Confucius Institute at UC Davis:
Understanding Jiu : The History and Culture of Alcoholic Beverages in China
The Historical Development of Chinese
Liquor Technology
Dr.Li Hua
College of Enology
Northwest A&F University, Yangling,China
March 26, 2015
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Overview
 Introduction of Chinese Liquor
 Fermentation Starter
 Fermentation Process
 Distillation
 Summarization of Chinese Liquor Making
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Introduction of Chinese Liquor
 Jiu（酒）The Chinese word ‘酒’（ Jiu ）
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In China, Jiu is the general term that describes all of alcoholic beverage,
including Chinese liquor, rice wine, grape wine, beer, etc.
Name of Chinese Liquor in Chinese
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Baijiu（白酒）
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Shaojiu（烧酒）
The most famous fermented beverages in China
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One of the oldest distillates in the world
Important role in the quality of Chinese life and culture
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Introduction of Chinese Liquor
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Classification according to aroma characteristics
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Strong: Luzhou
Light: Fen
Soy sauce: Moutai
Sweet honey: Sanhua
Miscellaneous: Xifeng
Fermentation material
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only sorghum
a mixture of wheat, barley, corn, rice, and sorghum
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Introduction of Chinese Liquor
 Production process
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Fermentation
The fermentation is operated at 28–32℃ for few months under anaerobic
conditions in a solid state
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Distillation
The fermented grains are then distilled by steam to extract ethanol and other
flavor compounds
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Blending
After aging for years, these distillates are blended by experienced brewmaster to obtain the final products
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Fermentation Starter
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Daqu（大曲）
•
A mixture of cereals containing molds, yeasts and bacteria, as saccharification
substrate and ethanol production during the brewing process of the Chinese
liquor.
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Name in Chinese
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Qu（曲）is a source of enzymes necessary for the degradation of grains
carbohydrates and proteins, and to supply a portion of substrate for
fermentation.
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Da（大）means big, and Daqu is named to distinguish from Xiaoqu（小
曲）, meaning the dimension of the Qu is bigger than Xiaoqu.
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Fermentation Starter
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The components of Daqu
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cereals, such as wheat, barley and (or) peas
a mixed micro flora containing fungi, yeasts and bacteria
microbial enzymes and metabolites
an important flavor compounds which will contribute to
the aroma of the final distillate
Similar to some other solid fermentation products, Daqu
also functions as the initial fermentation substrate for
liquor making.
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Fermentation Starter
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The origin of Daqu
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The exact time of the origin of Daqu is unknown, a widespread
theory is that it is a variant derived from wheat Qu for rice wine
making, and developed in Yuan Dynasty (元朝1271-1368)when
Chinese liquor was popularly spread.
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The earliest reference to Qu is found in the “Shang Shu” (Book of
Documents), a book written in 500 B.C. （春秋时期）
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The earliest literature describing the process of Qu making is “Qi
Min Yao Shu”, a book composed by Jia Simiao in 544 AD.（南北朝）
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Fermentation Starter
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Qu making in Song Dynasty (《Jiu Jing》 1090)
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Rice was mixed with flowers powder to form “cakes”. The
best one were fragrant in smell, pungent in flavor, firm and
light.
Wheat flour was mixed with the cakes, and the mixture was
leavened, added to the juice of ginger to form Bricks.
The Bricks were incubated with heating until streaks were
seen on the surface.
Then the Bricks were strung and natural dried to the air. The
dried Bricks were called Qu Bricks.
The longer they were dried the higher quality they would
have.
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Fermentation Starter
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宋应星
Daqu making in Ming and Qing Dynasty (《Tian Gong Kai Wu》 1637)
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The wheat grains in the hulls were washed with well water and dried in the summer sun.
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They were ground into flour, mixed with the used water in above step and shaped into Bricks.
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The Bricks were wrapped and bound in mulberry paper and hung on to the air, to encourage the
growth of yellow mold.
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After curing for forty-nine days, Daqu was ready to use.
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Fermentation Starter
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Present Daqu making
The present production of Daqu has evolved from a simple artisanal
scale to a large industrial process, but there is no essential difference
from Qing Dynasty. The present technology specially addresses the
attention to the temperature of the process. According to the
incubation temperatures, Daqu can be divided into three types:
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Low temperature one (<45℃).
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Moderate temperature one (45–60℃).
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High temperature one (<60℃).
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Fermentation Starter
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Present Daqu making
It is believed that the high temperature one enhances the aroma and
flavor of the liquor during the production of distilled spirits. Nevertheless,
the principle of the process has remained the same and can be
summarized in five steps:
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ingredient formulation
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grinding and mixing
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Shaping
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Incubation
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maturation
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Fermentation Process
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The historical development of fermentation
In Yue Ling (《月令》Monthly Ordinances) chapter of the Li Ji (Records of
Ritual), an etiquette works collection before Qin Dynasty (221BC), one of
the earliest description of Jiu, describe the considered six requisites for
making good Jiu:
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the complete millet and rice
the ferment and sprouted grain in season
the soaking and heating cleanly conducted
the water fragrant
the pottery vessels in good condition
the fire properly regulated for grinding and mixing
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Fermentation Process
However, there is no literature showed the Chinese liquor
fermentation before Ming Dynasty(1368-1644). As we
discussed before, Daqu, as the fermentation starter of
Chinese liquor, is a variant derived from wheat Qu for rice
wine making, so we suppose that Chinese liquor fermentation
is also derived from rice wine fermentation. During the late
Song Chinese Jiu was divided into two major categories, rice
wine and distilled wine (Chinese liquor), meaning Chinese
liquor originated during Song Dynasty(960-1279).
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Fermentation Process
“《Bei Shan Jiu Jing》”, written by Zhu Yizhong in the year 1117, described the
fermentation process of rice wine, which is similar to the fermentation process
of Chinese liquor, the difference is that after the fermentation of rice, Jiu was
got by pressing, not by steaming.
Jiang（ 浆）made by wheat grains steeping in hot water turn naturally sour and
concentrated.
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The concentrated Jiang was diluted with hot water and used to soak rice grain.
The rice was then drained and steamed until soft.
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Then the cooling steamed rice was mixed directly with Qu, and layered with Jiang
in the fermenter jar.
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When the fermentation was completed, the Jiu was separated by pressing the
fermented mash.
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Fermentation Process
Standard fermentation continued to be manufactured in the traditional way through Ming
and Qing Dynasty. “《Xu ZunYi Fu Zhi》” redacted in 1936 recorded the fermentation
process of Maotai liquor.
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The half batch of sorghum was steeped in hot water, then mixed with the good quality
residual mash got last year without distillation, and steamed together. After they were
cooled, mixed with Daqu and ready to ferment.
After the fermentation in the mud cellar, they were mixed with the other 50% of
sorghum, which had been smashed and steeped in hot water, and distilled together. The
Jiu got in this step was added to the distilled grains, which was cooled and removed to
the mud cellar to ferment for another one month.
Then they were distilled again, the first outflow liquor was collected, whereas the
second one was still added to the distilled grains.
After they were cool, some new Daqu was added, and then fermented for another one
month.
This process was in circulation for eight times.
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Fermentation Process
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Fermentation Cellars
During Chinese liquor production, the mud of cellars, containing sufficient quantity of
beneficial microbes, plays an important role. After pre-inoculation of grains with Daqu
for approximately 30 days of aerobic fermentation at 45–60℃, as saccharification
substrate and ethanol production, the fermenting grains are transferred to a mud cellar
with cover for further brewing at room temperature.
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During most stages of the month-long fermentation period, the cellar is an
anaerobic environment with a high ethanol concentration.
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Mud cellars are routinely used in the batched anaerobic brewing process year after
year.
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Older cellars produce better tasting liquor, with more complicated microbial
communities.
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It is difficult to reproduce an artificial cellar with the same cellar-mud microbes.
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Fermentation Process
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Fermentation Cellars
Fermentation Cellars from Yuan Dynasty
(1271-1368) Jinxian, Jiangxi
Modern Fermentation Cellars
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Distillation
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In the Chinese liquor making process, the distillation plays
a critical role in linking the initial fermentation with the
final blending. The distillation is to extract the flavor
compounds from the fermented grains, which determines
the yield and quality of the final product.
However, the scholars have not a univocal interpretation
about the origin time of the distilled spirits in China.
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Distillation
 The origin of distilled spirits in China
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Li Shizhen, a famous medical scientist of Ming
Dynasty(1368-1644), was the earliest person to state
the opinion. “《Ben Cao Gang Mu》” (The Great
Pharmacopoeia), written by him in 1578, expounded
that Chinese liquor making was not an ancient art,
but first developed in Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368).
College of Enology, NWSUAF
A bronze-steamer of
Jin (金) period (11151234) was discovered
in a tomb near
Chengde,
Hebei
province, in 1975,
which is really a typical
steamer, surmounted
by an open pot with a
A cross-section of the fully assembled vessel of the bronze-steamer of Jin Dynasty convex bottom which
(1) The measured drawing of distiller: 1. Condenser pot, 2. Drain pipe, 3. Steamer, serves as a cooling
4. External flat ring 5. Convex bottom, 6. Circular gutter, 7. Drain tube.
device.
Distillation
(2) The restored drawing of distiller: 1. Cold water, 2. Liquor vapour, 3. Stopper.
4. Condensed liquor, 5. Fermented mash, 6. Perforated grid, 7. Boiling water.
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Distillation
An even more exciting discovery is the
bronze vessel of the Shanghai Museum
collection, which have been dated back
to about the Eastern Han period (25220), more than 800 years before the
Northern Song. The vessel is 53.9cm
height, consists of two parts, the top
part is a traditional steamer with a builtin grating as its bottom, the bottom part
is the boiler.
The bronze vessel in the Eastern Han period
1. Steamer, 2. Drain tube, 3. Boiler. 4. Condensing chamber,
5. Fermented mash, 6. Circular gutter, 7. Grid, 8. Return vent.
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Distillation
 The origin of distilled spirits in China
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Based on the evidence presented above it is clear that the technology of
distilling already existed during the Eastern Han period (25-220), and it is
worth noting that the type of equipment used in the Han was similar to
what being used during the Jin period.
Therefore, the possibility of the use of technology to produce distilled
spirit certainly cannot be ignored before Ming Dynasty(1368-1644),
although there was no direct documentation of Chinese liquor making.
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Distillation
 The origin of distilled spirits in China
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The distillers in both Ming and Qing Dynasties were
similar to those of Jin and Yuan Dynasties. The main
different feature was that distillers used during Ming
and Qing Dynasties were larger in volume, which were
more suitable for distillation operation in solid state.
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Distillation
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The evaluation of the quality of Chinese liquor
In Ming and Qing Dynasty , the quality of Chinese liquor was evaluated
after shaking the Chinese liquor, which is also used for the initial
assessment of the spirits alcohol content :
 If there is small bubbles in the surface, the liquor is the best one
 If there is bigger and scatter bubbles, the liquor is the better one
 If there is no bubble, the liquor is not good.
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Distillation
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The distillation in 20 century in
China
There are two types of steamer:
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1. The top mouth of the Hu,
2. The place for condensation
3. Water outlet
4. Cooling water
5. Handle
6. The pedestal of Hu
7. Outflux of distilled liquor
The Hu type of distiller
1. Stove, 2. Boiler, 3. Perforated grid, on which fermented mash is placed,
4. Steamer, 5. Cover, containing circular gutter with drain tube,
6. Condenser, with convex cooling surface.
one is Hu（壶）type, found
in Tangshan, Hebei province in
1931, which was also used in
Northeast China Region and
Anhui province.
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Distillation
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The Guo type of distiller
1. Cold water, 2. Condenser, 3. Collecting bowl and tube,
4. Steamer, 5. Fermented mash, 6. Stove opening, 7. Fuel,
8. Boiling water, 9. Chimney
Another one is Guo（锅）type,
found in Fenyang, Shanxi province
in 1933, which was also used in
Sichuan province and Guizhou
province.
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Distillation
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The distillation in 21 century in China
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The precision control of distilling operation is very
important to determine the quality and quantity of
spirits produced, especially the distilling rate and
temperature.
Some modern distillation equipment with good
control of distillation rate and temperature, which
can also separately collect spirits according to
alcohol content and flavor characters automatically,
has been widely used in distilleries.
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Summarization of Chinese Liquor Making
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The grains are milled, cooked, and subsequently mixed with the husk. Hot water
(about 95 ℃) is added to adjust the moisture content to 55 %. After grains are
cooled to 13–16 ℃, they are mixed with the Daqu powder.
The mixture is fermented in mud cellar (3.4 m length, 1.8 m width, and 2.0 m
height). Fermentation is typically carried out at 28–32 ℃ for 60 days under
anaerobic conditions in solid-state.
After fermentation, the liquor is distilled with steam and aged in sealed pottery
jars to develop a balanced aroma.
Most liquors are aged for about 1 year, some of them are aged for more than 3
years. The aged liquor is diluted with water and blended to obtain an ethanol
content of 40–55 % for consistent quality in the finished products.
College of Enology, NWSUAF
Summarization of Chinese Liquor Making
Thank You
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