable personal property due to the
restrictions on what could be taken into the camps. These losses were
compounded by theft and destruction of items placed in governmental
storage. A number of persons died or suffered for lack of medical care,
and several were killed by sentries; James Wakasa, for instance, was
killed at Topaz War Relocation Center, near the perimeter wire. Nikkei
were prohibited from leaving the Military Zones during the last few
weeks before internment, and only able to leave the camps by
permission of the camp administrators.
Psychological injury was observed by Dillon S. Myer, director of the
WRA camps. In June 1945, Myer described how the Japanese
Graveyard at Granada Relocation Center, in
Americans had grown increasingly depressed, and overcome with
[89]
Amache, Colorado.
feelings of helplessness and personal insecurity.
Author Betty
Furuta insists that the Japanese used gaman, loosely meaning
"perseverance", to overcome hardships which was mistaken by non-Japanese as being introverted and lacking
initiative.[90]
Some Japanese-American farmers were able to find families willing to tend their farms for the duration of their
internment. In other cases Japanese-American farmers had to sell their property in a matter of
15
Japanese American internment
16
days, usually at great financial loss. In these cases, the land speculators
who bought the land made huge profits. California's Alien Land Laws
of the 1910s, which prohibited most non-citizens from owning
property in that state, contributed to Japanese-American property
losses. Because they were barred from owning land, many older
Japanese-American farmers were tenant farmers and therefore lost their
rights to those farm lands.
A monument at Manzanar, "to console the souls
of the dead."
To compensate former internees for their property losses, the US Congress, on July 2, 1948, passed the "American
Japanese Claims Act," allowing Japanese Americans to apply for compensation for property losses which occurred
as "a reasonable and natural consequence of the evacuation or exclusion." By the time the Act was passed, the IRS
had already destroyed most of the 1939–42 tax records of the internees, and, due to the time pressure and the strict
limits on how much they could take to the assembly centers and then the internment camps, few of the internees
themselves had been able to preserve detailed tax and financial records during the evacuation process. Thus, it was
extremely difficult for claimants to establish that their claims were valid. Under the Act, Japanese-American families
filed 26,568 claims totaling $148 million in requests; about $37 million was approved and disbursed.[91]
Reparations and redress
During World War II, Colorado governor Ralph Lawrence Carr was the only elected official to publicly apologize
for the internment of American citizens. The act cost him reelection, but gained him the gratitude of the Japanese
American community, such that a statue of him was erected in Sakura Square in Denver's Japantown.[92]
Largely through the efforts of college President William Dennis, Earlham College instituted a program beginning in
1942 that enrolled several dozen Japanese-American students, in order to spare them from internment. While this
action was controversial in Richmond, Indiana, it helped strengthen the college's ties to Japan and the
Japanese-American community.[93]
Beginning in the 1960s, a younger generation of Japanese Americans who were inspired by the Civil Rights
movement began what is known as the "Redress Movement," an effort to obtain an official apology and reparations
from the federal government for interning their parents and grandparents during the war, focusing not on
documented property losses but on the broader injustice of the internment. The movement's first success was in
1976, when President Gerald Ford proclaimed that the internment was "wrong," and a "national mistake" which
"shall never again be repeated".[94]
The campaign for redress was launched by Japanese Americans in 1978. The Japanese American Citizens League
(JACL) asked for three measures to be taken as redress: $25,000 to be awarded to each person who was detained, an
apology from Congress acknowledging publicly that the U.S. government had been wrong, and the release of funds
to set up an educational foundation for the children of Japanese American families.
In 1980, Congress established the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) to
study the matter. On February 24, 1983, the commission issued a report entitled Personal Justice Denied,
condemning the internment as "unjust and motivated by racism rather than real military necessity".[95] The
Commission recommended that $20,000 in reparations be paid to those Japanese Americans who had been victims of
internment.
Japanese American internment
17
In 1988, U.S. President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act
of 1988, which had been sponsored by Representative Norman Mineta
and Senator Alan K. Simpson – the two had met while Mineta was
interned at a camp in Wyoming – which provided redress of $20,000
for each surviving detainee, totaling $1.2 billion dollars. The question
of to whom reparations should be given, how much, and even whether
monetary reparations were appropriate were subjects of sometimes
contentious debate.[96]
U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs the Civil
Liberties Act of 1988, which granted reparations
for the internment of Japanese Americans.
On September 27, 1992, the Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992,
appropriating an additional $400 million to ensure all remaining
internees received their $20,000 redress payments, was signed into law
by President George H. W. Bush, who also issued another formal apology from the U.S. government on December 7,
1991, on the very day of the 50th-Anniversary of the Pearl Harbor Attack:
"In remembering, it is important to come to grips with the past. No nation can fully understand itself or
find its place in the world if it does not look with clear eyes at all the glories and disgraces of its past.
We in the United States acknowledge such an injustice in our history. The internment of Americans of
Japanese ancestry was a great injustice, and it will never be repeated."
Some Japanese and Japanese Americans who were relocated during World War II received compensation for
property losses, according to a 1948 law. Congress appropriated $38 million to meet $131 million of claims from
among 23,000 claimants.[97] These payments were disbursed very slowly, the final disbursal occurring in 1965.[97] In
1988, following lobbying efforts by Japanese Americans, $20,000 per internee was paid out to individuals who had
been interned or relocated, including those who chose to return to Japan. These payments were awarded to 82,210
Japanese Americans or their heirs at a cost of $1.6 billion; the program's final disbursement occurred in 1999.[14]
Under the 2001 budget of the United States, it was also decreed that the ten sites on which the detainee camps were
set up are to be preserved as historical landmarks: “places like Manzanar, Tule Lake, Heart Mountain, Topaz,
Amache, Jerome, and Rohwer will forever stand as reminders that this nation failed in its most sacred duty to protect
its citizens against prejudice, greed, and political expediency”.[98]
On January 30, 2011, California first observed an annual "Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the
Constitution", the first such commemoration for an Asian American in the U.S.[99] On June 14, 2011, Peruvian
president Alan García apologized for his country's internment of Japanese immigrants during World War II, most of
whom were transferred to the United States.[79]
Legal legacy
Several significant legal decisions arose out of Japanese-American
internment, relating to the powers of the government to detain citizens
in wartime. Among the cases which reached the Supreme Court were
Yasui v. United States (1943), Hirabayashi v. United States (1943), ex
parte Endo (1944), and Korematsu v. United States (1944). In Yasui
and Hirabayashi the court upheld the constitutionality of curfews
based on Japanese ancestry; in Korematsu the court upheld the
constitutionality of the exclusion order. In Endo, the court accepted a
petition for a writ of habeas corpus and ruled that the WRA had no
authority to subject a citizen whose loyalty was acknowledged to its
procedures.
Grandfather and grandson at Manzanar, July 2,
1942.
Japanese American internment
Korematsu's and Hirabayashi's convictions were vacated in a series of coram nobis cases in the early 1980s.[100] In
the coram nobis cases, federal district and appellate courts ruled that newly uncovered evidence revealed an
unfairness which, had it been known at the time, would likely have changed the Supreme Court's decisions in the
Yasui, Hirabayashi, and Korematsu cases.[9][27] These new court decisions rested on a series of documents recovered
from the National Archives showing that the government had altered, suppressed and withheld important and
relevant information from the Supreme Court, including the Final Report by General DeWitt justifying the
internment program.[100] The Army had destroyed documents in an effort to hide the fact that alterations had been
made to the report.[27] The coram nobis cases vacated the convictions of Korematsu and Hirabayashi (Yasui died
before his case was heard, rendering it moot), and are regarded as one of the impetuses for the Civil Liberties Act of
1988.[100]
The rulings of the US Supreme Court in the Korematsu and Hirabayashi cases, specifically in its expansive
interpretation of government powers in wartime, have yet to be overturned. They are still the law of the land because
a lower court cannot overturn a ruling by the US Supreme Court. The coram nobis cases totally undermined the
factual underpinnings of the 1944 cases, leaving the original decisions without much logical basis.[100] Nonetheless,
in light of the fact that these 1944 decisions are still on the books, a number of legal scholars have expressed the
opinion that the original Korematsu and Hirabayashi decisions have taken on renewed relevance in the context of the
War on Terror.
Former Supreme Court Justice Tom C. Clark, who represented the US Department of Justice in the "relocation,"
writes in the epilogue to the 1992 book Executive Order 9066: The Internment of 110,000 Japanese Americans:[101]
The truth is—as this deplorable experience proves—that constitutions and laws are not sufficient of
themselves...Despite the unequivocal language of the Constitution of the United States that the writ of habeas
corpus shall not be suspended, and despite the Fifth Amendment's command that no person shall be deprived
of life, liberty or property without due process of law, both of these constitutional safeguards were denied by
military action under Executive Order 9066.[102]
Terminology debate
There has been much discussion over what to call the locations in which internees were held.[103] The WRA
officially called them "War Relocation Centers." Manzanar, for instance, was officially known as the Manzanar War
Relocation Center. Because of this, the National Park Service has chosen to use "relocation center" in referring to the
camps.[104] Some historians and scholars, as well as former internees, object to this wording, noting that the
internees were literally imprisoned, such that "relocation" becomes a euphemism.[104]
Another widely used name for the American camps is "internment camp". This phrase is also potentially misleading,
as the United States Department of Justice operated separate camps that were officially called "internment camps" in
which some Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II.[105][106]
"Concentration camp" is the most controversial descriptor of the camps. This term is criticized for suggesting that the
Japanese American experience was analogous to the Holocaust and the Nazi concentration camps.[107] For this
reason, National Park Service officials have attempted to avoid the term.[104] Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D.
Eisenhower and Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes each referred to the American camps as "concentration
camps," at the time.[108] When the nature of the Nazi concentration camps became clear to the world, and the phrase
"concentration camp" came to signify a Nazi death camp, most historians turned to other terms to describe Japanese
internment.
Recognizing the controversy over the terminology, in 1971, when the Manzanar Committee [109] applied to the
California Department of Parks and Recreation to have Manzanar designated as a California State Historical
Landmark, it was proposed that both "relocation center" and "concentration camp" be used in the wording of the
plaque for the landmark.[110] Some Owens Valley residents vehemently opposed the use of "concentration camp,"
and it took a year of discussion and negotiation before both terms were accepted and included on the plaque.[103][110]
18
Japanese American internment
Notable internees
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Richard Aoki (1938–2009), Black Panther Party, as a child at Topaz
Violet Kazue de Cristoforo (1917–2007), poet (Tule Lake and Jerome)
Takayo Fischer, actress (Jerome and Rohwer)
Bill Hosokawa (1915–2007), journalist (Heart Mountain)
Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston, author (Manzanar)
Lawson Fusao Inada, poet (multiple camps)
Robert Ito, actor (Japanese-Canadian Internee)
Hiroshi Kashiwagi, actor, poet, playwright (Tule Lake)
Bill Kasuga, co-founder of Kenwood Corporation
Kichimatsu Kishi (?-1956), founder of an agricultural colony and a small oil company
Yuri Kochiyama, activist (Jerome)
Ralph Lazo (Manzanar)
Bob Matsui (1941–2005), U.S. Congressman (Tule Lake)
Doris Matsui (1944– ), U.S. Congresswoman (born in Poston)
Pat Morita (1932–2005), actor, comedian (Gila River)
• Norman Mineta (1931– ), former Mayor of San Jose, California, U.S. Congressman, Sec. of Commerce, Sec. of
Transportation (Heart Mountain)
• Tōyō Miyatake (1896–1979), photographer (Manzanar)
• Robert A. Nakamura (1937– ), Filmmaker, Founder of Visual Communications (VC) (Manzanar)
• George Nakashima (1905–1990), woodworker, furniture designer, architect (Minidoka)
• Arthur Okamura (1932–2009), screen print artist (Granada)
• Miné Okubo (1912–2001), artist, author Citizen 13660 (Tanforan and Topaz)
• Tura Satana (1938–2011), actress, burlesque star (Manzanar)
• Yuki Shimoda (1921–1981), actor (Tule Lake)
• Larry Shinoda (1930–1997), automotive designer
• Monica Sone (1919–2011) autobiographer (Nisei Daughter, 1953) (Camp Harmony and Minidoka)
• Jack Soo (1917–1979), actor, comedian (Topaz)
• Pat Suzuki, singer, actress, entertainer
• Shinkichi Tajiri (1923–2009), soldier, 442nd. Documenta artist, sculptor, photographer, lived in the Netherlands.
With the family at Poston. (Dutch WP nl:Shinkichi Tajiri)
• Iwao Takamoto (1925–2007), animator, TV producer (Manzanar)
• George Takei, (1937– ), actor (Rohwer and Tule Lake)
• A. Wallace Tashima, Ninth Circuit judge (Poston)
• Dave Tatsuno (1913–2006), (Topaz), who filmed scenes of the camp with an illegal camera, later compiled as
Topaz, and placed in the National Film Registry
• Yoshiko Uchida (1921–1992), author ("Journey to Topaz" for children and "Desert Exile" for adults) (Tanforan
and Topaz)
• Michi Nishiura Weglyn (1926–1999), author of Years Of Infamy
• Hisaye Yamamoto (1921–2011), author (Poston)
• Wakako Yamauchi, author, playwright (Poston)
19
Japanese American internment
Expulsions and population transfers of WWII
The internment of Japanese Americans has sometimes been compared to the persecutions, expulsions, and
dislocations of other ethnic minorities in the context of World War II, in Europe and Asia.[111][112][113][114] An
estimated 500,000 Volga Germans were rounded up and deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan when Germany invaded
the Soviet Union, with many of them dying en route.[111] The Volga Germans were deported prior to the Battle of
Stalingrad, as they were regarded, in the "war hysteria of the moment", as a potential "Fifth Column".[112]
In 1944, the Red Army rounded up about 500,000 Chechens and Ingushes for relocation; a third of this population
perished in the first year, from starvation, cold, and disease.[113] Other nationalities which faced ethnic cleansing for
having been identified as potential collaborators with the Germans were the Balkars, Crimean Tartars, Karachi,
Kalmyks, and Meskhetians.[114]
Exhibitions and Collections
The Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of American History has more than 800 artifacts from its A More
Perfect Union collection available online. Archival photography, publications, original manuscripts, artworks, and
handmade objects comprise the collection of items related to the Japanese American experience.[115]
On October 1, 1987, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History opened an exhibition called,
"A More Perfect Union: Japanese Americans and the U.S. Constitution." The exhibition examined the Constitutional
process by considering the experiences of Americans of Japanese ancestry before, during, and after World War II.
On view were more than 1,000 artifacts and photographs relating to the experiences of Japanese Americans during
World War II. The exhibition closed on January 11, 2004. On November 8, 2011, the National Museum of American
History launched an online exhibition of the same name with shared content.[116]
References In Music
Fort Minor's release The Rising Tied contains a track entitled Kenji, which relates the tale of a Japanese-American
family's experience during the internment period. Lead singer Mike Shinoda's paternal grandparents were interned
during World War II, along with his father (as an infant). Shinoda is a third generation Japanese American, and his
father is Nisei.
Folk/country musician Tom Russell wrote "Manzanar", a song about the Japanese American internment, that was
released on his album Box of Visions (1993).[117]
References and notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
"War Relocation Camps in Arizona 1942-1946" (http:/ / parentseyes. arizona. edu/ wracamps/ ). . Retrieved October 2, 2012.
National Park Service. Manzanar National Historic Site (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ manz/ )
Various primary and secondary sources list counts between persons.
Ogawa, Dennis M. and Fox, Jr., Evarts C. Japanese Americans, from Relocation to Redress. 1991, page 135.
Internment – WWII Hawaii (http:/ / www. hawaiischoolreports. com/ history/ internment. htm)
Semiannual Report of the War Relocation Authority, for the period January 1 to June 30, 1946, not dated. Papers of Dillon S. Myer. Scanned
image at (http:/ / www. trumanlibrary. org/ whistlestop/ study_collections/ japanese_internment/ documents/ index. php?pagenumber=4&
documentid=62& documentdate=1946-00-00& collectionid=JI& nav=ok) trumanlibrary.org. Retrieved September 18, 2006.
[7] "The War Relocation Authority and The Incarceration of Japanese Americans During World War II: 1948 Chronology," Web page (http:/ /
www. trumanlibrary. org/ whistlestop/ study_collections/ japanese_internment/ 1948. htm) at www.trumanlibrary.org. Retrieved September
11, 2006.
[8] Korematsu v. United States (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ scripts/ getcase. pl?navby=CASE& court=US& vol=323& page=214) dissent
by Justice Owen Josephus Roberts, reproduced at findlaw.com. Retrieved September 12, 2006.
[9] Korematsu v. United States (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ scripts/ getcase. pl?court=US& vol=323& invol=214) majority opinion by
Justice Hugo Black, reproduced at findlaw.com. Retrieved September 11, 2006.
[10] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 100–104. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
20
Japanese American internment
[11] JR Minkel (March 30, 2007). Confirmed: The U.S. Census Bureau Gave Up Names of Japanese-Americans in WW II (http:/ / www.
scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=confirmed-the-us-census-b& sc=I100322). Scientific American.
[12] Haya El Nasser (March 30, 2007). "Papers show Census role in WWII camps" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ nation/
2007-03-30-census-role_N. htm). USA Today.
[13] 100th Congress, S. 1009, reproduced at (http:/ / www. internmentarchives. com/ showdoc. php?docid=00055& search_id=19269&
pagenum=2) internmentarchives.com. Retrieved September 19, 2006.
[14] "Wwii Reparations: Japanese-American Internees" (http:/ / www. democracynow. org/ 1999/ 2/ 18/
wwii_reparations_japanese_american_internees). Democracy Now!. . Retrieved January 24, 2010.
[15] Leupp, Gary P. Interracial Intimacy in Japan: Western Men and Japanese Women, 1543–1900. 2003, page 216-7
[16] Nakanishi, Don T. and Nishida, Tina Yamano. The Asian American Educational Experience. 1995, page 15-6
[17] John J. Culley, "World War II and a Western Town: The Internment of Japanese Railroad Workers of Clovis, New Mexico." Western
Historical Quarterly 13 (January 1982): 43–61.
[18] "US McCarthyism" (http:/ / www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/ USAmccarthyism. htm). .
[19] Okihiro, Gary Y. The Columbia Guide to Asian American History. 2005, page 104
[20] Nash, Gary B., Julie Roy Jeffrey, John R. Howe, Peter J. Frederick, Allen F. Davis, Allan M. Winkler, Charlene Mires, and Carla Gardina
Pestana. The American People, Concise Edition Creating a Nation and a Society, Combined Volume (6th Edition). New York: Longman,
2007
[21] Fred Mullen, "DeWitt Attitude on Japs Upsets Plans," Watsonville Register-Pajaronian, April 16, 1943. p.1, reproduced by Santa Cruz
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box-of-visions/ 144904). Billboard. April 10, 2003. . Retrieved May 2, 2010.
Further reading
• Conn, Stetson (2000 (reissue from 1960)). "5. The Decision to Evacuate the Japanese from the Pacific Coast"
(http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_05.htm). In Kent Roberts Greenfield. Command Decisions (http://
www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_0.htm). United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 70-7.
• De Nevers, Klancy Clark. The Colonel and the Pacifist: Karl Bendetsen, Perry Saito, and the Incarceration of
Japanese Americans during World War II. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2004. ISBN
978-0-87480-789-9
• Drinnon, Richard. Keeper of Concentration Camps: Dillon S. Meyer and American Racism. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1989.
• Gardiner, Clinton Harvey. (1981). Pawns in a Triangle of Hate: The Peruvian Japanese and the United States.
(http://books.google.com/books?id=9zp1AAAACAAJ&dq=Pawns+in+a+Triangle+of+Hate&
client=firefox-a) Seattle: University of Washington Press. 10-ISBN 0-295-95855-3; ISBN 978-0-295-95855-2
• Harth, Erica. (2001). Last Witnesses: Reflections on the Wartime Internment of Japanese Americans. Palgrave,
New York. ISBN 0-312-22199-1.
• Higashide, Seiichi. (2000). Adios to Tears: The Memoirs of a Japanese-Peruvian Internee in U.S. Concentration
Camps. (http://books.google.com/books?id=ORE5wfUNdccC&dq=Adios+to+Tears:+The+Memoirs+of+
a+Japanese-Peruvian+Internee+in+U.S.+Concentration+Camps&client=firefox-a&
source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0) Seattle: University of Washington Press. 10-ISBN 0-295-97914-3; 13-ISBN
978-0-295-97914-4
• Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo. The Politics of Fieldwork: Research in an American Concentration Camp. Tucson: The
University of Arizona Press, 1999.
• Gordon, Linda; Okihiro, Gary Y., eds. (2006). Impounded: Dorothea Lange and the Censored Images of
Japanese American Internment. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-33090-7.
• Mackey, Mackey, ed. Remembering Heart Mountain: Essays on Japanese American Internment in Wyoming.
Wyoming: Western History Publications, 1998.
• Miyakawa, Edward T. Tule Lake. Trafford Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-55369-844-4
• Robinson, Greg. By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans. Cambridge and
others: Harvard University Press, 2001.
• Robinson, Greg (2009). A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America. Columbia University
Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12922-0.
• Weglyn, Michi. (1976, 1996). Years Of Infamy: The Untold Story Of America's Concentration Camps. University
of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97484-2.
• Civil Liberties Public Education Fund. (1997). Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime
Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Civil Liberties Public Education Fund and University of Washington
24
Japanese American internment
Press. ISBN 0-295-97558-X.
• Elleman, Bruce (2006). Japanese-American civilian prisoner exchanges and detention camps, 1941–45 (http://
books.google.com/?id=zTsAj1cfYKUC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q=). Routledge. p. 179.
ISBN 978-0-415-33188-3. Retrieved 14 September2009.
External links
Archival sources of documents, photos, and other materials
• Nothing to Fear but Fear Itself (http://memory.loc.gov/learn/lessons/99/fear/gallery.html) – Photo gallery at
U.S. Library of Congress.
• Japanese American Internment Records (http://www.archives.gov/research/arc/topics/japanese-americans/)
available in the Archival Research Catalog (http://www.archives.gov/research/arc/) of the National Archives
and Records Administration
• Densho: The Japanese American Legacy Project (http://www.densho.org/), Free digital archive containing
hundreds of video oral histories and 10,000 historical photographs and documents
• "Beyond Barbed Wire: Japanese Internment through Salem Eyes" (http://www.statesmanjournal.com/
japanese_internment/intro.html), Statesman Journal, videos, stories, photographs and documents.
• "Japanese American Relocation Digital Archives" (http://jarda.cdlib.org/), University of California, contains
personal & official photographs, letters, diaries, transcribed oral histories, etc.
• Large number of documents (http://bss.sfsu.edu/internment/documents.html) – Official documents, including
official court opinions on the Yasui, Hirabayashi, and Korematsu Supreme Court cases
• Ansel Adams, "Photographs of Japanese American Internment at Manzanar" (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/
aamhtml/aamhome.html), American Memory Collection, Library of Congress
• "Letters from the Japanese American Internment" (http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/
lesson_plans/japanese_internment/index.html), Correspondence between librarian Clara Breed and young
internees, Smithsonian Institution
• "Alien Enemy Detention Facility, Crystal City, Texas" (http://www.texasarchive.org/library/index.
php?title=Alien_Enemy_Detention_Facility,_Crystal_City,_Texas&gsearch=alien enemy), film produced by the
INS about Crystal City Alien Enemy Detention Facility, c. 1943
• JapaneseRelocation.org (http://www.japaneserelocation.org/) – WW2 Japanese Relocation Camp Internee
Records index
• Evacuation War Relocation Authority Photographs of Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement,
1942-1945 (http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf596nb4h0/?query=Japanese%20American%20),
Japanese American Relocation Collection (http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt638nc9ww/
?query=Japanese%20American%20Evacuation), and Inventory of the Japanese American Evacuation and
Resettlement Records, 1930-1974 (bulk 1942-1946) (http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/
tf5j49n8kh/?query=Japanese%20American%20Evacuation) at The Bancroft Library
25
Japanese American internment
Other sources
• World War II Internment Camps (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/WW/quwby.html)
from the Handbook of Texas Online
• "Campaign For Justice: Redress Now For Japanese American Internees!". A website with information about the
lesser known internment of Japanese Latin Americans (http://www.campaignforjusticejla.org/)
• A More Perfect Union: Japanese Americans and the U.S. Constitution (http://americanhistory.si.edu/
exhibitions/exhibition.cfm?key=38&exkey=78) Online exhibition from the National Museum of American
History, Smithsonian Institution
• National Park Service; Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation
Sites. (http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/anthropology74/index.htm)
• Friends of Minidoka (http://www.minidoka.org/)
• 60 years after his landmark Supreme Court battle, Fred Korematsu is fighting racial profiling of Arabs (http://
reclaimdemocracy.org/articles_2004/fred_korematsu_racial_profiling.html)
• Tule Lake Relocation Center by I. Fujimoto and D. Sunada (http://www.colostate.edu/Orgs/TuleLake/Tule
Lake Menu.html)
• The short film "Japanese Relocation with Milton Eisenhower" (http://www.archive.org/details/gov.fdr.144)
is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
• The short film "Challenge to Democracy (Japanese Internment) (1942)" (http://www.archive.org/details/gov.
fdr.21) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
• The short film "Barriers And Passes, ca. 1939 – ca. 1945" (http://www.archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.
39227) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Archives and
Records Administration (http://www.archives.gov/).
26
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Japanese American internment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=519504456 Contributors: $1LENCE D00600D, - ), .::Arbitrary::., 123mac123mac, 24fan24, 293.xx.xxx.xx,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Map of World War II Japanese American internment camps.png Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_World_War_II_Japanese_American_internment_camps.png License: Public Domain Contributors: NPS Map
Image:JapaneseRelocationNewspapers1942.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JapaneseRelocationNewspapers1942.gif License: Public Domain Contributors:
Infrogmation, Matanya, Ras67
Image:JapaneseAmericanGrocer1942.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JapaneseAmericanGrocer1942.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Djembayz,
Infrogmation, Kanonkas, Look2See1, Movieevery, Papa Lima Whiskey, Xnatedawgx, 2 anonymous edits
File:JapaneseAmericansChildrenPledgingAllegiance1942-2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JapaneseAmericansChildrenPledgingAllegiance1942-2.jpg License:
Public Domain Contributors: Photo attributed to Dorothea Lange(w).
File:Russell Lee, Tagged for evacuation, Salinas, California, May 1942.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russell_Lee,_Tagged_for_evacuation,_Salinas,_California,_May_1942.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Martin H., MathewTownsend,
Shakko
File:A Challenge to Democracy (1944).ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_Challenge_to_Democracy_(1944).ogv License: unknown Contributors: US War
Relocation Authority
Image:Posted Japanese American Exclusion Order.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Posted_Japanese_American_Exclusion_Order.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Department of the Interior. War Relocation Authority
File:Photograph of Members of the Mochida Family Awaiting Evacuation - NARA - 537505.tif Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Photograph_of_Members_of_the_Mochida_Family_Awaiting_Evacuation_-_NARA_-_537505.tif License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Hayward, California. Friends say good-bye as family of Japanese ancestry await evacuation bus. Bag . . . - NARA - 537514.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hayward,_California._Friends_say_good-bye_as_family_of_Japanese_ancestry_await_evacuation_bus._Bag_._._._-_NARA_-_537514.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: -
27
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
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File:Eleanor Roosevelt at Gila River, Arizona at Japanese,American Internment Center - NARA - 197094.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eleanor_Roosevelt_at_Gila_River,_Arizona_at_Japanese,American_Internment_Center_-_NARA_-_197094.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Docu, JustSomePics
File:Heart Mountain Relocation Center, Heart Mountain, Wyoming. Residents of Japanese ancestry, at the H . . . - NARA - 539235.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heart_Mountain_Relocation_Center,_Heart_Mountain,_Wyoming._Residents_of_Japanese_ancestry,_at_the_H_._._._-_NARA_-_539235.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: 1 anonymous edits
File:Tule Lake Relocation Center, Newell, California. Harvesting spinach. - NARA - 538316.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tule_Lake_Relocation_Center,_Newell,_California._Harvesting_spinach._-_NARA_-_538316.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Look2See1
File:Byron, California. Field laborers of Japanese ancestry in front of Wartime Civil Control Administra . . . - NARA - 537774.tif Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Byron,_California._Field_laborers_of_Japanese_ancestry_in_front_of_Wartime_Civil_Control_Administra_._._._-_NARA_-_537774.tif License:
Public Domain Contributors: Image:Luggage - Japanese American internment.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luggage_-_Japanese_American_internment.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Howcheng, Infrogmation, Ras67
File:A young evacuee of Japanese ancestry waits with the family baggage before leaving by bus for an assembly center... - NARA - 539959.tif Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_young_evacuee_of_Japanese_ancestry_waits_with_the_family_baggage_before_leaving_by_bus_for_an_assembly_center..._-_NARA_-_539959.tif
License: Public Domain Contributors: Dominic, Rmhermen, Yann
File:"Persons of Japanese ancestry arrive at the Santa Anita Assembly Center from San Pedro. Evacuees lived at this center at - NARA - 539960.tif Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:"Persons_of_Japanese_ancestry_arrive_at_the_Santa_Anita_Assembly_Center_from_San_Pedro._Evacuees_lived_at_this_center_at_-_NARA_-_539960.tif
License: Public Domain Contributors: Dominic, El., Peter Weis, Rmhermen
Image:Ansel Adams, Baseball game at Manzanar, 1943.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ansel_Adams,_Baseball_game_at_Manzanar,_1943.jpg License: Public
Domain Contributors: User:trialsanderrors
File:442nd US Army RCT squad leader in france.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:442nd_US_Army_RCT_squad_leader_in_france.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Photo Courtesy of U.S. Army
File:Granada Relocation Center, Amache, Colorado. Not all the center residents will return to their form . . . - NARA - 539932.tif Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Granada_Relocation_Center,_Amache,_Colorado._Not_all_the_center_residents_will_return_to_their_form_._._._-_NARA_-_539932.tif License:
Public Domain Contributors: JustSomePics
Image:Manzanar shrine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manzanar_shrine.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors:
User:Maveric149
File:Ronald Reagan signing Japanese reparations bill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ronald_Reagan_signing_Japanese_reparations_bill.jpg License: Public
Domain Contributors: Chmee2, Closeapple, Djembayz, Happyme22, James Blanchard, Kintetsubuffalo, Rogerd
File:Manzanar Relocation Center, Manzanar, California. Grandfather and grandson of Japanese ancestry at . . . - NARA - 537992.tif Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manzanar_Relocation_Center,_Manzanar,_California._Grandfather_and_grandson_of_Japanese_ancestry_at_._._._-_NARA_-_537992.tif License:
Public Domain Contributors: JustSomePics
Image:PD-icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex.muller, Anomie, Anonymous Dissident, CBM, MBisanz,
PBS, Quadell, Rocket000, Strangerer, Timotheus Canens, 1 anonymous edits
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
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