EU PROGRAMME EXCHANGE OF EXPERTS
IN CIVIL PROTECTION
Antonio Ricciardi and Domenico Mangione (Italy)
_______________________________
Reykjavík (Iceland), 20-26 September 2015
Ríkislögreglustjórinn/The National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police
Almannavarnadeild/Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management
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Summary
1 Motivation of the exchange ___________________________________________________________ 3
2 Team composition __________________________________________________________________ 4
3 Host country, host institution, duration, logistic, agenda __________________________________ 5
4 General overview of Iceland __________________________________________________________ 7
5 Icelandic Emergency Management Organization __________________________________________ 8
5.1 Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management ___________________________ 9
5.2 Contingency planning and crisis management _______________________________________ 10
5.3 Crisis communication ___________________________________________________________ 11
6 Icelandic Monitoring and Research Centers _____________________________________________ 13
6.1 Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) ______________________________________________ 13
6.2 Institute of Earth Science of the University of Iceland ________________________________ 15
7 Field Trips ________________________________________________________________________ 17
7.1 Geological Settings _____________________________________________________________ 17
7.2 Krýsuvík geothermal area and Grænavatn on the Reykjanes peninsula __________________ 20
7.3 The South zone: Hekla, Eyjafjallajökull and Katla ___________________________________ 23
7.4 The Central-South zone: Eldgja and Laki ___________________________________________ 29
7.5 The South-East zone: Myrdalssandur _______________________________________________ 32
7.6 Additional field trips on personal own _____________________________________________ 34
8 Results and specific benefits for the organizations ______________________________________ 36
9 Acknowledgements _________________________________________________________________ 37
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1 Motivation of the exchange
Being Iceland the only EU Member State with active volcanism affecting local population and also
neighboring Countries during strong ash emissions, the present Exchange of Experts mission has been
focused on sharing experiences on volcanic risk management and assessment, preparedness,
response and mitigation and also comparing methodologies and best practices.
Italy is also one of the countries in the Mediterranean with the highest volcanic risk, due to a wide
ranging geological process, involving the entire Mediterranean area and linked with the Euro Asiatic
and African tectonic plates converging together. This process, begun 10 million years ago, at the
same time as the mountain ranges of the Apennine chain were being built up, is due to the African
plate sliding underneath the Euro Asiatic one with subsequent formation of areas characterized by
volcanism. Both countries have the highest concentration of active volcanoes in Europe.
Even though less frequent and devastating than earthquakes, volcanic eruptions are still a great
hazard for the densely populated zones in the Italian territory.
In bullet points, we resume the main targets of this Exchange that were proposed:
Comparison of the Civil Protection Systems;
Share and improve the knowledge about the volcanic risk assessment on active
volcanoes;
Improve dissemination procedures and strategies during crisis situations;
Share experience on coordination activities and emergency management during volcanic
eruptions.
GIS and web-based tools for volcanic risk assessment.
These targets matched our needs to:
• better define volcanic alert levels in Italy;
• build new type of communication protocols between scientific community, decision makers,
media and population during peace time and volcanic eruptions;
• develop web tools and improve GIS use for volcanic risk mapping.
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2 Team composition
The team was composed of two experts from Italy: Domenico Mangione and Antonio Ricciardi, both
geologists and public officials at the National Civil Protection Department of Italy since 2007,
working in the Seismic and Volcanic risk Unit - Volcanic Risk Service.
The aim of the activities of the Civil Protection in Italy, as defined by the law n. 225/92, is to
preserve and protect the human life, the settlements, and the environment from the hazards and
potential damages due to the natural calamities or man-made disasters. The civil protection system
is composed by a framework of authorities, operational structures (i.e. fire-fighters, police, army),
scientific community and volunteers operating at different territorial levels in a coordinated way.
Our daily job concerns activities on volcanic risk assessment and also within the Centro Funzionale
Centrale for volcanic risk, which represents the scientific decision-support section of the Italian
Civil Protection Department. The main purpose of this structure is to collect, share and synthesize
data related to volcanic hazard provided by the scientific community to support civil protection
actions and procedures.
Furthermore, over the past 2 years we have been working on the definition of the red and yellow
area of Vesuvius and Campi Flegrei, definition of the alert levels for the active volcanoes of
Stromboli and Etna. We also worked on tsunami risk assessment related to the Aeolian archipelago,
as well as on outreach campaigns devoted to volcanic risk mitigation.
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3 Host country, host institution, duration, logistic, agenda
Host country: Iceland
Host organization: Department for Civil Protection and Emergency Management, under The
National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police.
Skógarhlíð 14, 105 Reykjavík - Iceland
http://www.almannavarnir.is/
Point of Contact: Mr. Ágúst Gunnar Gylfason, Geographer and Project Manager
([email protected])
Duration of the exchange: 20 to 27 September 2015.
Logistic organization: THW.
The agenda of the exchange has been set by the Host Organization as follows:
Sept 20
Sept 21
Day 1
Sept 22
Day 2
Sept 23
Day 3
Sept 24
Day 4
Sept 25
Day 5
Sept 26
Day 6
Travel Day (no activities planned)
Visit to National Crisis Coordination
Centre and the Department of Civil
Protection of the National Commissioner
of the Icelandic Police
Rome FCO - London Heathrow 08:15 - 10:00
London Heathrow – Reykjavik 13:00 - 15:00
Civil Protection organization in Iceland;
Contingency planning; Crisis management;
Crisis communication; Alert levels;
Communication protocols between C.P and
scientists;
Presentation of Italian emergency
management and hazard assessments
Visit to Icelandic Meteorological Office;
State Volcano Observatory
Hazard assessments; Monitoring
Visit to Institute of Earth Sciences,
University of Iceland
Volcanology research and monitoring
Visit to District Commissioner of Police
in South Iceland and local rescue and
relief organization;
Local area command and emergency
management, contingency planning at local
level.
Field excursion in the afternoon to area
around Eyjafjallajökull
(Overnight in Kirkjubæjarklaustur, South
Iceland)
Visit with municipal authorities in
Kirkjubæjarklaustur and field excursion
in area affected by Laki eruption and
Grímsvötn eruption of 2011.
Field excursion
Return to Reykjavík through South
Iceland with stops to study evidence of
volcanic activity.
Field excursion
(Overnight in Kirkjubæjarklaustur, South
Iceland)
(Overnight in Reykjavik)
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Sept 27
Day 7
Oct 01
Official Travel Day
Travel Day
(Experts have chosen to remain in Iceland
on personal leave until 01 October.)
Reykjavik – Amsterdam 07:50 - 12:50
Amsterdam - Rome Fiumicino 14:25 - 16:35
The proposal was drafted on 22 January 2015 and submitted to THW through the International
Relations Unit of the National Civil Protection Department of Italy.
On 12 March 2015 the THW informed the experts that the Icelandic Department for Civil Protection
and Emergency Management/National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police agreed to host the
specific exchange “Exchange of Experts_317_IT-IS Seismic Risk mapping”, which could be arranged
in the timeframe September – October 2015.
During May 2015 the Host Organization shared a draft of Agenda suggesting the days from 21 to 26
September 2015, as the period for the exchange.
The agenda of exchange program was then finalized in collaboration with the Host Organization and
in particular with Mr. Agust Gunnar Gylfason, Project Manager of the Department of Civil Protection
and Emergency Management, The National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police, designed as point
of contact during the exchange program. Finally, on 22 May 2015, THW has informed the experts
that the European Commission has granted final approval for the exchange to the The National
Commissioner of the Icelandic Police Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management.
The flight schedule was agreed with THW, according to the experts request to remain in Iceland on
personal leave until 01 October. The hotels selected by THW were Hotel Frón (Laugavegur 22, 101
Reykjavík) and Icelandair Hotel Klaustur (Klausturvegi 6, 880 Kirkjubaejarklaustur). All of them were
comfortable and in a suitable location with respect to meeting places and field excursions.
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4 General overview of Iceland
Iceland is an island located between the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean, just East of
Greenland. The country lies between latitudes 63° and 68° N, and longitudes 25° and 13° W.
It has a population of 329.100 and an area of 103.000 km2, making it the most sparsely populated
country in Europe. The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík, along with its outlying towns
of Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður and Garðabær, nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is
located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland. Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the
southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population.
Geologically, Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads
and forms new oceanic crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume. The
ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates, and the island was
created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge. For this reason, Iceland is one of
the most volcanically and geologically active place in the world. The interior consists of a plateau
characterized by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the
sea through the lowlands. Many fjords punctuate Iceland's 4.970 km long coastline, which is also
where most settlements are situated.
Iceland is organized into regions, municipalities. These Regions are:
• Reykjavík North and Reykjavík South;
• Southwest;
• Northwest and Northeast;
• South.
There are 74 municipalities in Iceland which govern local matters like schools, transport and zoning.
Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur,
the second one.
Iceland is a prone country to natural hazards such as weather, climatological and hydrological
hazards (avalanches, coastal flooding, severe weather, floods, droughts, sea ice) and geohazards
(volcanic eruptions, landslides, earthquakes, glacial river surges), with a different the spatial
distribution on the territory.
Together with the earthquakes, volcanic eruptions are the most frequent.
The most hazardous volcanic events to be expected in Iceland are: (1) major flood basalt eruptions
similar to the Laki eruption in 1783, (2) VEI 6 plinian eruptions in large central volcanoes close to
inhabited areas, similar to the Öræfajökull eruption in 1362, which obliterated a district with
approximately 30 farms, and (3) large eruptions at Katla causing catastrophic jökulhlaups towards
the west which inundate several hundred square kilometers of inhabited agricultural land in
southern Iceland. With the exception of the 1362 Öræfajökull eruption, fatalities during eruptions
have been surprisingly few. Economic impact of volcanic events can be considerable and several
inhabited areas in Iceland are vulnerable to lava flows. A large part of the town of Vestmannaeyjar
islands was buried by lava and tephra in a moderate-sized eruption in 1973.
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5 Icelandic Emergency Management Organization
The Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management of the National Commissioner of
the Icelandic Police (NCIP) is the national administrative body for civil protection matters. It falls
under the Ministry of Interior according to Act N. 82/2008, with the area of expertise within the
areas of crisis coordination, crisis management, rescue and relief operations.
The mission of the Icelandic Civil Protection System is to:
organize and implement measures to protect the well-being and safety of the public and
prevent them from harm, the protection of property and the environment from disasters,
caused by natural or manmade hazards, pandemics, military action or other types of
disasters. This includes prevention, preparedness and reductions of hazards and recovery.
render relief and assistance due to any losses that have occurred, assisting people during
emergencies, unless the responsibility for his assistance rests with other authorities or
organizations.
The NCIP runs a Civil Protection Section which is responsible for daily administration of Civil
Protection matters, maintains a national co-ordination/command center which can be activated at
any time and to be in charge of the center in emergency situations. The NCIP is also responsible for
emergency contingency planning, risk communication to the public and coordinating risk and hazard
analysis and mitigation. Moreover is responsible for monitoring and supporting research and studies
related to risk factors and natural catastrophes, and co-ordination and support measures aimed at
reducing risks of bodily harm.
The activation of the Civil Protection System in general occurs:
in the event of a natural disaster or war/conflict in the jurisdiction
when Civil Protection requests assistance between jurisdictions
upon a request from the Government of Iceland
or in case of “Other incidents” such as:
mass casualty incidents
major fires
explosions
infrastructure failures.
The day-to-day functions of the Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management of the
NCIP include risk analysis, mitigation and co-ordination (i.e. planning, training and equipment) and
recovery. The role of the NCIP during emergency operations is to procure and deliver all outside
assistance (national or international) for a stricken area, which is deemed necessary by the local
Chief of Police. Government policy on civil protection and security is drawn up by the Civil
Protection and Security Council for periods of three years at a time. The following ministers have
seats on the Council: The Prime Minister, who is also the chairman of the council, the Minister of
Interior, the Minister for the Environment, the Minister of Welfare, the Minister for Foreign Affairs
and the Minister of Industry.
At the Civil Protection and Security Council also participate:
The Permanent Secretary at the Office of the Prime Minister
The Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Interior
The National Commissioner of Police
The Director of the Icelandic Coast Guard
The Director of the Icelandic Civil Aviation Administration
The Director of the Post and Telecommunications Administration
The Director of the National Roads Administration
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The Permanent Secretary at the Ministry for the Environment
The Director of the Icelandic Meteorological Office
The Director of the Iceland Fire Authority
The Director of the Environmental Agency
The Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Welfare
The Director-General of Public Health
The Epidemiological Officer
The Director of the National Radiological Protection Authority
The Permanent Secretary of State at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs
The Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Industry
The Director of the National Energy Authority
The Director of Landsnet, the Icelandic Power Transmission Company
A representative of ICE-SAR (Slysavarnafélagið Landsbjörg)
A representative of the Icelandic Red Cross
A representative of the coordinated emergency telephone answering system.
5.1 Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management
Almannavarnadeild/Dept. for Civil Protection and Emergency Management
Ríkislögreglustjórinn/The National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police
Skógarhlíð 14, 105 Reykjavik
www.almannavarnir.is
The Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management is located in the National Rescue
Centre’s HQs, visited during the first day of the exchange (21 september). The National Crisis
Coordination Centre in Reykjavík has a duty officer on call 24/7 who is responsible for activating the
civil protection response system, and approx. 100 trained operational staff in addition to 8 staff
members of the Department. Accordingly, the operational staff is composed by the Icelandic Coast
Guard (ICG), the Capital District Fire and Rescue Service, the Icelandic Association for Search and
Rescue (ICESAR), Emergency-Alert 112, the Police National Communication Centre, the Icelandic
Red Cross, the National University Hospital and ISAVIA which manages air traffic in the Icelandic
control area. There is an advantage in having all these emergency response organizations together
in the same location, as it makes co-operation much easier.
Our contact person Mr. Gylfason gave us a presentation about the structure of the Emergency
Management Organization, the Civil Protection in Iceland, the existing natural hazards, the
information dissemination/crisis information system and the temporary service centers. More
specifically the issues presented were:
Activation of the Civil Protection System;
Operational Phases-Emergency Plan;
Response Plans;
Natural hazards in Iceland;
Information dissemination and Crisis Information Management. Case study of the
Eyjafjallajokull eruption 2010.
During our stay in the Civil Protection and Emergency Management HQs we visited the National
Crisis Coordination Centre (Fig. 1), where Mr. Ágúst Gunnar Gylfason presented us the emergency
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procedure and moreover gave us information on response during the Eyjafjallajokull, Grimsvotn and
Holuhraun eruptions.
Fig.1 – The National Crisis Coordination Centre
In 2013 the National Crisis Coordination Centre has been rearranged following an Incident Command
System with 2 Commanders (one dedicated to the relations with the Media and one to coordinate de
Center). The ECC include a Planning room for the meeting, an Air traffic control station and a
Broadcasting Studio in which during the crisis state radio and journalists can obtain all the updated
information. All the others media that are outside from the Center receive the information through
one press release after each scientific meeting. For this reason, they don’t need long interviews and
they can call only for some clarifications on the reports.
Twice a year the NCIP-DCPEM performs table top exercises in order to improve response capabilities
in case of real events.
5.2 Contingency planning and crisis management
The Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management of the National Commissioner of
the Icelandic Police is responsible for emergency contingency planning regarding both natural and
other hazards, risk communication to the public and coordinating risk and hazard analysis and
mitigation.
In 2005, together with the South District Civil Protection and the Scientific Community, NCIP-DCPEM
made the hazard assessment for flooding triggered by Katla and Eyjafjallajokull volcanic eruptions.
The final hazard map contained information about flood passages due to volcanic eruptions, the
simulated flooded area and also the gates that would stop people access in the area (Fig. 2).
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Fig.2 – Map with flooded area and operative information
The assessment and planning stage was followed in 2006 by a public awareness campaign and drills
which involved the participation of all inhabitants in the potentially threatened areas. During the
eruption, the response plan proved successful with respect to evacuations and other planned
mitigation measures.
The evacuation area for Katla and Eyjafjallajokull counts approximately 1.000 residents widely
spread all over the area. In case of order of evacuation people must evacuate very rapidly (15-30
minutes response time) due to the high risk of isolation due to floods and flood damages. The on
scene evacuation team consists of Police, Rescue teams (ICE-SAR) and the “Followers” that are
mostly farmers residing in the area of evacuation. Their task is to check evacuation status on near
farms and holiday houses and report to the “Gatekeepers”, that are positioned in predefined
checkpoints. The “Gatekeepers” then report to the “On Scene Command”. Local authorities,
together with ICE-SAR and Police are all working in the On Scene Command, which may be located
in the villages or other places. The “Emergency Aid Center” coordinates search and rescue activities
and checks if everyone in the affected area has been evacuated, also with helicopter flights
depending on the ash plume direction.
During the emergency a representative of the NCIP together with one of the Red Cross work into the
“Temporary Service Center” with the aim to manage services and information requests by the
affected population.
5.3 Crisis communication
The NCIP-DCPEM maintains a Scientific Council which on average meets twice a year. Meetings
increase in frequency during potentially imminent or ongoing emergencies. The Scientific Council is
largely made up of experts from IES and IMO but it also includes experts from other university and
government institutions, including two designated members of the NCIP-DCPEM. The role of the
Scientific Council is to discuss trends and developments regarding natural hazards (i.e. following the
development of an ongoing volcanic unrest or volcanic eruption), and to issue warnings to the
National Civil Protection. The NCIP-DCPEM then issues its own report which is disseminated to all
European stakeholders and furthermore worldwide by the press (Reuters, Associated Press). Very
relevant is to make available the information as soon as possible disseminated through the radio
broadcast and social networks (since 2012, Facebook and Twitter). This communication strategy
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allow them to reduce the number of clarifications and long interviews during the emergency phase.
Moreover, through the “Temporary Service Center”, and supported by scientific representatives,
they provide two or three meetings for week to supply people affected with the general information
directly on the field.
During the pre-eruptive and sin-eruptive phases in Bardabunga caldera-Holuhraun lava field (2014),
for example, the NCIP-DCPEM issued a factsheet on daily basis containing the summary of the
scientific observations, civil protection actions and suggestions to the population and, finally, shortterm scenarios.
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6 Icelandic Monitoring and Research Centers
6.1 Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO)
Icelandic Met Office
Bústaðavegi 7- 9, 108 Reykjavík
http://en.vedur.is/
The visit at the IMO took place on the 21st September and was split into two parts. The first part
was a meeting with Dr. Sigrún Karlsdóttir (Director of Natural Hazards of the IMO), Dr. Sara Barsotti
(Coordinator for the Volcanic Hazards) and the seismologist Dr. Martin Hensch.
Sigrún Karlsdóttir made a short introduction of the IMO, its’ organization and mandate. The
Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) is a public institution within the Ministry for the Environment
and Natural Resources with responsibility of monitoring natural hazards related to the following
subjects: meteorology, hydrology and glaciology, volcanology and seismology.
When we talk about natural hazards these subjects are linked to each other. For example heavy
precipitation (meteorological phenomenon) is a precursor of a landslide, that is an hydrological
phenomenon. Volcanic eruption are linked to each of these subjects:
• Weather conditions (wind field) can affect ash dispersal during volcanic eruptions;
• Volcanic eruptions can produce glacial outbursts and landslides;
• Seismic tremor may be an indicator of an imminent volcanic eruption or a glacial outburst.
IMO is also the National Volcanic Observatory identified by the ICAO, and is responsible for the
dissemination of the Volcanic Ash Advisories that are to be issued in case of ash emission during a
volcanic eruption. According to the state of the volcanic activity a different color code is assigned
(green, yellow, orange, red).
IMO works in close collaboration with the Civil Protection Department – National Commissioner of
the Icelandic Police (NCIP), Universities of Iceland, Icelandic Inst. Of Natural History, ISAVIA – Air
Navigation Service Provider, Civil Aviation Authority, Energy Sector, Icelandic Coast Guard, Icelandic
Road & Coastal Administration and Icelandic Transport Authority, at national level.
Sara Barsotti, Coordinator for the volcanic hazards, presented the Icelandic volcanic systems, the
related hazards and the monitoring and forecasting of volcanic eruptions, the IMO emergency
response in case of a volcanic crisis and some aspects of the on-going risk assessment projects that
are being carried out for volcanoes in Iceland.
The multi-parametric geophysical and geochemical monitoring network for forecasting purposes is
made of:
• about 69 seismic stations;
• 145 hydrological gauging stations;
• 2 seismic arrays;
• about 70 GPS;
• 5 strain-meter stations;
• 3 infrasound arrays;
• 3 multi-gas devices;
• 1+(6) continuous DOAS (SO2);
• water chemistry sensors (dissolved CO2);
• conductivity sensors (glacier outlet rivers);
• osmotic water samplers;
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• FTIR.
Ash cloud detection and investigation during an eruption is possible through:
• 2 C-band weather radars. The first was installed in 1991 close to Keflavík airport and has
detected 7 eruptions; the second is operational in Eastern Iceland since April 2012;
• 2 X-band mobile radars;
• 2 lidars (one mobile)
• 7 ceilometers network
• mobile radio-soundings
• lightning-detection devices
• satellite thermal detection products (Modis, Landsat, MIROVA).
Additionally, IMO runs several numerical simulations for gas and ash dispersal forecasting in
atmosphere: NAME, CALPUFF and VOL-CALPUFF. These models have been very useful during the
latest eruption in Holuhraun, near the Bardabunga caldera to forecast SO2 hazard for people living
in the cities and villages, according to wind direction. Also this information was included in the
daily factsheet of the NCIP-DCPEM.
Martin Hensch, Specialist in seismology, explained the seismic activity, both related to tectonic
activity and volcanism, in Iceland and how the seismic network is run by the IMO.
The second part of the visit took place at the monitoring room (Fig. 3). The monitoring room is 24/7
- 365 operational and is composed of work stations concerning:
• Seismicity and volcanic activity;
• Weather monitoring and forecast;
• Hydrological monitoring;
• Monitoring and prediction of snow avalanche and landslide conditions.
Fig.3 – The IMO monitoring room
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6.2 Institute of Earth Science of the University of Iceland
Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland
Sturlugata 7 Askja 101 - Reykjavík
http://earthice.hi.is
The Institute of Earth Sciences (IES) was established in 2004 when the Nordic Volcanological
Institute and the geology and geophysics sections of the Science Institute, University of Iceland
merged (Fig. 4).
The IES is an independent part of the University’s Science Institute and represents the main site of
academic research in earth sciences in Iceland. Research within the IES is organized into three
broadly defined themes: Understanding volcanoes, Environment and climate, and Crustal processes.
IES has expertise in several areas of earth sciences but the following fields are particularly relevant
for research and monitoring of volcanoes and eruptions:
Physical volcanology;
Petrology;
Geochemistry;
Crustal deformation and geodesy;
Geophysics and seismology;
Glaciology and glacier monitoring.
The research topic is approached by combining multidisciplinary observations with theoretical
modelling, often in close cooperation with IMO. The IES work on their own research projects and/or
participate in ongoing research projects in volcanology and related fields.
Fig.4 – Institute of Earth Science - University of Iceland
During our visit to the IES in the second day of the exchange, we met Dr. Michelle Parks, that has
provided us an overview of the Icelandic volcanic systems and their main characteristics. In
particular, the Eyjafjallajokull 2010 eruption main aspects have been described, as well as the
activities related to the Bardabunga eruption in 2014. Moreover, an interesting focus on the project
FUTUREVOLC was performed: it is a 26-partner project funded by FP7 Environment Programme of
the European Commission, addressing topic “Long-term monitoring experiment in geologically active
regions of Europe prone to natural hazards”, led by University of Iceland together with the Icelandic
Meteorological Office.
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To complete the general vision of the activity performed by IES, Dr. Freysteinn Sigmundsson
accompanied us through the Institute showing the relevant activities related to research and
monitoring. During the last part of the visit, Dr. Ármann Höskuldsson gave us several details related
to the activities performed on the field.
In this really dynamic place, we were invited to show a brief presentation of the Italian Civil
Protection activities during a short seminar to some faculty and students.
Fig.5 – Presentation of the Italian Civil Protection System
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7 Field Trips
According to the agenda the Host Organization has been arranged three main field trips:
a) Reykjanes peninsula: Krýsuvík geothermal area, Seltún and Grænavatn;
b) The South zone: District Commissioner of Police and local rescue and relief
organization and area around Eyjafjallajökull, Hekla and Katla;
c) The Central-South zone: area affected by the Eldgja, Laki and Grímsvötn eruptions;
d) The South-East zone: Myrdalssandur.
Those field trips had added a great and unique value to the exchange, not only for the
opportunity to see the areas affected by the eruptions but also to experience the scale of
the events/phenomena and the mitigation action carried on by the Civil Protection.
7.1 Geological Settings
Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean between Greenland and Norway. It is a landmass that
is part of a much larger entity situated at the junction of two large submarine physiographic
structures, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Greenland-Iceland-Faeroes Ridge. As such, Iceland is part
of the oceanic crust forming the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. This region is known as the Iceland
Basalt Plateau, which rises more than 3000 m above the surrounding seafloor and covers about
350.0000 km2. About 30% of this area is above sea level, the remainder forming the 50-200 km wide
shelf around the island, sloping gently to depths of about 400 m before cascading into the abyss
(Fig. 6).
Fig.6 – Geological framework of Iceland
Iceland is located where the asthenosperic flow under the northeast Atlantic plate boundary
interacts and mixes with a deep-seated mantle plume. The buoyancy of the Iceland plume leads to
dynamic uplift of the Iceland plateau, and high volcanic productivity over the plume produces a
thick crust. The Iceland plume track of the northeastern Atlantic through history is presented by the
Greenland-Faeroes Ridge. During the last 60 Ma Greenland, Eurasia and the northeast Atlantic plate
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boundary have migrated north-westwards at a rate of 1-3 cm/a relative to the surface expression of
the Iceland plume. Today the plume channel reaches the lithosphere under the Vatnajökull glacier,
about 240 km southeast of the North American-Eurasian plate boundary. These phenomena and the
presence of mantle plumes underneath the surface make Iceland one of the most volcanic islands of
the world.
The surface expression of the plate boundary in Iceland is the narrow belts of active faulting and
volcanism extending from Reykjanes in the southwest, which zigzag across Iceland before plumbing
back into depths of the Arctic Ocean in the north. This plate boundary is Iceland’s major geological
showpiece because it is the only section of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge exposed above sea level (Fig. 7).
Above the plate boundary, the spreading rips apart the brittle crust and results in the formation of
wide cracks and faults, both of which are orientated perpendicular to the spreading directions.
Above ground, these rifts appear as swarms of linear fractures and volcanic fissures confined to
narrow belts known as the volcanic zones. The volcanic zones are connected by large transform
faults known as fracture zones or, when volcanically active, as volcanic belts. Together, these
structures cover about one third of Iceland (30.000 km3).
Fig.7 – Main elements of the geology in Iceland
Out of 30 volcanic systems identified in Iceland, 16 have been active after 870 AD. Most eruptions
occur within central volcanoes, with Grímsvötn, Hekla and Katla having the highest eruption
frequencies. Together with their associated fissure systems they have also the highest volcanic
productivity in terms of erupted magma volume (Fig. 8). Volcanic eruptions are common, with small
eruptions (10 km3 DRE) occur at a 500–1000 year interval. Explosive eruptions are more common
than effusive, since eruptions frequently occur in interglacial settings giving rise to
phreatomagmatic explosive activity. The largest explosive eruptions (VEI 6) occur once or twice per
millennium, while VEI 3 eruptions have recurrence times of 10–20 years. Jökulhlaups caused by
volcanic or geothermal activity under glaciers are the most frequent volcanically related hazard,
while fallout of tephra and fluorine poisoning of crops, leading to decimation of livestock and
famine, killed several thousand people prior to 1800 A.D.
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Fig.8 – Distribution of active volcanic systems
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7.2 Krýsuvík geothermal area and Grænavatn on the Reykjanes
peninsula
The Reykjanes volcanic belt consists of four northeast-trending volcanic systems arranged in a stepwise fashion across the peninsula. The mountain range along the center of the peninsula roughly
delineates the axis of the belt. The mountain range consists of subglacial and submarine volcanic
structures, flanked and in parts overlain by subaerial lavas formed during Holocene and to a lesser
extent in historical times.
The excursion started during the afternoon of day 3 of the exchange (23 September) from
Reykjavik, following the route to the international airport at Keflavik and then the route 42 passing
through the lake Kleifarvatn.
One important stop was performed in the geothermal area of Krýsuvík, that consists of several
geothermal fields, such as Seltún (Fig. 9), and near the geothermal fields are several maars - craters
created by the explosions of overheated groundwater.
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Fig.9 – Krýsuvík geothermal area and information panels along the path
Seltún is part of Reykjanes Country Park established in 1975 and it is a high-temperature geothermal
area characterized by fumaroles, mud pots and steam vents. At a depth of 1000 m, the temperature
is above 200°C and the steam vents are surrounded by considerable sulphur deposits, which in
earlier times were exploited for the production of gunpowder. Several panels, realized by the
municipalities that maintain the Park, show to the visitors the geological pattern, the history and
the hazard related to the main phenomena. The mud pots and steam vents at Seltún in fact change
constantly, and for instance, a large mud pool was formed when the “Queen’s Hole” blew up in
October 1999 damaging the visitors path.
Between the maars of the area there is the green-blue Grænavatn lake (Fig. 10). It is about 300 m
in diameter and the stratigraphy in the inner wall shows that the eruption began with powerful
explosions ejecting tephra and then the event culminated with an effusive eruption, producing a
small lava flow that caps the tephra sequence.
Fig.10 – Overview of Grænavatn lake
Continuing on road 425 along the southern coast towards the town of Grindavik, the route has taken
us through several older Holocene lava flows and the mountain Porbjarnarfell noteworthy within the
Reykjanes volcanic system for the spectacular graben structure that cuts across its top. On the
other side of Porbjarnarfell is Gunnuhver geothermal area that supplies the communities on the
Reykjanes peninsula with hot water for domestic use (Fig. 11).
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Fig.11 – Gunnuhver geothermal area
During the last stop of the first day field trip, we visited at Sandvík the “bridge between
continents” Europe and North America, a small footbridge over a major fissure opened on July 2002
inside the Reykjanes Country Park that, beside serving a symbolic purpose, it is meant to
demonstrate clearly the phenomenon of continental drift. Also in this case, the area was
characterized by the presence of several information panels for the tourists useful to explain them
in an simple language the geological aspects (Fig. 12).
Fig.12 – The “bridge between continents”
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7.3 The South zone: Hekla, Eyjafjallajökull and Katla
The South Iceland is bounded on either side by the active West and East Volcanic Zones (Fig. 13).
The South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) transects the lowlands from the Hekla volcanic system in the
east to the Brennisteinsfjöll volcanic system in the west. It is the source of some of the largest
earthquakes in Iceland, with events between 6 and 8 on the Richter scale occurring periodically
every hundred years or so. At the surface, the SISZ is characterized by north-south trending strikeslip faults, but is thought to represent a major east-west trending transform fault linking the two
volcanic zones. The area shows contrasting topography, where the foreground is the vast flat-lying
southern lowlands that are surrounded by rugged mountains rising sharply up to 1000-1500 m.
Fig.13 – Main geological features of South Iceland
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The excursion started during the morning of day 4 of the exchange (24 September) from Reykjavik
toward Hella, a small town situated 94 km to the east of Reykjavík on the Hringvegur (Route 1)
between Selfoss and Hvolsvöllur, to visit the District Commissioner of Police in South Iceland (Fig.
14). This trip was really useful to improve the knowledge about the local rescue and relief
organization, the emergency management and the contingency planning at local level.
Fig.14 – Local area Command of Police in Hella
The discussion with the Chief Superintendent Sveinn K. Runarsson was very interesting and there
was a lot of interaction between the parts, sharing experience and different approach in the
contingency planning and emergency management topics.
The area covered by the South Iceland Police district is about 24.000 km2, almost 25% of Iceland.
Population counts about 22.000 units, while in summer time can reach over 1 million units, being a
very high touristic attraction.
Furthermore, Southern Iceland is one of the largest agricultural land in the country.
During the stop in Hella, we were able to see also several equipment, such as radio and specific
vehicles, available to the Local Area Command of the Police used for the emergency management
and the rescue activities (Fig. 15).
Fig.15 – Sharing experience in Hella Police HQ
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On the way to the area impacted by the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in 2010, we stopped in the so
called “Fjallabak highlandroute” where the panoramic view revealed a chain of central volcanoes
from south to north: Eyjafjallajökull, Myrdalsjökull, Tindfjöll, and Hekla (Fig. 16).
Fig.16 – Panoramic view of Hekla from the Fjallabak
Hekla is the third most active volcano in the country, behind Grimsvotn and Katla, with 18 eruptions
in historical times. It is the only ridge-shaped stratovolcano known in Iceland where eruptions occur
repeatedly on the same fissure. Extensive lava flows from Hekla (Fig. 17) cover much of the
volcano's flanks and frequent large silicic explosive eruptions have deposited tephra throughout
Iceland. The total volume of magma erupted by Hekla in historical times is about 10 km3, and the
tephra fall from several eruptions has repeatedly caused great damage to cultivated farmlands,
with more than 50 farms in the vicinity (<70 km) of the volcano damaged or destroyed in a single
eruption. Hekla tephra’s are generally rich in fluorine and are consequently very hazardous to
grazing animals. The greatest damage was caused by the eruptions of 1300, 1341, 1510, 1693 and
1766.
Fig.17 – Map of Hekla’s lava flows
Despite Hekla is considered one of the most active volcanoes in Iceland, more and more tourists
every summer hike up the mountain. Moreover, Hekla eruptions may occur at any time and may be
preceded by a seismic swarm just few hours before the eruptions starts. For this reason the National
Civil Protection, in case of seismic swarm notified by IMO, sends broadcast messages of the
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cellphones in that area to warn people of a possible eruption so that they can leave the hazard area
(Fig. 18).
Fig.18 – Hekla hazard information panel
In the travel on the Hringvegur (Route 1) toward East, across the Central-South Iceland, close to
Seljalandfoss (an impressive waterfall), the area start to present a very flat shape, dominated by
the vast Markarfljot river and characterized by deposits related to the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in
2010. This main river originated on the northern flank of the glacier Myrdalsjokull, flows southwest
through the mountainous region between Tindfjoll and Myrdalsjokull and on its journey to the coast,
grows steadily as it captures the drainage from its tributaries, which feed off the meltwater from
surrounding glaciers (Fig. 19).
Fig.19 – Markarfljot river near Eyjafjallajökull
Moving North-East along the F249 gravel road, inside the Markarfljot river valley, one important stop
was performed in front of the largest outlet glacier, Gígjökull, that flows through the breach in the
of Eyjafjallajökull caldera wall, down the northern slope in a steep-sided trench. This point was
crucial during the 2010 eruption such as the other one, observed during another stop along the
Route 1, close to the farmers affected by the tephra fallout (Fig. 20).
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Fig.20 – Gígjökull outlet glacier
Eyjafjallajökull is a 1666 m high stratovolcano, located at the eastern margin of the southern
lowlands (Fig. 21). It is 27 km long (E-W) with a maximum width of 14 km (N-S) and it encompasses
an area of about 300 km2. Above 800–900 m a.s.l. it is covered by a small glacier, about 80 km2 in
area. The maximum thickness of the ice cap before the 2010 eruption was 200–250 m. The small,
ice-filled summit caldera is about 2.5 km across with a 1.4 km wide breach towards north. The
volcano has been active for at least 800.000 years, but compared to its neighbor volcano Katla, it
has been relatively quiet in postglacial times. While Katla has produced >400 eruptions over the last
11.000 years, Eyjafjallajökull has recorded 16 eruptions, including the 2010 event.
Fig.21 – Eyjafjallajökull view from Þorvaldseyri
First indications of magma movements under Eyjafjallajökull were detected as early as 1992-1994,
with increased seismicity followed by episodes of unrest with ground inflation and earthquakes in
1996 and 1999-2000. Almost ten years later the volcano released the next episode of unrest. In late
March and April 2009, a seismic swarm was accompanied by a significant inflation of the outer
flanks of the volcano, suggesting magma transport into the crust.
Intense seismicity and rapid inflation of the east flank of the volcano in January-March 2010 lead to
the onset of the flank eruption on 20 March. The onset of the eruption was preceded by a 2.5 hour
long swarm of earthquakes. At 11:30 p.m., a 400 m long fissure opened up on the northeast flank of
Eyjafjallajökull, just above the mountain pass Fimmvörðuháls, in the saddle between the volcanoes
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of Eyjafjallajökull and Myrdalsjokull. A curtain of fire with up to 150 m high lava fountains emerged
from the fissure, feeding an a’a lava flow. The flank eruption in Fimmvörðuháls ceased on 12 April.
However, only a day and a half later, at 01:15 UTC on 14 April the second eruption started under
200 m thick ice within the summit caldera of Eyjafjallajökull.
Consequently, debris-laden meltwater cascaded down the outlet glacier of Gígjökull and destroyed
the glacier lagoon at its front. The eruption discharged floodwater down Gígjökull, generating a
jökulhlaups, so that the sandur plain of the Markarfljot river was completely flooded, including the
segments of the Route 1 on either side of the Markarfljot bridge (Fig. 22).
Fig.22 – Eyjafjallajökull eruption during April 2010
A volcanic plume was first observed at 05:55 UTC, and then it gradually rose during the day,
reaching 9-10 km a.s.l. in the evening of 14 April. Northwesterly winds carried the ash erupted
towards southeast with small amounts of ash reaching Europe in the following days. Magma-water
interaction influenced the fragmentation of the rising magma in the first several days but gradually
the influence of the external water declined and during the second explosive phase in May, the
fragmentation was mainly magmatic in character.
The eruption can be divided into three main parts:
a) A brief fully subglacial part (initial 3-4 hours) where most of the energy of the eruption was used
for ice melting;
b) Continuous explosive activity with ash from 5:30–5:55 UTC of 14 April until the end of 22 May;
c) Minor renewed activity on June 4-8 and June 17.
The eruption produced about 300 million m3 of tephra, with about 50% deposited on land in Iceland
and about 50% in the ocean to the south and southeast of the volcano, and 23 million of lava. A
characteristic of this eruption was how fine grained the tephra was. In the first phase of the
eruption as much as 50% of the erupted material were ash particles <63 µm in diameter.
From this point the field trip continued passing across the southern flanks of the Myrdaljokull (Katla
volcano), the plains of Skogasandur, the glacial outwash plain of Myrdalssandur, and the lava field
of Eldgja and Laki eruptions.
The Overnight in Kirkjubæjarklaustur was strategic for the excursion scheduled for the day after.
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7.4 The Central-South zone: Eldgja and Laki
The Central-South zone is guarded by the Katla volcano in the west, and hidden under ice in the
northwest is Grímsvötn, the most active volcano in Iceland. The region was also the center stage for
the three largest eruptions since the settlement of Iceland: the basaltic fissure eruptions of Eldgja
(934) and Laki (1783), and the plinian eruption of the Oraefajokull volcano in 1362 (Fig. 23).
Fig.23 – Lava flow field of 934 Eldgja and 1783 Laki eruptions
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The two largest lava flow eruptions covered together an area of 1100 km2. The fact that these two
eruptions produced more than half of the magma volume erupted in Iceland over the past 1200
years is a good indicator of their enormous size.
The excursion started during the morning of day 5 of the exchange (25 September) from
Kirkjubæjarklaustur to the Laki volcano. The area close to the town is characterized by rootless
cones: when the lava flow enter in a lake basin, the insulating crust seals the lobe interiors from the
water and they can inflate and expand laterally in response to continued injection of lava. The
increase in thickness, caused sinking of the lava and the formation of cracks that allow the contact
between the hot lava and the water and the consequent steam explosions that build a cones around
the vents (Fig. 24).
Fig. 24 – Rootless-cone groups and sketch of the formation
Following the F206 gravel road for 45 km, we reached an overlook point for the 27 km long volcanic
fissure of Laki volcano (Fig. 25).
Fig.25 – Laki fissure overlook point
Laki (Lakagígar) is part of a volcanic system centered on the Grímsvötn volcano. The system erupted
over an eight-month period between 1783 and 1784 from a fissure, pouring out an estimated 14 km3
of basalt lava and clouds of poisonous hydrofluoric acid and sulfur dioxide compounds that killed
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over 50% of Iceland's livestock population, leading to a famine which then killed approximately 20%
of the population.
Fig.26 – Laki crater row
The effects of the Laki eruption extended well beyond Iceland: the eruption and its aftermath
caused a drop in global temperatures, as sulfur dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere.
On 8 June 1783, a fissure with 140 vents and craters (Fig. 26) opened with phreatomagmatic
explosions because of the groundwater interacting with the rising basalt magma. Over a few days
the eruptions became less explosive, Strombolian, and later Hawaiian in character, with high rates
of lava effusion. The channel of the Skafta river dried up and the large lava flow filled up the gorge,
which had been up to 100 m deep before the eruption, and covered 350 km2 of the land including
the cultivated areas in front of the gorge and 17 farms. The Laki fissures continued to produce lava
and tephra fall until 7 February 1784, when the eruption stopped.
The Laki eruption nearly exceeded its neighbor Eldgja, forming the second largest lava flow in
historical times and covering the Eldgja lava field itself.
Continuing along the crater road, a stop was performed to see the tephra deposit of the 2011
Grímsvötn eruption, a crater lake and a lava channel belonging to the Laki fissure eruption (Fig.27).
During the last stop, we saw the Fagrifoss waterfall and an impressive canyon along the Skafta river.
Fig.27 – Crater lake along the Laki fissure and deposits of 2011 Grímsvötn eruption
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7.5 The South-East zone: Myrdalssandur
The area in the south of the Myrdaljokull (Katla volcano), is characterize by a large flat plain mainly
affected by the 1918 Katla eruption and the consequent jokulhlaup. This central volcano (1450 m
high) is not only the second largest volcano in Iceland but it has also produced some of the most
cataclysmic eruptions in the Country’s history. Katla eruptions are typically hydromagmatic and are
accompanied by widespread tephra fall and colossal jokulhlaups. The most recent eruption of Katla
was in 1918, which lasted for 24 days. The floodwaters generated by the eruption advanced at
velocities of 15-20 km/hour, with a peak of discharge of about 200.000 m3/s. The 1918 jokulhlaup
flooded more than 50% of the Myrdalssandur, covering 400 km2. Katla jokulhlaups have caused not
only hardship, by destroying farms, cultivated fields in and around Myrdalssandur, but also
significant changes in the environment such as the disappear of the lagoon in Alftaver.
The excursion started during the morning of day 6 of the exchange (26 September) from
Kirkjubæjarklaustur to the area potentially affected by the jokulhlaups, on the way back to
Reykjavík. Because of the weather conditions, only few stops were performed along the area to see
columnar basalts, levees and historical jokulhlaup effects.
Relevant was the visit to the farmer community of Alftaver. Here the village are situated on the top
of small hills in the flooded area and there are some levees to split the flood in case of occurrence
(Fig. 28).
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Fig. 28 – Explanation during the trip and farmer community of Alftaver
Because of the condition of the road and the long time needed to repair it in case of jokulhlaups,
the farmers shared with the civil protection a “B contingency plan” alternative to the evacuation of
the entire area that consists in assembling point uphill in a community center equipped with a
telecommunication tower.
As scheduled in the agenda, during the late afternoon the field trip and the exchange of experts
ended in Reykjavík.
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7.6 Additional field trips on personal own
After the end of the exchange period, the experts decided to stay some more days in Iceland on
personal own. During this period we did an excursion to Vestmannaeyjar (the Westman Islands) and
in particular to the Heimaey island.
The Vestmannaeyjar volcanic system is located on the seaward extension of the East Volcanic Zone
with 18 volcanic edifices rise above sea levels . It is a young volcanic system that came to life
<100.000 years ago and the islands forming the archipelago are much younger, as they were all
formed in the past 10-20.000 years. Heimay, the largest and the only inhabited island of the
archipelago (about 5000 inhabitants), is characterized by two main scoria cone: the Helgafell
formed in an eruption about 5900 years ago and the Eldfell formed in 1973 eruption.
The 1973 Elfell eruption, named “the Pompei of the North”, represents a perfect example of
eruption with little warning precursor and with a huge impact on the inhabited area. Despite the
efforts, in fact, parts of the town could not be saved and 417 houses got buried under lava and
volcanic ash (Fig. 29).
Fig.29 – Cemetery and houses buried under ash in 1973 eruption and scoria cones of Helgafell
and Eldfell in the background
During the trip, we visited the Volcano Museum “Eldheimar” built on the remains of the houses
affected by the tephra. It is a unique volcanic and geological exhibition about the dramatic eruption
in 1973 that offers to the visitors the opportunity to see the impact on the houses and the life at
that time. Moreover, with spectacular tools and simple language it shows the evolution of the
eruption, the efforts and actions taken to redirect the flow and save the houses (Fig. 30).
Fig.30 – the Volcano Museum “Eldheimar” in Vestmannaeyjar
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Another experience was realized visiting the Eyjafjallajökull Visitor Center in Þorvaldseyri. The
Visitor Centre, opened on 14 April 2011 exactly one year after the start of the Eyjafjallajokull
eruption, offers to the visitors with huge posters and a short film a spectacular reconstruction of
the event and the incredible challenges met by the family farm of Þorvaldseyri. In this way, we
have had a good knowledge of the effects of the eruption from the point of view of the affected
people (Fig. 31).
Fig.31 – the Eyjafjallajökull Visitor Center in Þorvaldseyri
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8 Results and specific benefits for the organizations
The main objective of the proposal was the exchange of experience on the volcanic risk
management, including assessment, mitigation, planning and emergency. Methodologies and best
practices used by the two Civil Protection systems have been compared. The exchange certainly
represented a useful occasion for a mutual exchange of experiences and a critical review of each
national and regional organization.
These are the specific benefits obtained from the institutions involved in the exchange of experts:
• Better knowledge of Iceland and Italy Civil Protection systems and institutions;
• Effective comparison on scientific activities in support to Civil Protection in Italy and
Iceland;
• Effective comparison on volcanic crisis management and communication/dissemination
protocols during volcanic eruptions;
• Better knowledge of the flooding impact during volcanic eruptions;
• Sharing best practices on raising awareness, risk assessment, risk mitigation, emergency
planning;
More in general, we focused our discussions the importance of mitigation actions based on raising
awareness through education of the population, responders and tourists. A very strong information
and concern about risks, allows the civil protection to focus the activities on their mandate (people
safety in their houses, daily life and job), without considering regulations or restrictions to activities
(i.e. volcano hiking), which are left to each individual responsibility.
Another relevant point regarding information is represented by the hazard signs and panels.
Sometimes, as we have seen on the field, they might be misinterpreted due to translation mistakes,
in other languages. Therefore, in order to increase prevention and self-protection, it could be
interesting to study at European level a common and standard way to represent volcanic related
hazards. This project could involve all countries within the EUCP mechanism that deal with volcanic
hazards.
From the team side, the evaluation of the exchange is to be graded as excellent. The exchange
raised awareness on the EU civil protection mechanism, strengthened the international relationships
and allowed the team to have significant contacts and networking. Due to all these reasons, the
team would recommend this EU Exchange of Experts Program. It would be interesting to host in Italy
an Icelandic CP team for a specific exchange related to volcanic risk.
It is important to mention that all the institutions (host institution and the ones involved in the
meetings) made their best to meet the expectations of the exchange. The team was really
impressed by the activities that have been implemented by the Iceland institutions in the field of
volcanic risk management.
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9 Acknowledgements
The team thanks all those who worked on the design and implementation of the exchange of
experts program within the EU Civil Protection Mechanism and THW personnel, for their precious
effort in the exchange organization. The team wants also to thank all the experts met in Iceland, in
particular from IMO and Earth Science Institute of the University of Iceland.
A special thanks to Mr. Ágúst Gunnar Gylfason who arranged all the activities and talks in a perfect
way, providing us with all the information we needed and really increasing our knowledge, not only
from a civil protection point of view, but also from a volcanological side.
We had a lot of fun, also learning (only watching) from a great driver, how to cross rivers with a 4x4
truck!!
Grazie,
Antonio Ricciardi and Domenico Mangione