CHAPTER - 9
PROVENANCE
**«
1
CHAPTER-9
PROVENANCE
1
INTRODUCTION :
The term provenance has to do with origin or b ir t h , and as
a p p lie d
rocks,
type
to a sedimentary
from which
of
source
d is tin c tiv e
these
rocks
d e p o s it,
has to do p rim a rily
materials
produce
were d e r iv e d
a d is tin c tiv e
with
the
(P e ttijo h n ,
suite
source
1984).
each
of minerals and these
minerals constitute a guide to recognise the character of the
source r o c k s.
The composition of sediments is not determined c h ie fty
the
the source rock .
nature of
unstable
in
a ltered
during
th er e fo r e ,
rocks.
the
surface
environment
weathering,
less
Minerals
that
and
recognisation
remain
d irection
sediments
of the
of
and
tend
or
sedimentary
,
to
infer
to
minerals are
destroyed
diagenesis,
rocks
and
or
are
than in the source
by
sedimentary
the study of provenanace is
from where
it
know
what
the
be
unchanged
T h e refo re ,
sediments
to
they
e s sen tially
s tab le .
transport
originate
;
transportation,
common in d e tr it a l
processes are considered
the
Many common ro c k - forming
by
from
maturity
d e r iv e d ,
of
i.e .
kind
the
of
distance
rocks
sediments
the
,
the
break-down
and
nature of the climate and r e l i e f of the source area.
Clastic
distintegration
of
sediments
the
p re -e x is tin g
insoluble
residues
produced
a d is tin c tiv e
the
source
survivin g
roc k s.
sandstones are
Quartz
of
the
sources
distinguished
The
by
most
due
rocks
chemical
suite, of
quartz.
as a guide mineral
originate
.
Clastic
p a rtic les
fractionation.
minerals
abundant
As a result,
to chemical
which
guide
primary
types
As
one
d e tr it a l
of quartz
a
are
result
to
the
,
it
determine
constituents
of
has long been used
to determine the source rocks.
is
and
the
an important
the
mineral
environments
nature and
th e ir
of
fo r
the
study
d eposition .
inclusions
may
of
V arieties
indicate
the nature
of
quartz
the
type
2
of
parent
rocks
from
which
the
sands
ware derived.
Each variety
of
quartz characterises a particular source . Undulatory and polycrystalline
quartz
of
detrital
sediments
has
recently
been
studied
in
detail
by
sedimentologists and used for determination of their source rocks (Basu
e t . a l .,
1975 j Girty,
as igneous (including
and
sedimentary.
1987) . Krynine, ( 1946 and 1950), classified quartz
plutonic, volcanic, and hydrothermal), metamorphic
Criteria
to
recognise
various
quartz
types
utilised
inclusions, extinction, shape, and polycrystallnity .
Feldspar
is
an important
constituent of
sedimentary
rocks,
and is an indicator of the palaeoclimatic conditions.
Basu et^ a l. , 1975, uses polycrystalline quartz (grains with,
2 to 3 crystal units, and
^ 3 crystal units), undulose and non-undulose
quartz in the construction of diamond diagram to infer the provenance of
the sediments.
The composition of a sedimentary deposit is the result of the
combined effects of relief and climate on the source rock and the effect
«*■
of abrasion and sorting of the derived residjAim (Pettijohn,
these factors are related to each other and finally
1984)
. All
influenced by plate
tectonics in their distribution and various function of different types of
sandstones.
In this
C
regard,
Dickinson and Suzek
(1979),
have
proposed
their provenance discrimination diagram based on the frame-work analysis
data.
They
used
quartz,
feldspar
and
rock
fragments
as
the
three
variants in their triangular plots.
The geochemistry of sedimentary rocks reflects predominantly
the nature and proportion of their detrital
provenance (Roser and Korsch
, 1986).
components and hence their
Roser and Korsch (1986), pointed
out that chemical approach and petrographic analysis together produce a
powerful tool for examination of provenance and determination of tectonic
setting.
The same type of \iiew also put forward by Girty
major element
in geochemistry
of
sandstones can be
(1987).
The
used to infer the
3
provenance type and optimum discrimination of sandstones,
representing
the various tectonic settings is achieved by the plots of Fe2 03 + Mgo
versus Tio2 , A l20 3 /Sio2 , K20/Na20, and A12§ /(Cao + Na 20 ), opined by
Bhatia (1983) .
Some distinctive
heavy
minerals
have
long
been employed
for determining the nature of the source rocks (Poldervaart, 1955).
2
METHODS OF STUDY :
Light and heavy
provenance.
For this reason,
between
(1987),
different
opined
sources
have been utilized
to know the
Quartz is one of the most important constituent minerals in
the sandstone.
relation
minerals
may
that
well
which exists
be
importance was given to determine the
types
both
of
quartz
and
recent and ancient
discriminate
from
the
source
rock
sandstones of
distinguishing
.
Girty
different
characters
between common quartz and polycrystalline quartz
; such
distinctions may be obtained by observing undulosity or non-undulosity ;
number of
crystal
a l . , ( 1975)
, Plotting of four variables i.e .
undulose quartz
having
2 to
units
, (ii)
3 crystal
per
grain of
polycristalline
non-undulose quartz,
unit
quartz.
Basu et
relative percentages of ( i )
(iii)
per grain and ( i v )
polycrystalline quartz
polycrystalline
quartz
having >3 crystals per grain on a single diamond diagram, discriminated
the percentage of the sandstones.
The result obtained from the modal analysis of the various
quartz types of the Surma and the Tipam sandstones were plotted on a
provenance discriminating diamond diagram,
by
Basu
et_ al. ,
( 1975),
for
the
following procedures
present
study
on
the
given
resulting
provenance fields were compared for interpretation .
There exists close correlation between sandstone composition
and plate tectonic setting (Dickinson and Suczek, 1979)
. The proportions
4
o f
d e tr ita l
d ia g r a m ,
s e ttin g s
fr e m e -w o r k
e ffe c t iv e ly
and
in te r a c tio n s
g r a in s
d is c r im in a te
p r o v id e
in
th e
a
N os.
p u rp ose
w ere
1.
s a m p le s
fro m
o f
th in
d e te r m in e d
Q
=
Qm
th e
*
as
Q p ,
fo llo w s
o f
grou p
b y
v a r ie ty
in
17
o f
p o in t
3.
F
L
=
=
P *K ,
tr ia n g u la r
of
p la te
te c to n ic
of
and
S u czek ,
.
s a m p le s
sa n d sto n es
c o u n tin g
1979)
o f
w e re
th e
S u rm a
s tu d ie d
m e th o d s.
p la te
T h e
and
fo r
th is
Q F L
m ode
:
w h e re
Q
w h e re
L w + L s,
Q F L
in te r p r e ta tio n
N os.
=
to ta l
q u a rtz
g r a in s .
Qm
=
M o n o c r y s ta llin e
Q p
-
P o ly c r y s ta llin e
(in c lu d in g
2 .
on
th e
(D ic k in s o n
c o m p o s itio n
s e c tio n s
p lo tte d
a
m eans
p ast
T ip a m
and
am ong
s u ita b le
g e o lo g ic a l
F ra m e -w o rk
20
d e te r m in e d
w h e re
F
=
to ta l
P
=
p la g io c la s e
K
=
p o ta s s iu m
q u a rtz
q u a rtz
g r a in s
.
g r a in s ,
c h e rt)
fe ld s p a r
g r a in s .
fe ld s p a r
fe ld s p a r
L v
=
7 o c a n ic
and
Ls
=
S e d im e n ta r y
g r a in s .
g r a in s .
m e ta v o lc a n ic lith ic
and
g r a in s .
m e ta s e d im e n ta ry
lith ic
g r a in s .
T h e
p ro ven a n ce
d a ta
d is c r im in a tio n
B h a tla
d is c r im in a tio n
b y
p lo ttin g
versu s
o f
m a jo r
T io z ,
p lo tte d ,
m a jo r
v iz .
,
T a b le
o f
h as
-
39
and
D ic k n s o n
show n
th e
r e p r e s e n tin g
th e
e le m e n t
g e o c h e m ic a l
d a ta ,
e le m e n ts
o f
o f
K 2 0 / N a 2 0 ,
o b ta in e d
o f
F e 2 0 3 *
th e
M go
and
fro m
S u rm a
versu s
40)
and
sa n d sto n es
r e s u lts
p lo t
(
d ia g r a m
( 1983)
A l 20 3 / S io 2 ,
T h e
v a r io u s
o b ta in e d
and
p lo tte d
p roven a n ce
d iffe r e n t
i. e .
*
■
th e
o f
and
s e ttin g s
F e 20 3 +
M go
N a20 ).
T ip a m
A l 2 0 3 / S lo 2 ,
ty p e
te c to n ic
p lo ts
c h e m ic a l
th e
on
S u c z e k ,(1 9 7 ^ ).
A l 20 ^ (C a o
th e
w e re
a n a ly s is
o f
sa n d sto n es
K 2 0/
N a20 ,
th e
w e re
and
Al 2 ^ 3 /(Cao -i-NapO) , following the procedure given by Bhatia
Roser
various
tectonic
settings effectively by plotting on a binary ^ O / N a ^ - S i O p
diagram.
The
the
Korsch,
Korsch
results
Surma
K O/Nn (I.
and
and
To
1986,
(1986),
obtained
the
Tipam
plot
the
were
used
from
the
study
sandstones
were
tint a
and
discriminate
(1983).
the
procedure
the tectonic
of
K^O/Na-pO-SiO^
plotted-SiO^
In I Iowed
by
fields were
tor
versus
Roser
and
compared
for
irtterpretat ions.
9.3
OBSERVATION :
The
(Fig.
9.1)
study
of
following
provenance
Basu
discrimination
et_ ai^. , 1975,
the Surma and the Tipam sandstones
fall
shows
diamond
that
the
diagram
values
of
in the high to middle rank
metamorphic fields.
nl'T.
The
9.2
and
Fig.
respectively,
frame-work
plots
provenance
9.3)
after
of
discrimination
the
Dickinson
(O-F.L.)
data
of
Surma
and
the
and
Suczek
the
Tipam
(1979),
Surma and
the
plots
Al 2 0 3 /(Cao+Na 2 0) ,
of
Fe.^O^tMgo
(Fig.
9.4
versus
and
that
the
Tipam sandstones
Al^O^/SiO^,
9.5) after Bhatia
of the designated field of Bhatia,
(Fig. 9.4 A,B,C),
field B.
1983.
K^O/Na^O,
the
major
(1983),
most
of
9.5A
and
0.
the
into
show
any one
it is observed that some of the points fall
This provides some information of a continental
element
composition
points do not
9.5C).
This
However,
suggest
and
In all the three bivariant
arc type of provenance for the Surma sandstone. On
fieId
sandstones
shows
that most points of the .Surma sandstones do not plot
in
(Fig.
in the recycled orogenic provenance field.
The
plots
pl ots
triangular
an
plots
define
in
fig.
active
of
Tipam
the
provenance
9.5B most
of
continental
other
sandstones
any major
the
margin
island
hand,
show
field
points
that
(Fig.
plot
provenance
in
for
the Tipam sandstones.
The binary pLots of K2 0/Na2 0-Si02
(Fig. 9.6 and Fig.9.7) following
Roser and Korsch, 1986, show that the Surma sandstones samples fall
active
continental
margin ( AcM )
( Fig.9 . 6 )
while
for the
in the
Tipam
6
sandstones also majority
of. the points concentrate in and around
the active continental margin (AcM) field (Fig.9.7)
9.4
INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS :
The clustering of points,
in the Diamond diagram of Dasu
et al. , 1975, in the middle and left side of the diagram, indicates
a dual
parentage
for
groups
of
Therefore,
rocks.
originated
from
the
sediments
plutonic,
the
and
of
the
sediments
middle
to
Surma
The
indicates
presence
their
oL
sillimanito
derivation
from
in
Tipam
both
the
upper
rank
metamorphic
the
high
the
for
rocks. The metamorphic rocks belong to garnet:
zone.
and
groups
through si 1 1 imanit o
heavy
grade
mineral
suites
metamorphic
rocks,
Plutonic source is indicated by the presence of non-undulose quartz
for both the sandstone groups.
The frame-work composition data of the Surma and the Tipam
Groups
of
sandstones,
discrimination
diaqrm
when
of
plotted
Dickinson
and
in
the
Suczek
provenance
(1979),
indicate
that the sediments of both the rock types were mainly derived from
the Recycled Oroqenic Tectonic setting.
The bulk chemical
Tipam
snndstones, when
composition data of the Surma and the
plotted separately
in the binary
d i a g r a m s
given by Bhatia (1963), and Roser and Korsch (1986), shows that the
Surma sandstones represents Continental Island Arc
and Active Continental
hand
the
(Bhatia,
1983)
Margin (Roser & Korsch, 1986). On the other
discrimination
plots
of
the
Tipam
sandstones
also
represents an Active Continental Margin provenance (Bhatia, 1983).
No proper explanation could be cited
of
f
regarding deviation
ew points from the designated fields of Bhatia ( 1983) . However ,
it may be cited that the deviation might be due to variation in the
percentage
M o r e o v e r ,
of
elements
in
the
composition
sands! one that plot between
I
of
the
he provenance
sandstones.
fields
imply
either a mixutre of two or more provenances, rapid juxtaposition in
space
and
time
of
plate-tectonic
regimes
or
a
plate-tectonic
setting not yet represented on standard provenance diagrams (Mack,
1984, P.218).
7
Dickinson and Suezek (1979) defined three provenance fields
for sandstones from basins with different tectonic settings ; continental
block
provenance,
( including
magmatic
foreland
uplift,
arc
provenance,
collison
and
recycled
orogen-
orogen, and 4ccretionary
prism
)
provenance (Korch , 1984).
The most unstable environments are the active orogenic belts
where
continental
and
oceanic
plates
converge .
Sandstones deposited
along the orogenic (convergent) margin of a continental plate tend to be
relatively
activity,
and
rich in
unstabledetrital
some early
then
-formed
they become,
in
the
were deposited
flysch
trough
turn,
in
i.e .
Because
of
tectonic
deoosits may be deformed and uplifted,
second
sediment to still younger deposits.
sandstones
components.
cycle sources
contributing
The 'molassic1 Surma and the Tipam
theminor rifted
Disang-Barail,
troughs,
filled
with
developed
post
in
orogenic
continental elastics derived from the rising mountain chain in the area
of study.
The
source
primary
controls
rocks and tectonics.
depositional
reworking
abundance of
deteital
Modification
processes
margin.
of
is
most
effective
on the
and fluvial
by
sub-lith
of
the
medium
composed
sedimentary
and
volcanic
grains
1984)
considerably
of
rocks.
destroyed
affect
the
sub-maturity
of
relative
(Suttner,
or
in passive
aranite
1974).
continental
of the Surma and
the area under study indicate that
to
high
From the
by
the
grade
present
combination
metamorphic
sandstones
of
humid
weathering and shallow-marine reworking processes.
compositional
the
weathering and depositional
craton
the Tipam group of sandstones
area
also
are
such as weathering,
in terrigenous sediments
composition
source
composition
processes
diagenessis
grains
Flu vio-deltaic
sandstone
But other
and
sandstone
on
both
the
sandstones units,
,
labile
(Mack,
Despite the
an orogenic
source- rock signature remains in the polycrystalline quartz and rock
fragment populations. Sandstone composition and other evidence indicate
that the
orogenic
uplift
which
supplied
sediments
resulted from the
collision of a microcontinent and associated arc with continental margin.
Sandstones
humid
derived
climatic
from
conditions
low
to moderate
may
be
relief
depleted
in
source
labile
areas
grains
under
and
8
enriched
in
proportion
Surma
of
group
suggesting
due
detrital
quartz.
K-foldspar
of
It
does
sandstones
that
if
the
may
not
to
mentioned
vary
the
K-feldspar
be
here
that
the
from
the
significantly
Tipam
group
concentration
of
has
sandstones/
been
changed
to diagenesis or metamorphism then the change had no effect
on
the ratio of K to P and Qm.
Prom
formed
Late cretaceous
in
the
part
succession
was
deposited
Jaintia/
Disang)/
deposited
in regressive
and consequent
Barail
early
sediments
in various
Paleogene
facies
(the
At the
in a regional unconformity between
sediments.
arc
The
Neogene
corresponding
depression
to
upward
includes
the
in the uplifted
gradational
into
Surma
thin
group/
foredeep platform.
the
Tipam
Sandstone
(Shrivastava et_ a^L. / 1974).
Petrographic
compositional
Tipam sandstones of the area
Active
.include n marine shelf
resulted
molassic
chemical
and
estuarine and deltaic environments.
succeeding
Formation
geosyncline
uplift of the platform along the Dauki hinge line
erosion
sediments
Naga-Lushai
which
and
deposited
These
the
a platform lias been
overlain by a platform facies of the Barail group
end of Oligocene/
the
of
through Tertiary
compositional
Continental
studies
of
(Fig.9.2 and 9.3)/
studies
(Fig.
9. 0
Margin/Continental
to
Island
the
Surma
and
the
together with their
9.7)
Arc
indicate
setting
of
an
these
sandstones.
Study
data
in
the
of
geology/
N.iqa-Ch i.ria - A r a k an
plate
drifted
block
in
east
Burma
and
during
a rc / c o i i I inon la t cruel
During
Threshold
positive
structure/
the
belt/
Yoma
seismic
region
north-eastward
the
Cenozoic
setting
close
of
(Nandy/
West
of
Oligocene
the
the
gravity
that
anomaly
the
Indian
Shan-Tenasserim
in a oceanic
crust/island
I‘H1 I) .
(Hr uniischwei er / .1900)/
Landiriass.
suggest
towards
time
and
time
the
got
uplifted
landmass,
from
flysch
south
trough
and
to
and
became
north
a
the
Neoqene Surma basin and the Tipam basin were formed. To the east of
this uplifted
from
landmass sedimentation inthe molasse basin continued
F,scene till
Recent
time
with
minor
stratigraphic
break.
The
9
s
s o d i mer i t
folded
push
and
of
basin
of
I Iip
thrusted
the
could
crustal
during
Indian
plate
resists
this
basement
below
(N a n d i ,1983,P .158).
evidences
basin
burmn
of
where
told
subduction
probably
Mikir
of
of
Hills
suggested that
and
a
by
the
together,
due
to
of
the
sediments
due
the
to
eastward
mol nose
presence
into broad
Burmese
Miocene
to
i nloiifp I y
open
volcanic
arc
Quarternary
of
folds
provide
(?)
time
fragile
Tipam
heavy
minerals
sediments
indicates
from
the
west,
landmans including .Shi L long Plateau,
part
the
uniform
of
the
of
eastern
during
the
time
qof
in Srivastava et_ al_. , 1986,P.216)
and
large
basin
folded only
the more
Surma
pnm
Ti
movements
from
Irom an ox tons ivo
over-ridden
came
the
as
volcanoes
(Mitchell and Mckerrow 1975,
derivation
the
Piio-Pleistocene
and were
The
Distribution
and
the
north,
Himalayas
post
Miocene
conditions
which
(D e sikachar,
period,
of
has
after
since
1974).
the
the
been
Also
two plates
sedimentation
prevailed
over
(1979),
Ingersoll
and
the Bengal-Assam-Arakan region.
Both
Dikinson
S u c z e k (1979),
all
the
opined
derived
and
from
a
ultimately
sandstones
present
Bengal
that
mineralogic
whichattderived
studied
area
and
content
of
lithic
Tipam
probably
were
distinctive
feldspar
recycled
the
the
character
orogen
Surma
and
grains.
The
derived
is
that
(F ) and lithic grains
(Q)
sand-ponses
the
sediments
provenance.
The
sand
with
(Velbel,
Tipam
1985).
groups
exist
monocrystalline
of
collision
total
from
the reported sand
similarities
sandstones
from
Pan
of
the
Compositional
of
and
Nicobar
Himalayas
amounts
character
and
to some extent
Fans.
metamorphic
Bengal
petrographic
from
greater
Suczek
the
from
resembles
Nicobar
and
the
quartz
Surma
orogenic
quartz
in
and
was
The
the
from
the
and
the
belt
have
dominant,
with
(L) subequal which is similar to the
other sands derived from the same type of tectonic setting.
From the above observations and interpretations,
it may be
finally concluded that the sediments of both the Surma and the Tipam groups of
sandstones
have
boon
derived
from
the
igneous,
metamorphic
and
older
sedimentary source rocks. The sources for supplying sediments to both the Surma
K
the Tipam groups of rocks of the study area were mainly the Mikir massif
(Assam Plateau). Also sediments were supplied from the newly rising Himala>as
and Naga-Patkai Hills.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE
FIG:
9:1
DIAMOND
DIAGRAM
OF THE SURMA
BASU ET A L . ,
FOR
AND THE
1975).
PROVENANCE
TIPAM
DISCRIMINITION
SANDSTONES
( AFTER
POLYCRYSTALLINE QUARTZ
( 2-3 CRYSTAL UNIT PER GRAIN )
Undulatory
quartz
Non-undulatory
quartz
Polycrystalline quartz
( > 3 crystal unit per grain )
Fig. 9 :1 . Provenance
Discrimination Diagram after Basu ET A L .,1 9 7 5 .
Samples : i) Tipam
a
ii) Surma
•
Q
Fig9:3 Provenance discriminating diagram of the Tipam sandstone.
(A fte r Dickinson and Suczek, 1979).
EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURE : :
FIG i
9 :4
PROVENANCE
DISCRIMINATION
SANDSTONES
.
OF
IRON).
;
V s.
DOTTED
SANDSTONES
SETTINGS
A=
1 9 8 3 ).
;
D=
LINES
MARKS
REPRESENTING
OCEANIC
PASSIVE
THE
SURMA
0 /N a 20
AND
Fe2 0 3 * Mgo (F«| q REPRESENT
CONTINENTAL ISLAND ARC
MARGIN
OF
PLOTS OF AL2 O VSic^ ,
AIg 0 3/(C a o * N a 20 )
TOTAL
PLOTS
MAJOR
VARIOUS
ISLAND
ARC
FIELDS
TECTONIC
;
B=
; C= ACTIVE CONTINENTAL
MARGIN
.
(AFTER
BHATIA,
EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURE5
FIG:
9:5
MAJOR
ELEMENT
COMPOSITION
PLOTS
OF
TIPAM
SANDSTONE FOR TECTONIC SETTINGS DISCRIMINATION.
PLOT OF A l 2 0 3 /Sio2 ;KZ 0 «■ Mgo.
(
Fe20 3REPRESENT
TOTAL IRON ) .
DOTTED LINES MARKS MAJOR FIELDS
REPRESENTING
VARIOUS
A=OCEANIC
ARC
;
C=
ISLAND
ACTIVE
PASSIVE MARGIN.
ARC
TECTONIC
;
SETTINGS
B=CONTINENTAL
CONTINENTAL
(AFTER BHATIA
MARGIN
, 1983).
ISLAND
;
D
=
EXPLANATION OP THE FIGURES : :
PIGS 9i6k9l7
PROVENANCE DISCRIMINATION PLOTS OP THE SURM
AND THE TIPAM SANDSTONES. PLOTS OP Sio Vs
K^O/N^p. DOTTED LINES MARKS MM0R FIELD
REPRESENTING VARIOUS TECTONIC S t t | $ S PM
PASSIVE MARGIN ACM* ACTIVE COSTlNE^L MARGI
; ARC* OCEANIC I5LANO ARC. ( AFTER GOSER AN
KORSCH, 1986).
■I
•1
%
o
O'
c7>
o
cr
^s/
/
/• /
/ O
< H
/
07
/
31
/
/
L
t
i
Vo
L i
K20/N<j20
oo
<S