SustainableDevelopmentinAfrican
Mountains
Contents
1.0Sustainabledevelopmentasaglobalmovement.............................................................................2
2.0Whatissustainabledevelopment?..................................................................................................4
2.1DefinitionsofSustainableDevelopment......................................................................................5
2.2TheUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(UNSDG)...................................................6
2.3Sustainabledevelopmentindicators............................................................................................6
2.4SustainableMountainDevelopment(SMD).................................................................................7
2.5TheUNSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandmountains.............................................................8
2.6DevelopingasetofSDindicatorsforAfricanmountains.............................................................8
3.0Indicatorscanbeusedindifferentwaystotrackecosystems..........................................................9
3.1Thevalueofindicatorsystems...................................................................................................10
3.2Indicatorsforsustainabledevelopment.....................................................................................10
3.3Selectionofindicators................................................................................................................11
4.0Awayforward................................................................................................................................13
5.0References......................................................................................................................................14
Photocredits....................................................................................................................................15
1.0Sustainabledevelopmentasaglobalmovement
Since1992andtheRioSummit,therehasbeenmuchresearch,debateandthinkingonsustainable
developmentasanimplantableapproachtotheworld’sdeepeningcrisisofglobalenvironmental
change.Ahierarchyofinternationalreportsanddecisionsunderpinstheglobalmandatetoprotect
mountainsandensurethatmountainenvironmentsaresustainablyutilisedand/orprotectedto
ensurethatthebenefitstheyproducecontinue,eveninthefaceofglobalchange.1Sustainable
developmenthasbecomeamajorapproachtotryandcreateaworldwhereno-onelivesinpoverty,
everyonelivesadecentlifeandthattheoverallimpactonthenaturalenvironmentisreducedatthe
sametime.Itisundoubtedlyanambitiousgoal.Eventhoughadvocatedin1992,Sustainable
Developmentremainsanelusivequalitythatisdifficulttoimplementandevenmoredifficultto
measure.
DegradedlandscapeintheDrakensbergfoothillsaroundCathedralPeak,
SouthAfrica.2016
1
SustainableDevelopmentknowledgeplatform(UN)
http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=972
http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=231
Manyglobalmountainareasareexperiencingenvironmentaldegradation.Atthesametime,about
tenpercentoftheworld'spopulationdependsdirectlyonmountainresources,andamuchlarger
percentagedrawsonmountainresources,includingandespeciallywater.
SustainableMountainDevelopmentisthesubjectofChapter13ofAgenda21,whichnotesthat
mountainsareanimportantsourceofwater,energy,biologicaldiversity,keyresources,suchas
minerals,forestproductsandagriculturalproducts,andofrecreation.Mountainenvironments
representmajorecosystemswhichareessentialtothesurvivaloftheglobalecosystem,butthey
arerapidlychanging.
Intheleaduptothe2015launchoftheUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentgoals(UNSDG)
therehasbeenintenseinternationaldebateonsustainabledevelopment–developmentthatallows
‘some,forall,forever’andthedevelopmentofgoals,targetsandindicatorstohelpachievethis.It
washopedthatmountainswouldgeta‘goal’oftheirown,buthavenowbeensubsumedunder
‘terrestrialecosystems’–butthereareotheropportunitiestodevelopmentsetsofgoalsandtargets
formountains,fallingunderadrivefor‘sustainableMountainDevelopment’(SMD).
TheUNhashopedtoinfluenceglobalproduction,consumption,energy,poverty,social,economic
andenvironmentalchallengesthroughaninternational,multinationalSustainableDevelopment
Goals(17goals,164targetsandaround304indicators).Throughthisprogramme(2016–2030),the
internationalcommunitywillaimtoaddressincreasinglycomplexchallenges.Governmentsand
stakeholdersaroundtheworldhaveagreedtotacklepovertyandcompletetheunfinishedworkof
theMDG,butsteera‘transformationalshift’towardsasustainablefutureforallbyincluding
environmentalissuesamongstthegoals.
TheSDGintegratesocial,economicandenvironmentalaspectsandrecognisetheirinter-linkagesin
achievingsustainabledevelopment.Thewaythatthesegoalsareachievedwillalsorequirenovel
financingandthought,astheglobalcommunitytriestofindwaystoputtheworld’shugewealthto
greateruse,butalsotopressdevelopingcountriestobegintofinancesustainabledevelopment
activitiesthatwillbenefitthemselves.
OneofthecriticismsofthepreviousMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDG)processwasthatit
fosteredasiloapproach,becauseoftheuseofstand-aloneindicators.TheSDGgoalsandtargets
alsousestand-alonegoalsandtargets,butresearchersnowrealisedthatmanydevelopmentissues
arelinkedandtheideaisthatnations,researchers,orothersmustperformanalysistoexplore
correlationsinthedata.TheSGDgoalsnowcomeatatimewhenweunderstandthatdevelopment
issuesarecomplex(asintheso-callednexusbetweensociety,economicsandtheenvironment),but
wealsohavecomputationalpowerthatcanstoreandanalyse‘bigdatasets’andfindrelationships
thatwouldnotbeseenbefore.Hopefullytheserelationshipswillhighlightwherepositive
interventionscanbemade.
Interestingly,aSciDevNetreportnotesthatcollectingthestatisticsneededtoinformsocietyand
trackthe17SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)willrequireaformidableeffort.Africa’s
statisticalrequirementsalreadygofarbeyondwhatisneededfortheSDGs,yetnationalstatistical
offices(NSOs)alreadyneedhelpwithproducingtimely,reliableandrelevantstatisticsoneverything
frommakinginvestmentdecisionstogainingintelligenceaboutbusinessopportunities.The
SciDevNetreportalsonotesthatdatacollectioninAfricancountriesfortheUNSDGwillbecostly.
TheystatethatanunpublishedreportdrawnupbytheheadsofAfricanNSOsandotherpartners
recentlyestimatesthatproducingharmonisedstatisticstotracktheSDGscostsaminimumof
US$1.54foreveryoneofAfrica’s1.2billionpeople.ThisfigurewouldrisetoUS$4.33perperson
witheffortstoobtainmorereliablenumbers.ItwouldincreasefurthertoUS$8.11perpersonin15
years,whenthepopulationisalsoexpectedtohavegrownto1.6billion.2
2.0Whatissustainabledevelopment?
Atthispoint,sustainable
developmentisconsidered
anot-impossibleconcept
abouthowsocietycould
developinawaythathas
lessimpactonthenatural
environmentandyet
createmorehuman
welfarethaniscurrently
thecase.
ModerndevelopmentinFicksburg,oneofthebordertowns
betweenSouthAfricaandLesotho,2015
2
http://m.scidev.net/global/data/opinion/secure-africas-data-revolution.html
2.1DefinitionsofSustainableDevelopment
Therearemanydefinitionsofsustainabledevelopment.TheWorldCommissiononEnvironment
andDevelopment(WCED)knownastheBrundtlandReport,buttitled‘OurCommonFuture’,defines
sustainabledevelopmentas:‘developmentthatmeetstheneedsof,andaspirationof,thepresent
generation,withoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds’.The
InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment(IISD)statesthatsustainabledevelopmentisan
‘integratedprocessfordecision-makingthatrequiresawidearrayofinformationforittobe
accomplished,aswellasdemocraticvalues,communityparticipation,internationalcollaboration
andstrongleadership’(Schwabe,2002).
NijkamandVreeker(2000)makeusefulstatementsaboutsustainabledevelopment.Theydefine
sustainabledevelopmentasthedevelopmentofaneconomy(nationalorregional)thattakesplace
withinasetofpre-specifiednormativeconstraintsorpathways.Sustainabilityconstraintsmaybe
safeminimumstandards,qualitystandards,carryingcapacity,eco-capacity,maximumsustainable
yield,criticalloads,vulnerability,environmentalutilizationspace(whichtakesintoaccountthe
regenerativecapacityoftheenvironment),andsoon.Theysuggestasystemof‘colourflags’which
areflaggedwhenpre-identifiedthresholdsarereached.Whenthesethresholdsarereached,there
arealsopre-arrangedresponseswhichmustthenbeimplemented.Everythingaboutasystemlike
thisispre-negotiatedandagreed.Otherstatementsaboutsustainabledevelopmentinclude:
•
Sustainabledevelopmentisadecisionmakingsystemthatbalanceshumandevelopmentwith
environmentalprotection,andhastooperatewithinaclearcut(andagreedupon)setofrules
(e.g.Regulations,legislation,agreements,certificationschemes,liketheFSC),withscopefor
enforcementwhentherulesarebroken,orwhencertainThresholdsofConcernarereached
(NijkamandVreeker,2000).
•
Sustainabledevelopmentisaprocessthataimsatensuringthatcurrenthumanneedsare
satisfiedwhilemaintaininglong-termperspectivesregardingtheuseandavailabilityofnatural
resourcesintothelongtermfuture,andconsideringthewell-beingoffuturegenerations(Price,
2004).
•
TheclassicBrundtlandReport(1987)definitionofsustainabledevelopmentis:‘development
thatmeetstheneedsof,andaspirationof,thepresentgeneration,withoutcompromisingthe
abilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds’(WCED,1987).Formountainsystems
aroundtheworld,thereisaneedtoensuretheeconomicandsocialimprovementofmountain
areas,bothforthesakeofmountaininhabitantsandforpopulationsinlowlandareas,aswellas
toconservemountainbiodiversity.
2.2TheUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(UNSDG)
TheUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(UNSDG)framework,tobeimplementedfrom
2016,isthesumofglobaleffortsfurthertotryandallowforhumandevelopmentwhilereducingthe
impactonnaturalsystems.Thereare17goalsand164targetsandoriginally304indicators,withthe
numberofindicatorstoberefined,acknowledgingthehugeburdenthatdatagatheringplaceson
developingcountrygovernments.Around155nations,includingalmostallnationsinAfrica,have
becomesignatoriestotheUNSDGandhaveundertakentoestablishprotocolsanddatacollection
teamsthroughtheirnationalstatisticalofficestogathertheindictordataasrequiredbytheUN.The
UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoalsprocesshasmadeitclearthatdatacollectionand
analysisisthefoundationofdevelopmentplanningandfundinginthefuture,andtheinformation
containedintheUNSDGdatamaywellinformwhoneedsdevelopmentassistanceandwhodoesn’t
(forexample,GISandgroundsurveyscanindicate‘wherethepoorpeoplereallyare’andassistthem
inaverytargeted,andhopefullyfair,way).
TheUnitedNationsOpenWorkingGroup(OWG)onSustainableDevelopmentstatedduringtheSDG
developmentphasethatthenewSustainableDevelopmentGoalswillbeaccompaniedbytargets
thatareelaboratedthroughindicatorsfocusedonmeasurableoutcomes.Theywillactionoriented,
globalinnatureanduniversallyapplicable.Theywilltakeintoaccountdifferentnationalrealities,
capacitiesandlevelsofdevelopmentandrespectnationalpoliciesandpriorities.Theywillalsobuild
onthefoundationlaidbytheMDGs,seektocompletetheunfinishedbusinessoftheMDGs,and
respondtonewchallenges.Thesegoalsconstituteanintegrated,indivisiblesetofglobalpriorities
forsustainabledevelopment.Targetsaredefinedasaspirationalglobaltargets,witheach
governmentsettingitsownnationaltargetsguidedbythegloballevelofambitionbuttakinginto
accountnationalcircumstances.Thegoalsandtargetsintegrateeconomic,socialandenvironmental
aspectsandrecognizetheirinter-linkagesinachievingsustainabledevelopmentinallitsdimensions.
2.3Sustainabledevelopmentindicators
Ifnationsaimtosystematicallypursuesustainabledevelopment,itisimperativetotakeregular
snapshotsofhowfartheyaretowardsreachingtheirgoal,theprogresstheyhavemade,andwhere
aneedforactionstillexists.Thismeansthatgoalsneedtobeset,andmonitoringprogressrequires
anappropriatesetofmetrics(indicators).
Indicatorsystemsshould:3
1. Initiatedebatebetweenstakeholdersinsocietyaboutthegoalsofsustainabledevelopment
2. Measurethecurrentstatusofsustainability,indicatetrendsovertimeandidentifyareasfor
action
3. Informthepublicandpoliticaldecision-makersaboutthestatusofsustainabledevelopment
andthusenablepotentialproblemareastobeidentifiedatanearlystage
4. Enablecomparisons(benchmarking)and,asaresultoftheensuingcompetition,motivate
peopletostepuptheireffortstoachievethegoals.
2.4SustainableMountainDevelopment(SMD)
Globalchange,andinparticularglobalwarming,hasandwillhaveseriousimpactsonthebiophysical
environment,andthesocio-economicconditionsandlivelihoodsofpeopleinfragilemountain
environments,butalsointheadjacentlowlandareas.Onewaytoensureresilienceinthese
landscapesistoensurethatpovertyandpressureonthelandscapearereduced.Sustainable
MountainDevelopment,ifmainstreamedandfunded,couldcontributetoresiliencebuilding.
Sustainabledevelopmentinmountains(SMD)hasfollowedthesamepathofdebateasthe
sustainabledevelopmentdebatesince1992andmountainsarementionedinmanyhighlevelUN
documents.Manyimportantdevelopmentsinachievingsustainabledevelopmentareoccurringin
mountainareasaroundtheworld,forexampletheInternationalCentreforIntegratedMountain
Development(ICIMOD),whichisaregionalintergovernmentallearningandknowledgesharing
centreservingtheeightregionalmembercountriesoftheHinduKushHimalayas.Africahasfallen
behind,withhugeimpactsonmountainareas.TheARCOS(AlbertineRiftConservationSociety)
organisation’sworkontheEasternArcMountainsisalsogloballysignificant.TheSwissGovernment,
throughitsSMD4GCprogrammeandtheMountainResearchInitiativebasedattheUniversityof
Berne,isleadingontheinvestigationandassessmentofcasestudiesandindicatorsofsustainable
mountaindevelopmentaroundtheworld.AfroMontispartoftheMRI/Swissinitiativetodetermine
suitableSMDindicatorsforAfricanmountainsystems.
Toachievemaximumuptake,sustainablemountaindevelopmentshouldbemainstreamedacross
allrelevantsectorsintheeconomyandbebudgetedforbynations.Tobeabletomakedecisions
withregardtoprotectingandmanagingtheirmountainresources,nationsandtheirvarious
ministries,developmentprofessionals,NGOsandnatureconservationandforestryorganisations
needreliable,up-to-datedata.Indicatorsystemscanprovidethisdata.
3
http://www.are.admin.ch/themen/nachhaltig/00268/index.html?lang=en
ForSustainableMountainDevelopment,theaimistoeitherapplygeneralSDgoals,targetsand
indicatorstodevelopmentwithinmountainregionsordevelopuniqueandcustomisedindicatorsfor
mountainregions,orevenforspecificmountains.
2.5TheUNSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandmountains
TheproposedUNSGDgoals,targetsandindicatorsarearrangedas17Goals,167Targetsand3004
Indicators.Currently(September2016),the304proposedindicatorsarebeingreviewed,toreduce
thenumbertoaround40indicators.TheUNSummittoadoptthepost-2015developmentagenda
willtakeplaceon25-27September2015.AllthedetailsoftheUNSDG(2015)goalsandtargetsare
availableathttps://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgsproposal
MorerecentsustainablemountaindevelopmentindicatorscomefromtheSustainableDevelopment
SolutionsNetwork(SDSN)2015report(SDNS,2015).MountainissueswerementionedintheJuly
2014listofSustainableDevelopmentGoals,withnineindicatorsandthreesub-targets.Yet,atthis
stage,theproposedsetofindicatorsforTarget15areinadequateandmountainsarenotmentioned
atall,exceptintheformofforestsandforestmanagement.Therearenoindicatorsthatspecifically
addressthemanyaspectsofmountainsthatwerehintedatunderTarget15,namelyTarget15.4–
‘By2030ensuretheconservationofmountainecosystems,includingtheirbiodiversity,toenhance
theircapacitytoprovidebenefitswhichareessentialforsustainabledevelopment’.
2.6DevelopingasetofSDindicatorsforAfricanmountains.
TherehasbeenmuchdiscussionaroundIndicatorsofsustainabledevelopment(SD),literallysince
1992whentheAgenda21cameintobeing.Atthattime,indicatorswerestand-aloneentities,and
notmucheffortwasmadetolinkindicatorinformationtoidentifythecauseofchange.Inthe
moderncontext,weunderstandthatallsocio-economicandenvironmentalissuesareinterlinked,
andthatthisinter-linkagemakesthesituationverycomplexwheneithertryingtounderstandthe
system,ortryingtomanage/governthesystem.
Nevertheless,tounderstandandthenaddressadversechangesinecologicalorothersystems,we
needtobeabletomonitorthemandforthisweneedindicators,dataandtheinformationthat
analysiscanprovide.
ThefocusofthedebateonindicatordevelopmentforsustainabledevelopmentinAfricanmountains
shouldnotbeontheindicators,butonthemountainanditsgovernanceneedsandfindinga
governancemodelthatworksbestforthesesituations.
Thereisagrowingawareness,linkedtotheUNSDG,onthevalueofdataandlargedatasets,and
alsoemergingissuesaboutwhoownssuchdata,andwhattheycandowithit(invasionofprivacy,
butalso,UNsayingthatdevelopmentaidmightinfuturebeinfluencedbythedataanddataanalysis
i.e.wherearethereallypoorpeople,whereiswaterinshortsupply,wherearetheissuesthatneed
attention,andwhatinformationdowehave?
3.0Indicatorscanbeusedindifferentwaystotrackecosystems
Oneofthewaysofmeasuringsustainabledevelopmentistouseindicators.Indicatorscanbeuseful
toolstogaininsightregardingtheprogressmadeinachievingsustainabledevelopmentgoalsand
targets.ScienceandtechnologyindicatorswithintheSustainableDevelopmentGoals–andthe
SustainableMountainDevelopmentgoalsdevelopmentprocessshouldfocusonpracticalsolutions
forthepoorandfortheenvironment,notjustincreasesinacademicresearch.
• Assessments–snapshotsusingexistingindicatorandotherinformatione.g.theMillennium
EcosystemAssessment(2000–2005),andwhichgiveanoverallimpressionofanecosystem(or
otherlargescaleecologicalfeatures,riverbasins,forests).
• Smallerfocusedassessments-Lepidopteraoramphibianspecieswithinanecosystem,
taxonomy,changesovertime
• Routinemonitoring–e.g.nationalwaterquality(riverflows,quality,chemistry,trackingrainfall,
floodevents)toproducemapsandotherdecisionsupportmaterial
• Landdegradation–also,remotesensing,%conversion,%degradation,decisionsupportmaterial
• Ecosystemhealthindicators–afewselectindicators(mercuryinfish,pollinatordecline)which
servetoalertdecisionmakersandotherstakeholdersofasituationofconcern.AnAfrican
exampleistheSouthAfricanRiverHealthprogramme–asmallsetofverywell-researched
indicators(invertebrates,fishandriverinevegetation,aswellaswaterchemistry)togivean
indicatorofriverhealth.ThissystemisalsobeingdevelopedforTanzanianrivers.
• Specialinvestigations/research-Indicatorstoreportonchange(whatischanging,byhowmuch,
howdoweknowthis,spatialelements,whoisconcerned,whoisimpacted,whatiscausingthis?)
• Longtermecologicalmonitoring–tomeasureindicatorsfordecades
3.1Thevalueofindicatorsystems
Anindicatorquantifiesandsimplifiesphenomenaandhelpsusunderstandcomplexrealitiesand
changesincomplexsystems(FAO,n.d.).Therearealreadymanyhundredsofindicatorsystemsin
operation,describingtheeconomic,environmental,socialand/orinstitutionalconditionsofa
systemovertime,ortocompareacountry,aneconomy,regionorcommunity.Anexampleofan
indicatoristhewell-knownindicatorofanationaleconomy,theGrossDomesticProduct(GDP).
Indicatorsystemscanbedesignedindifferentforms,eithertomonitorasingleentity(population
density,schoolattendance),orasacompositeindicator(score)withahierarchyofindicatorsand
withlesserindicatorscoreswhichadduptoasinglehighlevelindicator(examplesofthesetypesof
indicatoraretheFragileStateIndex,GINIandHumanDevelopmentIndexHDI).Indicatorscanalso
bedesignedwithdifferentscalesinmind(global,nationalorlocal)orforveryspecificlocalitieslike
ecosystems,forests,protectedareasorcities,orforspecificpurposes,forexample,usingselected
bio-indicatorstomonitorthehealthofaquaticecosystems.
Indicatorssummariselargeamountsofdatatoanunderstandableform,inordertohighlightthe
maincharacteristicsofasystem.Inanindicatorsystem,informationisreducedtoitsbasicelements,
althoughinsomecases,thisaggregationcancausealossofinformation,butiftheindicatoris
plannedproperly,thelostinformationwillnotmaketheindicatormeaningless.Also,itmustbe
possibleforusersoftheindicatorinformationtoaccesstheunderlyingdataandseekmoredetailsif
needed.
Indicatorscanactaskey‘levers’intendedtohelpactors–whomaybecitizens,communities,
researchers,governments,businessandcivilsocietyorganizations–buildanunderstandingof
problemsorchangeandtheirunderlyingcauses,anddevelopsolutions(IISD,2015).Indicator
scienceisbecomingaverylargefieldofendeavour,notwithstandingthecomplexstatisticaldata
analysisthatisrequiredtomakesenseofmanyindicatorsofchange.
3.2Indicatorsforsustainabledevelopment
Ideally,sustainabledevelopmentinitiativesneedtobelinkedtogoals,targetsandfinally,to
indicators.Responsibleagenciesorcommunitiesneedtobeclearlyidentifiedandhaveaformal
mandateofaccountability.Indicatorinformationshouldenablecorrelationstobemadewithother
data,andthisisnotalwaysthecase,andmanyindicatorstendtoremainas‘stand-alone’indicators
whereeachtypeofindicatorisseparatefromanother(e.g.waterquality,demographics,reddata
species)andwhiletheyareinformativeontheirown,theymustbeusedinconjunctionwithother
indicatorinformationtoextractmaximumbenefits.
Manyofthepotentialmountaindevelopmentindicatordataarealreadycollectedbygovernments
(censusdata,populationhealthdata,agriculturaldataandforestrydata),whilemore
livelihood/developmentdataaboutnaturalresourceuseusuallyhastobecollectedbyresearchers
orNGOsandthisdatacollectionisoftendifficulttoundertake(funding,detailedworkwith
communities).Biodiversityandecosystemresearch,usingindicators,isalsosimilarlydifficulttofund
andperform,andmuchofthistypeofdatashouldbeincludedinLongTermEcologicalMonitoring
programmes.
Thescientificandtechnicalcomplexityofdatacollectionalsoneedstobeacknowledgedand
overcome(e.g.someofthetechnicalaspectsofbiodiversityspeciesidentification,aswellasthe
technicalaspectsofcatchmentmanagement).
3.3Selectionofindicators
Indicatorsmustbeabletodetectchange(trends)andprovideselectinformationtothepolicy
processatappropriatescales(local,nationalandglobal)(BeckerandBugmann,2001).The
developmentofindicatorsingeneralneedstobeinformedbystrongevidence-basedresearchand
science,andaccurateinformationfromabroadrangeofrelevantsourcesisneeded.Forexample,
sustainabilityindicatorsatanationallevelrelyondatathat:
• Isavailable,accessibleandinexpensive
• Reflectstheprioritiesandneedsofthecountryincludingthatofthevariousstakeholders
• Reliableandcredibletoreflectthetruestateofallsectors
Thefollowingcriteriaforselectingindicatorsshouldalsoapply(FAO,n.d.):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Directrelevancetoprojectordevelopmentobjectives
Limitedinnumber
Clarityofdesign
Realisticcollectionordevelopmentcosts
Clearcauseandeffectlinks
Highqualityandreliability
Appropriatespatialandtemporalscales
Targetsandbaselines
Littleornointerrelation
PriceandKim(1999,citingAgenda21,1992)alsosuggestsevencriteriaasgoodcharacteristicsof
indicators:
1.
Theindicatorandassociatedinformationthattheindicatoriscalculatedfromshouldbe
readilyaccessible(preferablyalreadyavailable)
2. Theindicatorshouldberelativelyeasytounderstand
3. Theindicatormustbeaboutsomethingwhichcanbemeasured
4. Anindicatorshouldmeasuresomethingbelievedtobeimportantorsignificantinitsownright
5. Thereshouldonlybeashorttimelagbetweenthestateofaffairsreferredtoandtheindicator
becomingavailablei.e.toachieve‘realtime’reporting
6. Theindicatorshouldbebasedoninformationwhichcanbeusedtocomparedifferent
areasorsystems
7.
Internationalcomparabilityisoftendesirable
TheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsWorkingGroup(2014)addedthatSDGindicatorsshouldbe:
Clearandstraightforward
Consensus-basedinlinewithinternationalstandards
Consistentwithsystems-basedinformation
Constructedfromwell-establisheddatasources;disaggregated;outcomefocused,ifpossible
Managedbyadesignatedorganization.
•
•
•
•
•
Sustainabledevelopmentindicationsandmonitoring
caneitherbebasedonreadilyavailableindicators
(e.g.censusdataforpopulations)oronsciencebasedindicators(catchmentindicators,
biomonitoring,ecosystemhealth,invasivespecies
advances)dependingonresourcesandexpertise
available.Theycanalsobecollectedbynational
governmentsaccordingtonormsandstandards,or
collectedinanindependentway,usingindicator
systemsdevisedbyscientistsforspecificresearch
questions.
Itisalsoimportanttoidentifyandfillindicatorgaps,movingtoannualreporting,determining
financialneedsandresources,andintegratinggeo-referenceddataandunofficialmetricsintothe
indicatorormonitoringframework(IISD,2015).Datausedincompositeindicesshouldbe
consideredastheymayeitherignoreorconcealsub-nationaldifferences.
Manyindicatorsgooutofdateveryquicklyandforthisreasonarecollectedandcomputedannually
(e.g.theFragileStateIndex,theGINIcoefficient,theHumanDevelopmentIndex,population
statistics,povertystatistics).IndicesliketheHDIarealsonotcomparableforeachcountrybetween
assessmentsassometimesthesub-indiceschange,butaremorevaluableforcomparingnationsin
anyparticularassessmentyear.
Indicatorsmustbeabletodetectthreatsovertime,forexample,throughenvironmentaldata
gatheringbasedonselectedindicators,anyadversechangestoecosystemsandecosystemservices
mustbedetectable.Thresholdsofconcernmustbeidentifiedpriortomonitoring,andsuitable
responsesdebatedandapprovedinadvance.Forthresholdstobeidentified,thenormalstateof
naturalsystemsmustbeestablished,forexample,thebaselinechemicalvaluesforaquaticsystems,
the‘normal’biotaofaquaticsystems,theseasonalflowsofwaterwithinanaquaticsystem.For
these,infieldverificationmusttakeplace.Thisalsomeansthatspecificreferencesitesmustbe
establishedforlongtermmonitoringwithinmountainsystems.
Insomeways,thesettingofgoalsandindicatorscanalsobesymbolic,inspiringusofthe’futurewe
want’,orcanbeseenasrealmilestonestowardswhichwewillstriveandmarkourprogress.
4.0Awayforward
TheUnitedNationsaimstoguidetheglobalprocesstowardssustainabledevelopment.Tothisend,
ithasidentifiedfivelevelsthroughwhichsustainabledevelopmentcanbepromotedinmountains.
Otherorganisationsandnationsmayhavedifferentideasonhowtoprocesswithsustainable
mountaindevelopment.
Atthepolicylevel,theUnitedNationsstatesthatitisnecessarytostrengthenexistingpoliciesand
establishnewandinnovativenational,regionalandinternationalinstitutionsandmechanismsbased
specificallyonmountain-relatedissues.Governmentsshouldincreaseattentiontodisasterrisk
managementinmountainareasthroughthedevelopmentofmeasures,approachesandpoliciesfor
prevention,mitigationandrehabilitationofnaturaldisasters.Transportandcommunication
infrastructureneedtobeimprovedinmountainareasaswell.Mountainpeople’sactive
engagementindecision-makingprocesseswithaspecificfocusonwomen’sroleisofparamount
importance,sinceitensuresthatindigenouscultures,traditionsandknowledgearefullyrecognized
andincludedindevelopmentpolicyandplanninginmountainregionsandthataccessandagreed-to
rightstolandandnaturalresourcesarerespected(UNsustainablemountaindevelopmentwebsite,
n.d.).
Attheeconomiclevel,levelsofinvestmentandfundingforsustainabledevelopmentinmountain
regionsattheglobal,regional,nationalandcommunitylevelsshouldbeincreasedthroughbetter
integrationoftheprivatesector.AccordingtotheUN,paymentsforenvironmentalservices(PES)
willpotentiallybettertheeconomicsituationofmountaincommunities,representinganinnovative
wayoffinancingsustainabledevelopmentprojects.Allthismustbebackedupbyasupportiveand
enablingenvironmentforthepromotionofhigh-qualityproductsandservicesfrommountainareas
asameansofimprovinglivelihoodsandprotectingmountainenvironments,andfacilitatemountain
areas’accesstonationalandinternationalmarkets(UNsustainablemountaindevelopment
website,n.d.).
Managingnaturalresourcescorrectlyisessentialtopromotetheconservationandthesustainable
useofincreasinglyscarceresourcesfrommountainareas,suchaswater,biodiversity,forests,
grasslandsandsoils.AccordingtotheUN,inviewofclimatechangeandtheincreasingoccurrence
andthreatofnaturalhazards,itisvitaltoincreaseawareness,prudenceandefficiencyintheuse
andmanagementofnaturalresourcesinmountainareas,andimplementspecificmeasuresfor
adaptationandmitigation(UNsustainablemountaindevelopmentwebsite,n.d.).
Attheinternationallevel,promotinginitiativesfortransboundarycooperation,withparticular
attentiontoupstream-downstreamlinkagesandsupportdevelopingcountriesandcountrieswith
economiesintransitionintheireffortstowardssustainablemountaindevelopment,through
bilateral,multilateralandSouth–Southcooperationwillbringtangibleresults.Moreover,according
totheUN,supportingthecollaborativeeffortsoftheMountainPartnership,encouragingtheactive
involvementofitsmembersandincreaseeffortstoincludeandmainstreammountainissuesin
internationaldiscussionsandnegotiations,particularlyregardingthethreemainrelevantUnited
NationsConventions(UNCBDwithitsProgrammeofWorkonMountainBiologicalDiversity,UNCCD
andUNFCCC),UN-WaterandtheWorldWaterForumwillresultinagreatgatheringofpro-active
intervention(UNsustainablemountaindevelopmentwebsite,n.d.).
Capacitybuildingwillundoubtedlypromotesustainablemountaindevelopmentatalllevels.
AccordingtotheUN,thisiswhyitisfundamentaltosupportresearcheffortstoimprove
understandingofthedriversofchangeaffectingmountainregions,andpromotethecollectionof
disaggregateddatafrommountainareasasthebasisforinformeddecision-andpolicy-making.In
thecontextofclimatechange,amajorrequisiteistoincreaseeffortstomonitorglaciersandrunoff
patternsinmountainareas,toassessfuturewateravailability(UNsustainablemountain
developmentwebsite,n.d.).
5.0References
BeckerAandBugmannH(eds)(2001).GlobalChangeandMountainRegions.TheMountain
Research Initiative. International Geosphere-Biosphere project (IGBP) Report Series.
Sourcedonlineathttp://www.fao.org/gtos/gtospub/pub28.htm)
FAO(n.d.).Pressure-State-ResponseFrameworkandEnvironmentalIndicators.Sourced
onlineathttp://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/lead/toolbox/refer/envindi.htm
Price,MFandEGKim.1999.PrioritiesforsustainablemountaindevelopmentinEurope.
InternationalJournalofSustainableDevelopmentandWorldEcology6(3):203–219.
SchwabeC.A.(2002).Information:TheFoundationofSustainableDevelopment.Human
SciencesResearchCouncil(HSRC),SouthAfrica.ISSN1684-5250.www.hsrcpress.ac.za
UNsustainablemountaindevelopmentwebsite(n.d.).Sustainablemountaindevelopment.
http://www.un.org/en/events/mountainday/background.shtml
Photocredits
SJTaylor.ViewoftheMalotimountainsfromClarens,FreeStateProvince,SouthAfrica.
STTaylor.ViewoftheMalotimountainsfromFicksburg,FreeStateProvince,SouthAfrica.
SJTaylor.Scottishthistle,aninvasivealienplant,occurringingrasslandhabitat,Malotimountains.