The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 1
PREFACE
During the Jeans Semester at the Amsterdam Fashion Institute, my group and I
developed a concept for a jeans brand. The preliminary idea was to return to
the true roots of denim wear and its purpose to function as a second skin. A
jeans designed, not to be kept flawless, but a canvas collecting one’s own
experiences; your jeans tells your story. In our attempt to convey this we used
many mediums to create our exemplar “worn” jeans. One of our techniques
played on the phenomenon of teenagers drawing on their own pants, shoes, or
really anything for that matter. Our object of inspiration was the ankle tattoo of
one of our group members, which had come to being in a similar genuine and
spontaneous manner.
Soon followed my exchange to London, the centre of youth culture revolution.
While spending most of my free-time in the Shoreditch and Hoxton area, a
certain phenomenon continuously grabbed my attention; the tattoo. It was
then that I realized this fascination would be a great topic for my thesis.
Naturally I was aware of the on-going reappearance of tattoos in fashion but I
was convinced that the leap, from a tattoo inspired print to the physical getting
of a tattoo by fashion followers, was too large to simply be regarded as another
common fashion trend. Thus the challenge prevailed to investigate, define, and
possibly utilize the contemporary tattoo phenomenon in fashion.
2 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
The Cont
To begin, I would like to thank my coaches Chris Veldhuizen and Angela Kilcoyne
for being such great stimulants. They were both a source of inspiration and
feedback. The freedom they gave me to personally define and conduct the
research forced me to question myself and thus enabled me to refine my
professional opinion and formulate a stronger thesis.
As for my friends, I would like to thank them for their honesty, refreshing
advice, and willingness to participate. Their opinions, brainstorms, and
connections were valuable contributions to my work throughout the entire
process.
Finally and most important, I would like to thank Tim and my family for
supporting me in every possible way during my complete study. They endured
my stubbornness and engaged in my fanatic discussions. Their unconditional
love helped me grow in unimaginable ways.
Laureen van Breen
Amsterdam, May 2012
I, Laureen van Breen, declare that the text and work presented in this Bachelor thesis is original
and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in
creating the Bachelor thesis.
The copyright of the Bachelor thesis rests with the author. The author is responsible for its
contents. The Amsterdam Fashion Institute, part of the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, is only
responsible for the educational coaching and beyond that cannot be held responsible for the
content.
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 3
CONTENT PAGE
Preface 2-3
Executive summary 6-7
1. The Beginning 8 -19
1.1. Social Context
9-10
1.2. Research Framework
11-12
1.3. Fundamental Phenomena and Social Constructs
12-14
1.4. Research Orientation
14-15
1.5. Methodology
15-17
1.6. Relevance
17-18
2. Fashion Trend or Development? 20-29
2.1. The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
21-24
2.2. The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Western Society
25-27
2.3. The Role of the Fashion Industry
27-28
3. Comparing Cultures 30-51
4 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
3.1. History: Emergence and Original Purpose
31-33
3.2. Development: Progression in Western Society
33-38
38-42
3.3. Now: Contemporary Purpose
42-44
3.4. Build-up: Social Structures
44-49
3.5. Fundament: Key Values
49-51
3.6. Summary
52-57
4. The Story So Far
53-55
4.1. Main Research Findings
56-57
4.2. A Mismatch
57
4.2. Returning to the Initial Principle
58-67
5. Showing the Way
59-64
5.1. Tribe profile
64-67
5.2. Symbiotic co-existence
68-72
Postscript
69-71
Research Limitations
71-72
Future Research Recommendations
72
Abbreviations
73-79
References
80-239 Appendices
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In a society with unlimited sources of information, individualistic consumers
challenge the industries to keep up with their unique needs and desires. In an
attempt to do so, the fashion industry pushes its own limits and aims to
re-define itself with new measures and in original ways. In this experimental
time, the tattoo has become a popular phenomenon in the fashion melting pot
of inspiration.
While many might at first believe the appearance of the tattoo in fashion to be
a temporary trend, the following research will show that the fashion industry
itself considers the tattoo to be an additional fashion medium. As several
literature studies indicate that the tattoo had already become a mainstream
phenomenon in society by the time that the tattoo started to appear as a
fashion element, it is suggested that there is a tattoo acceptance development
in western society. Furthermore, it is argued that fashion accentuates the
infinite (personal) interpretation possibilities of the tattoo phenomenon to
consumers, which indicates that the fashion industry plays an articulating and
possibly facilitating part in the tattoo acceptance development.
Further research then shows that the fashion industry was able to play this part
as it shares fundamental principles and values with the tattoo culture. The
moment both phenomena emerged in western civilization and their original
purpose as expressing social status are nearly identical. In addition, both
cultures respect and implement similar social structures and share values,
6 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
derived from their remarkable relation to time and their sense of identification,
expression, and authenticity.
However, when assessing the current fashion trend, to get a tattoo as a fashion
statement, with respect to the shared cultural fundaments, one can conclude
that there is a mismatch. Due to a hasty adoption, the early majority of the
fashion consumer has misinterpreted the tattoo purpose, which resulted in the
emergence of an unsustainable type of tattoo in the fashion environment.
Through a detailed profile of the Independent Creator, the study returns to the
tattoo adoption of the innovators and early adopters fashion segment and
outlines the principles of successful tattoo appropriation. It is then concluded
that when a tribe respects and preserves the tattoo as a separate entity from
fashion
it
can
successfully
accommodate
both
phenomena
in
its
self-identification process.
With the Independent Creators, the cultural embodiment of the symbiotic
co-existence of fashion and tattoos, as a foundation, a concept for a durable
and contemporary relevant fashion platform is eventually suggested.
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 7
1.
8 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
THE BEGINNING
1.1. Social Context
In a time of unlimited sources of information, society has entered an uncertain
age in which everything can and will be questioned. Everyone has the
opportunity and ability to obtain the ever so accessible knowledge out there. In
this climate, industries struggle to utilize the overload of information and keep
up with the contemporary knowledge-hungry consumer. The fashion industry,
being one of them, is pushing its own limits and questioning its own structure in
an attempt to re-define itself and remain relevant to consumers.
A relatively popular phenomenon in the fashion melting pot of inspiration is the
tattoo. In contemporary fashion it appeared noticeably for the first time in 1971
when Issey Miyake designed the “Tattoo” dress featuring a Japanese tattoo
style print of Jimi Hendrix and Janis Joplin, as a tribute to the deceased youth
culture legends. 1 Then only in the 1980s, as traveling became more common,
the tribal tattoo became a prevalent source of inspiration for fashion designers
like Jean Paul Gaultier.2 Nonetheless, while it was already present in the fashion
climate the interest in tattoos spiked in 2005 as tattoo artists themselves
became part of the movement,3 when Christian Audigier launched the tattoo
inspired apparel line Ed Hardy.4 It was not much later, in 2008, that the fashion
label Emporio Armani acknowledged the tattoo as a powerful statement and
1
Fukai, A., Suoh, T. and Zaidan K.F.B.K., (2006).
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Henk Schiffmacher), see Appendix M, p. 224
3
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Henk Schiffmacher), see Appendix M, p. 224
4
Christian magazine, (2011).
2
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 9
used tattoos as an additional branding element for the catwalk show of its
Spring/Summer 2009 collection.5 While many tattoo inspired creations by
different fashion labels followed, it was the Chanel temporary tattoo in 20106
which eventually transformed the tattoo from a source of inspiration and
branding element into a fashion accessory for consumers.
Now that this form of body adornment made its way from the streets to the
catwalk scene and back to the consumer landscape it can no longer be ignored.
While it may have started as a print inspiration, the tattoo has now been
interpreted by the fashion industry in a much broader sense. Not only have
collaborations between fashion labels and tattoo artists taken place, even topmodels are now known for their tattoos.7 While previously they were to show
no individual personality, the latest appearance is the embodiment of ultimate
tattoo dedication. Rick Genest, who is also known as “Zombie Boy”, has become
a well-known muse and model for both fashion and cosmetics brands.8
Nonetheless, most remarkable is the contribution to this fashion phenomenon
made by the fashion consumer, as among them it has become popular to get
the “actual thing” as a fashion statement. 9 Taking this into consideration; can
we speak of an on-going tattoo trend in fashion?
1.2. Research Framework
5
Fashion and Style, (2010).
La Chanelphile, (2011a).
7
Trendy Style, (2011).
8
Montreal Gazette, (2011).
9
La Chanelphile, (2011b).
6
10 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
1.2. Research Framework
One could argue that the leap between how the fashion industry presents the
tattoo to the consumer and how the fashion consumer adopts the tattoo is too
large for it to simply be a fashion trend. The crucial difference here lies in the
fact that the fashion industry repeatedly presents tattoo interpretations as
temporary style elements, whereas the consumer goes for the actual
permanent deed. This could indicate that the fashion followers are taking the
tattoo phenomenon more seriously and that society is dealing with an
underlying, possibly lasting, development.
Naturally the initial question of the following research arises;
Is the tattoo phenomenon in fashion simply a fashion trend or is there an
underlying (permanent) development going on in society, which is articulated
and re-interpreted by the fashion industry?
The hypothesis of the research being that there is a more permanent
development taking place, the form of which will continuously evolve and which
will remain visible in different gradations in fashion as it is the addition of an
expressive medium to the fashion toolkit.
If the hypothesis is proven accurate the research will examine the following;
What are the fundamental values of the intimate relationship between the
fashion and tattoo culture, which allowed for this development articulation in
fashion?
- IS THERE AN UNDERLYING DEVELOPMENT GOING ON ? - WHAT ARE THE FUNDAMENTAL VALUES OF THE RELATIONSHIP ? The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 11
Based on the values identified, a profile of an exemplar tribe forming the link
between these cultures will be created. Lastly, grounded in the fundamental
values and derived profile, a suggestion is made on how to translate the defined
anthropological phenomenon into a concept for a fashion platform.
1.3. Fundamental Phenomena and Social Constructs
Prior to the research, the key social constructs need to be defined as the
multiple possibilities for interpretation of these phenomena can obstruct any
feasible conclusion. The following definitions of the concepts culture, identity,
fashion, and trend will remain persistent throughout the research in order to
minimize obscurity.
While the term culture is typically used to refer to a particular civilization,
according to Geert Hofstede, social anthropology provided an additional
meaning, which over the past decades has become commonly used.
He
explains that “culture is the collective programming of the human mind that
distinguishes the members of one human group from those of another. Culture
in this sense is a system of collectively held values.”10 This take on culture not
only emphasizes the essence of shared values but additionally eliminates
geographical boundaries within a culture. Therefore this interpretation of the
term culture will be applied throughout the following study.
10
12 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Geert Hofstede & Gert Jan Hofstede, (n.d.).
Identity is commonly defined as “the characteristics determining who or what a
person or thing is.” It should however not be forgotten that the interpretation
of this term is affected by the contextual perspective. One can easily identify
themselves very differently from how another would identify them. In the
following research self-identification will be the perspective from which this
term will be employed. From this view point identity can still refer to both “a
social category, defined by membership rules and (alleged) characteristic
attributes or expected behaviours” and “distinguishing features that a person
takes a special pride in or views as unchangeable but socially consequential.”11
The term fashion is a complex social construct originally used to describe a
popular style in clothing, hair, decoration, or behaviour.12 However, nowadays it
is also referred to as a separate entity itself. In her book ‘Fashion Design’, Sue
Jenkyn Jones argues that “fashion is a specialized form of body adornment.” 13
In this regard the tattoo industry could be classified as part of the fashion
industry. Nevertheless, when referring to a fashion brand one tends to refer to
a brand which might employ additional body adornment means (such as
cosmetics) but preliminarily focuses on clothing. Therefore in this study when
referring to the fashion industry it indicates the clothing industry subjected to
popular public tastes that possibly encompasses other forms of body
adornment, which may then be considered fashionable without their entire
sector being so. To clarify, George Sproles explains that “an evaluation of the
generalized concept of fashion suggests that fashion may be conceptualized on
11
Fearon, J. D., (1999).
Oxford Dictionaries, (2012a).
13
Jones, S.J., (2005).
12
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 13
two separate dimensions, the fashion object and the fashion process.” The
fashion object possibly being a “stylistic product” or a “non-material social
product” and the fashion process being “a mechanism of stages (…) by which
the object ultimately emerges as an accepted or rejected fashion.”14 In this
respect the following study will be investigating the fashion object (the tattoo)
and the drivers (the fundamental values of the fashion and tattoo culture)
behind its fashion process (the appropriation of the tattoo from the tattoo
culture into the fashion culture).
In the contemporary fast-fashion climate the term trend is often used. Usually a
it is described as “a general direction in which something is developing or
changing.”15 In this sense the term trend is however not specific enough to
describe what is meant with it in the fashion context of the following research.
To specify, it shall be referred to as a fashion trend. These can be described as
current body adornment styles to which (fashion conscious) consumers adjust
their own way of dressing and which have the tendency to change rapidly.16
Especially this element of rapid change is what differentiates a fashion trend
from a development.
1.4. Research Orientation
Considering that the central subject of the research concerns the less tangible
aspects of both the fashion and tattoo culture, one could argue that this is a
14
Sproles, G. B., (1974).
Oxford Dictionaries, (2012b).
16
Whatmakesfashion.com, (2006).
15
14 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
study of social patterns. With its emphasis on cultural similarities and
differences it can be classified as sociocultural anthropological research.17
Having determined this, the appropriate interpretive anthropological
perspective,
recognizing subjects as creative actors who construct their
sociocultural worlds out of symbols,18 will be implemented throughout the
following research.
1.5. Methodology
When assessing the aim and the structure of this research one might argue that
this is a deductive and positivist study. The fact that the “theory and the
hypothesis deduced from it come first and drive the process of gathering data”
classifies this as a deductive study according to Bryman and Bell.19 In this type of
research the investigation is structured as a linear process of two phases,
ultimately looking for confirmation or falsification.20
Nonetheless, when taking the sociocultural anthropological nature of the
researched subject into consideration one can establish that this is an
interpretive study. This is not only the case with respect to the manner of
collecting data, but also the aim of identifying meaningful patterns. In this case,
the researcher acknowledges the role they themselves play in the socially
constructed phenomenon which they are studying. Reason and Rowan stress
“the importance of establishing this collaboration between the researcher and
17
American Anthropological Association, (2012).
Erickson, P. A. and Murphy, L.D., (2008).
19
Bryman, A. and Bell, E., (2007).
20
Mossinkoff, M., (2008).
18
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 15
researched” as it will lead to “shared understanding”.21 Such a research
approach is more contextually based and builds on intuition and emotion.22
Because of this the inductive approach is considered to be effective when doing
qualitative research. The researcher is then open to any kind of source of
information as one simply seeks to describe rather than to make an universal
generalization.
Essentially qualitative research “is a broad approach – and draws on multiple
methods of inquiry”
23
of which the collected data is to be triangulated. This
does do not only enhance integrity but provides a degree of transparency,
crucial to estimating the plausibility and transferability of the study.24 It should
however not be the aim to generate a theory which can be super-imposed on
other cultures or societies. Throughout the entire research which will follow,
the interpretive approach remains essential, thus qualitative research will play a
key role.
Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions will be predominantly
used, due to the fact that the research subject is based on individual
interpretations and opinions. To select the participants, purposive sampling will
be used to ensure that the intended cultures are researched.
25
While this will
make the sample homogenous in some aspects, the differences between
participants will be addressed by the researcher using different question
21
Reason and Rowan (1981)., in Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A., (2002).
Mossinkoff, M., (2008).
23
Rossman, G.B. and Rallis, S.F., (2003).
24
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P. and Larkin, M., (2009).
25
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P. and Larkin, M., (2009).
22
16 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
guidelines. Five semi-structured interviews and two focus group discussions will
be conducted, from which the data will be collected through video recordings.
As the perspective of the study is interpretive, both the method of data
collection and method of data analysis should be coherent. Therefore, to derive
meaningful patterns in an academic manner, the analytical theory, also used in
qualitative psychology, known as Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
(IPA) will be implemented. The aim of this analytical framework “is to explore in
detail how participants are making sense of their personal and social world”
while it leaves room for a critical evaluation of the participants’ responses. The
fact that IPA is concerned with “how meanings are constructed by individuals
within both a social and a personal world” 26, confirms its coherence with the
interpretive perspective of the study.
1.6. Relevance
Although most will have noticed that there is something going on with the
tattoo phenomenon in fashion, no one has actually examined these questions in
detail. By addressing these questions, the understanding of the contemporary
fashion agents (the industry and its consumers) can be broadened.
The research is of academic relevance as it begins to fill the gap of academic
research on current developments in the fashion environment. While the age of
26
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P. and Larkin, M., (2009).
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 17
technological progress speeds up our global society, fashion professionals often
claim nothing new is happening in fashion.27 However when looking back in a
few decades one might conclude the contrary and find that at the moment
society finds itself in the Golden Age of information28, which triggers such a
tremendous amount of developments that one simply cannot distinguish one
from another. Therefore, the importance of mapping out current developments
can be significant for future academic studies.
From a managerial perspective the relevance of the study lies in the
understanding of (fashion) market agents. By becoming knowledgeable about
the driving forces behind consumer decisions, a manager is more likely to
recognise a development in an early stage, allowing for more agile reactions to
the market. Additionally, by understanding the mentality of (future) fashion
professionals, a fashion manager is likely to be more adequate in anticipating
and resolving situations on the work floor.
In a social context the following study sheds light on the process of constructing
and expressing one’s identity. In a time of unlimited resources, selecting the
correct means to do so can be an incredible challenge. Therefore the social
relevance of the following study is that it can provide insight in this process and
possibly inspire and guide individuals through this contemporary Paradox of
Choice.29
27
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Peter Leferink), see Appendix M, p. 218
Clark, Ian., (2011).
29
Schwartz, B., (2004).
28
18 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 19
2.
20 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
FASHION TREND OR DEVELOPMENT?
In order to define the dimensions of the tattoo phenomenon it needs to be
assessed in both a fashion and societal context. By outlining its interpretations
in the fashion industry and its acceptance in contemporary society one can
attempt to specify whether it is a fashion trend or a (possibly permanent)
development.
2.1. The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
With Issey Miyake’s “Tattoo” dress, featuring a Japanese tattoo style print of
Jimi Hendrix and Janis Joplin to honour them as youth culture legends, the
contemporary tattoo phenomenon in fashion was born. While Miyake only used
the tattoo again in the 1990s as a decorative print for his body suits30, Jean Paul
Gaultier started to use tribal tattoo influences in the 1980s as travelling became
more common and the youth started to bring back the exotic body
adornments.31 At this time, the fashion labels using the tattoo as a source of
inspiration aimed at showing their affiliation with rebellion, edginess, and
revolution. However, over the past decades the deliberate use of tattoos
trickled down through all layers of the fashion industry, resulting in that the
tattoo has now been interpreted in a much broader (fashion) sense.
30
31
Fukai, A., Suoh, T. and Zaidan K.F.B.K., (2006).
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Henk Schiffmacher), see Appendix M, p. 224
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 21
A landmark in this tattoo evolution was Ed Hardy. One could even argue that
the clothing brand Ed Hardy was, in 2005, the instigator of the current tattoo
phenomenon in fashion as it triggered the interest of the tattoo world in
collaborating with fashion brands, resulting in that “since then every selfrespecting tattooist of name has tried to set up a clothing line.”32 The apparel
line, “inspired by the youth of the U.S., vintage fashion, Hollywood stars, and
the motorbike and tattoo culture”, makes use of literal tattoo designs by “the
godfather of tattoos” - Ed Hardy - for fabric prints. 33 The style grew immensely
popular in the years to follow and has led the brand owner Christian Audigier to
diversify the product range from solely apparel to an additional eleven product
categories even including energy snacks and housewares.34
It was then only in 2008 that the tattoo deliberately appeared on the catwalk as
a branding element in the Emporio Armani Spring/Summer 2009 show.35 Soon,
rather than it simply being a brand enhancement on the catwalk, other fashion
couture houses continued to develop the fashion take on the tattoo. Jean Paul
Gaultier, acknowledging the original purpose of tattoos, used it in his catwalk
show to emphasize the individuality of the models by giving them (make-up)
tattoos of their own names. Meanwhile that same year, Louis Vuitton went into
collaboration with the famous tattoo artist Scott Campbell. In an attempt to
bring both worlds together the partnership developed a limited-edition bag
32
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Henk Schiffmacher, see Appendix L, p. 206
Christian magazine, (2011).
34
Ed Hardy, (2012).
35
Fashion and Style, (2010).
33
22 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
with a tattoo inspired cut-out in its leather. 36 Nevertheless, it was eventually
Chanel who initiated the transfer of the ‘fashion tattoo’ from the catwalk into
the hands of the consumer by diversifying their product range with a limited
edition of temporary tattoos. 37
Although the interpretation of the tattoo by the fashion industry was present in
collections of couture house, a broader sense of approval became apparent in
2010 when models were suddenly accepted to have tattoos. Whereas they
previously were expected to be clean canvases which could be shaped into any
desirable artwork, now they were allowed to irreversibly show their individual
personality38. While for female models the tattoos tend to remain subtle, top
model Freja Beha Erichsen demonstrates that the number of tattoos is
definitely not restricted, as she has an incredible 16 of them.39 For male models
however, the tattoos are allowed to make much heftier statements. A great
example of this is top model Daniel Bamdad who has become known for his
tattoos and which, some claim, have given his modelling career a boost as he is
now the face for many high-end labels.40 Despite that in most cases the tattoos
simply give the models more personality, in the extreme case of the Thierry
Mugler model and muse Rick Genest (Zombie boy) they have even made him
into a living artwork. 41
36
Highsnobiety, (2011).
bellasugar, (2010).
38
Trendy Style, (2011).
39
Runway Reports.x, (2012).
40
Viktor und Viktoria, (2012).
41
Montreal Gazette, (2011).
37
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 23
Now, as models have become stylistic celebrities themselves and are no longer
only showing designer clothing,
the interest in this tattoo phenomenon
amongst fashion followers thrived. While initially fashion blogs started
discussing the matter, it did not take long for the first fashionable tattoo blogs
to emerge a little later in 2010.42 As a result, these blogging style icons evolved
the fashion tattoo into a (permanent) fashion statement, encouraging many
fashion followers to get these fashionable tattoos, ranging from little bows and
clothing hangers in their neck to elegant texts on their ribs or arms. 43
Naturally the more mainstream fashion brands could no longer stay behind and
hopped onto the bandwagon in 2011. While some, like denim brand Replay,
keep it simple with a campaign featuring a model with individualistic tattoos44,
other brands like DIESEL base new product concepts on the phenomenon. 45
But when analysing the progress of the tattoo phenomenon in fashion watching it evolve from a fabric print into a branding element, to a new fashion
product , and even a form of artistic affiliation - it seems there is still a missing
link. Whereas the interpretations of the tattoo by the fashion industry remained
an inspirational and temporary style element, fashion followers adopted the
actual form of permanent body art. What circumstances facilitated this turn of
events?
42
Naridyard, (2010).
Fashion Scene, (2012).
44
Sportswear International, (2012).
45
GLAMCULT, (2012).
43
24 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
2.2. The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Western Society
While in the past few decades in western civilization tattoos were considered a
way to express rebellion by society’s minorities, the Economist published in
2008 that “inked skin has gone mainstream”. At the New York City Tattoo
Convention that year, besides the stereotypical “burly biker and rockability
types (…) also a surprising number of families” visited the event. The article
goes on to explain that tattoos have become mainstream over the past decades
due to safety regulations improving and celebrities taking pride in their
permanent body art.46 Now, four years later, the Harris interactive even
indicates that “1 in 5 of the American adult population has a tattoo” and that
the number of people in society associating rebellion with tattoos has
decreased by a remarkable 5% since 2008.47
Karen Bettez Halnon, sociologist at the Penn State University, claims that this
current development of the tattoo phenomenon in society can be classified as
“gentrification” as it now appeals “to almost everyone from doctors to bankers
and even to soccer moms” and is no longer only for minority subcultures.
48
Meanwhile, science journalist Carl Zimmer found confirmation of this
movement when he blogged about his scientist friend who has a double helix
tattoo. He asked the question “are there more scientists out there who have a
tattoo on the topic which they studied for years?” Soon a flood of responses
followed with scientists who had indeed tattooed their life work on their
46
Anon., (2008).
Harris Interactive, (2012).
48
Anon., (2008).
47
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 25
bodies. The overwhelming number of responses eventually inspired Zimmer to
put them all together in his book Science Ink: Tattoos of Science Obsessed.49
Nonetheless, despite the fact that 10% of grandparents now have a tattoo and
many standard cautions no longer apply50, opinions still differ on whether it is a
positive development or not. NRC columnist Rosanne Hertzberger argues that
Contemporary Tattoo Associations
Negative
once again will be out of fashion, which is when “a whole generation will wear
the scars of this phase for the rest of their life.”51 This, still relatively common
Positive
70
disapproval, is leaving the higher educated in doubt about getting tattoos as
65
50 46
they are uncertain if they will be perceived as reliable professionals.52
59
57
60
47
46
This aspect of people personally having a positive attitude toward tattoos, while
aware of the lingering negative associations in society also appeared in the
41
40
survey conducted for this study (see Figure 1). The division between positive
and negative associations which people have with tattoos53 could mean that the
28
30
21
24
23
20
15
24
there is a strong division in opinion. However, as most survey respondents were
20
18
from the same age group it could also indicate that people are starting to
differentiate between different types of tattoos.54 This in turn suggests that the
10
9
10
general form of tattooing itself is now relatively accepted within society and
that the type of tattoo determines the degree of individual acceptance.
Associations
26 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Symbolic
Personal
Meaningful
Dedication
Open-minded
Identity
Art
Decoration
Common
Fashionable
Hipster
Cliche
Self-destructive
Low-class
Agressive
Show-off
0
Rebellion
Number of survey respondents agreeing (out of 105 participants)
Figure 1.
this development is a form of self “customization”, a contemporary hype that
49
Carl Zimmer, (2011).
Moms Today, (2012).
51
Hertzberger, R., (2011).
52
Anderson, Dr. Michael., (2009).
53
Survey data, see Appendix B, p. 84-85
54
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 190
50
The possibility that society has begun to accept the general tattoo principle is
confirmed by the fact that new functions of tattooing are investigated and
implemented. While permanent make-up is a service already put into practice
for a few decades55 the next discovery of tattoo uses is scalp pigmentation.
During this procedure “different shades of pigment are tattooed in the scalp
replicating the density and size of short hairs” which is leaving men no longer
out of the practical functionality loop of tattoos.56 Additionally, confirmation
that the tattoo is now an officially accepted phenomenon by society’s
institutions is the fact that the Amsterdam government has subsidised the
construction of the Amsterdam Tattoo Museum and thereby classified it as
cultural heritage worth preserving.57
2.3. The Role of the Fashion Industry
Considering that the contemporary tattoo interpretations of the fashion
industry thrived around the year 2008 and that by this time the tattoo had
already started to go mainstream in society, one can conclude that it is more
than just a temporary fashion trend. The (possibly permanent) underlying
development in western society is simply emphasized, articulated, and possibly
facilitated by the fashion industry.
The reason why fashion plays such an influential role in today’s society is
potentially due to the fact that it is remarkably relevant to the current
55
Tattoo Bob, (n.b.).
Flash Your Tattoo, (2012b).
57
Amsterdam Tattoo Museum, (2012).
56
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 27
individualistic zeitgeist. As it has been receiving a lot of media attention in the
past decade due to its popularity, messages from the fashion industry have
been amplified, allowing it to have an even larger impact than ever before. In
the case of the studied phenomenon, it has even caused the fashion conscious
consumer to accept the tattoo in an earlier stage than the average consumer.58
Ultimately this explains the gap between the fact that fashion followers were
ready to adopt the actual tattoo even though the fashion industry did not
encourage such a permanent statement.
However, considering that the fashion message on tattoos showed to be
remarkably strong and influential it would seem incomplete to just solely
assume that this is possible because it fits perfectly with the spirit of the time.
Therefore it would be reasonable to argue that there must be significant
correlations between the fashion and tattoo culture, which allowed the fashion
industry to adopt and reinterpret the tattoo phenomenon in the powerful way
that it has.
58
28 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Lizzie & Cherrelle), see Appendix I, p. 173
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 29
3.
30 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
COMPARING CULTURES
As previous research indicated, the fashion industry has taken a facilitating and
articulating role in the tattoo acceptance development on-going in society, a
part which could not be played by just any industry. Which fundamental
similarities of both the fashion and tattoo phenomena allowed these two
cultures to interact in this particular way? In order to establish this, both
phenomena and their cultures need to be accurately analysed and defined
accordingly.
3.1. History: Emergence and Original Purpose
While many might argue that fashion, as it is known today, emerged with Rose
Bertin “the pioneering entrepreneur of the fashion business”59, one cannot
ignore that the circumstantial conditions of the time needed to allow for her to
become such a key figure. Therefore one could claim that the mentality of the
consumer in the second half of the 18th century was the determining factor. As
“the importance attached to clothing, which had always existed in courtsociety, grew even greater and (…) attained a social status unequalled in
previous decades” elites “were increasingly seeking fashion items to embody
their different and superior social values.” 60 This “demand for more diversified
59
60
Van den Berg, N., (2008).
Van den Berg, N., (2008).
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 31
products” resulted in the creation of the “sub-sector fashion merchants”61 and
like that the contemporary form of the fashion phenomenon officially emerged.
While it is almost impossible to determine when tattoo techniques were first
used, the earliest finding of the tattoo is on Ӧtzi, the fossilised remains of a
man found in the Italian alps, dating back to around 3300 B.C. Recent research
however indicates that this form of the ancient tattooing was most likely a type
of acupuncture and had therapeutic purposes.
62
Meanwhile, since Ӧtzi, there
were many cultures, ranging from the Egyptians to the Vikings and the
Japanese, that featured tattoos. It was however not until 1769 that the tattoo
phenomenon, as we know it now , officially entered western civilisation.63 It was
through the voyages of Captain James Cook to the Pacific Islands and Polynesia,
that the phenomenon was reintroduced under the word tattoo, which derived
from the Tahitian word “tattau” meaning “to mark”. 64 One of the eldest tattoo
cultures originating from the pacific islands is that of the Mentawai ,65 whom
consider tattooing a necessity to survive. 66 In this tribe it is believed that one of
the ancestors had a vision. A God from nature appeared to him and explained
that they were created by nature but need to distinguish themselves, as they
are a sophisticated civilisation. In order to keep their spirits from deserting their
61
Van den Berg, N., (2008).
Anthropology.net, (2009).
63
The Art of Tattoo, (2003).
64
The Art of Tattoo, (2003).
65
MuMa - Museum Maluku, (2012). Exhibition: Tattoo – Who are you? Tattoo Odyssey.
[film documentary]
66
MuMa – Museum Maluku, (2012). Exhibition: Tattoo – Who are you? Symbols of
civilisation and identity.
62
32 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
bodies it is necessary to permanently decorate themselves; the decorations
symbolizing their accomplishments to reward and honour their souls.67
Having determined that originally both phenomena were an ancient custom
used to express social status and accomplishment, one cannot ignore that the
concepts identification and differentiation are inseparable from both
phenomena. As one will need an audience to differentiate from, it is again
emphasized that both cultures are built on social phenomena. Therefore the
social context is crucial for their existence. This indicates that the concepts of
both fashion and tattoos are likely to evolve and develop over time, as the
people and thus their cultures do so.
3.2. Development: Progression in Western Society
Using the above determined historic moments as the starting point, the
developments of both the fashion and tattoo phenomena (and their cultures)
are discussed along a timeline.
67
MuMa - Museum Maluku, (2012). Exhibition: Tattoo – Who are you? Tattoo Odyssey.
[film documentary]
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 33
Fashion Timeline68
1760s
Initiated by court-societies there is an increased emphasis on social
status through the use of adornments, resulting in that fashion is
officially recognised as a trade.
1810s
Beau Brummel changes the male fashion code and the dandy (the
self-made man) emerges. Fashion is no longer only for royalty and
society’s elite but the middle class can now also acquire status
through their dress.
1830s-60s
The Industrial Revolution initiates the industrialisation of the fashion
trade as sewing and knitting machines are invented. As efficiency goes
up, prices start to change and the trade becomes more competitive
and diverse.
1880s
Fashion becomes available for masses as Vogue magazine is launched
and department stores pop-up.
1910s
While cinema popularizes fashion, the emancipation of women makes
clothing more accessible as female designers gain grounds in the
fashion sector and corsets disappear.
68
34 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Jones, S.J., (2005).
1930s-40s
The Great Depression and the Second World War cause practical dress
to become the norm, while extremes of wealth and poverty ascend.
1950s-70s
The new ‘youth market’ emerges. The powerful youth “revolution”
makes fashion a means of expression for society’s sub-cultures.
1980s
As street styles make alliances with youth culture music, this strong
expressive combination starts to influence and occasionally dictate
fashion.
1990s
The arrival of internet speeds up communication and dissolves trade
barriers, causing the globalisation of (fashion) markets.
2000s-2012
Eclecticism and individualism prescribe the spirit of the time.
Consumers start to self-educate through technology and begin to mix
and match past style movements on an individual level.69
69
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Focus Group – Fashion students without
tattoos), see Appendix I, p. 178
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 35
Tattoo Timeline
1770s
The contemporary tattoo phenomenon is introduced into western
society through the voyages of Captain James Cook. The sailors getting
tattoos as souvenirs on these exotic voyages,70 results in that the
word tattoo is introduced into western vocabulary.71 That same
decade the Tahitian native Omai, who comes back with the fleet to
represent the discovered Pacific inhabitants, is accepted by the British
elite as a sophisticated and intelligent individual, while he is covered
with tribal tattoos.72
1860s-1910s
European royalty appropriates the tattoo as symbols indicating the
completion of significant travels and end overs.73
1880s-1920s
As Samuel O’Reilly patents the first battery powered tattoo machine in
189174, the tattoo becomes slightly more accessible. As a result it is
considered fashionable for western aristocrats to get tattooed. 75
70
Tattoo Archive, (1998a).
The Art of Tattoo, (2003).
72
Royal Museums Greenwich, (2012).
73
Royal Museums Greenwich, (2012).
74
Tattoo Archive, (1998b).
75
Royal Museums Greenwich, (2012).
71
36 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
1929
Peter Waiter patents the “contemporary” tattoo machine design76
prompting tattoos to become cheaper, which stimulates the lower
classes of western society to then also get tattoos. This in turn leads to
the “practise falling out of favour with the social elites.”77
1960s
Triggered by the youth culture revolution, the tattoo becomes an
identification symbol for minorities and rebellious sub-cultures such as
convicts, bikers, punks, and homosexuals. 78
1980s-90s
As the tattoo becomes an icon of popular culture, it is fragmented and
adopted by a wide variety of social groups.
79
This acceptance
development in society becomes known as the “tattoo renaissance”.
The fashion industry becomes conscious of this movement and the
first tattoo inspired creations start to appear in fashion aesthetics.
2000s-2012
The “tattoo renaissance” is sped up by technological developments.
Due to the accessibility of information on the phenomenon’s rich
history the appropriation by the higher educated classes of society is
stimulated. 80 The fashion industry comes to understand the powerful
meaning of tattoos and explores the infinite interpretation
possibilities.
76
Tattoo Archive, (1998b).
Royal Museums Greenwich, (2012).
78
Under the Skin, (2004).
79
Under the Skin, (2004).
80
Hertzberger, R., (2011).
77
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 37
Remarkable is that both phenomena as we know them now, emerged just a
decade apart. In both cases they first became a means of social status
expression in western court-societies , after which the social elites adopted the
phenomena. Subsequently, it is interesting to see that tattoos became solely for
the lower classes of society, while fashion became mainstream but remained to
be dictated by the elite of France as it is ‘the centre of art and culture’81. This is
presumably due to the fact that tattoos are not a necessity in the way that
clothing is to cover up the body. Additionally, through pricing, fashion could
differentiate between which styles were for the higher class and which for the
lower class, permitting it to diversify within its own structure and so go
mainstream as a whole. In both cases it is then only when the youth market
emerges in the second half of the 20th century that both phenomena became a
means of identification for the sub-cultures of society. This shift in focus toward
street style made both phenomena accessible for the masses and emphasized
their diverse expressive potential. While for fashion this simply meant a shift in
who dictated the fashionable styles, in tattooing its acceptance in general
played a key role in the appropriation by the masses. One can therefore argue
that the fashion “revolution” was able to take place in a much faster pace as it
was in already an accepted means of expression and that only now through the
technological developments of the 21st century the tattoo is catching up.
3.3. Now: Contemporary Purpose
As the dimensions of a social phenomenon evolve over time, the nuance of its
purpose is likely to adjust to the zeitgeist. While both fashion and tattoos have
81
38 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Jones, S.J., (2005).
remained a means of identification and expression till today, the kind of identity
expressed and its contextual perspective seem to have shifted.
“I am the master of my faith; I am the captain of my soul” – William Ernest
Henley (1888)82
Over the past decades the western world has shifted its perspective from a
collectivist to an individualistic one.83 As young generations in western societies
“are growing up under increasingly secure conditions” they “tend to embrace
individualistic values.”
84
As a result people in such cultures now “define
themselves as independent of social groups and institutions” and emphasize
that their “personality reflects unique and distinguishable traits, needs, and
desires.”85 But whereas previously individualism had a negative connotation and
was associated “with selfishness and greed” the technological developments,
stimulating globalisation, have resulted in the emergence of “new individualist
priorities” such as “creativity, initiative, and entrepreneurship.” 86 This shift in
the social mentality certainly has its effects on the expressive identification
purposes of both the contemporary tattoo and fashion phenomena.
“I AM THE MASTER OF MY FAITH; I AM THE CAPTAIN OF MY SOUL”
82
- WILLIAM ERNEST HENLEY (1888)
While this phrase is from a poem which is over a century old, it vividly captures the
contemporary zeitgeist. At the time, Henley questioned the Christian normative
existence, which was quite controversial in those days and acknowledged his own
influence on his being. By Quiller-Couch, A. T., (1902).
83
Tsuladze, L., (2009).
84
International Markets Bureau, (2010).
85
Goncalo and Staw 2006; Realo et al, 2002 in International Markets Bureau, (2010).
86
International Markets Bureau, (2010).
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 39
“All fashion is clothing, although clearly not all clothing is fashion… We need
fashion, rather than clothes, not to clothe our nakedness but to clothe our selfesteem”- Colin McDowell (1995)87
While “cultural theorists and clothing analysts have focused primarily on four
practical functions of dress: utility, modesty, immodesty (that is, sexual
attraction) and adornment. In his book Consumer Behaviour Towards Dress
(1979), George Sproles suggested four additional (expressive) functions:
symbolic differentiation, social affiliation, psychological self-enhancement and
modernism.”88 Whereas these four expressive functions may have remained
equally important for clothing, for the fashion consumer the focus noticeably
“NOT TO CLOTHE OUR NAKEDNESS BUT TO CLOTHE OUR SELF-ESTEEM”
- COLIN MCDOWELL (1995)
shifted from symbolic differentiation and social affiliation to psychological selfenhancement and modernism. This is compatible with the shift of the
contemporary western consumer from the collectivist view (to define one’s
social identity) to that of the individualist (to define one’s individual identity).89
In this global digitalized environment where the consumer self-educates, in a
focus group discussion, fashion students define the purpose of fashion as an
expression of individuality, taste, and one’s attitude toward life.90 All three of
which are centred around the individualist’s perspective; articulating one’s
unique inner-self in the search to continuously re-define one’s own (evolving)
identity in one’s social context.
87
Jones, S.J., (2005).
Jones, S.J., (2005).
89
Tsuladze, L., (2009).
90
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Focus Group – Fashion students without tattoos),
see Appendix I, p. 178
88
40 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
“Permanence, perseverance and persistence in spite of all obstacles,
discouragements, and impossibilities. It is this, that in all things distinguishes the
strong soul from the weak.” – Thomas Carlyle.
The tattoo expression of one’s identity is as well no longer primarily focused on
social affiliation and the creation of one’s image but has also become mostly
focused on psychological self-enhancement. The crucial part that the
permanence aspect plays in the nuance of its purpose should however not be
forgotten. This additional dimension of the tattoo phenomenon often results in
individuals placing meaning in their tattoo symbolizing a stable element of their
identity. This is exactly why its identification perspective , unlike that of fashion,
has shifted from a social to a personal context. To clarify, whereas the fashion
definition of one’s individual identity evolves over time and is related to one’s
social context, one’s tattoo definition physically cannot change over time and
therefore tends to focus on one’s individual identity only in one’s personal
context. For example, while at the moment someone might wear a T-shirt
saying ‘money stinks’ to express disapproval of the financial institutions, it is
less likely that one will tattoo this phrase on their body as it could be out of
context and irrelevant in a few years when the economic situation has changed.
Ultimately this clarifies why tattoos of are often to “commemorate” or
“remind” one of an important person or experience which one believes to have
affected or formed their identity.91
“PERMANENCE, PERSEVERANCE AND PERSISTANCE IN SPITE OF ALL”
- THOMAS CARLYLE
91
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Peter Leferink), see Appendix M, p. 219
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 41
Despite the difference in contextual perspective of their purpose, some fashion
professionals argue that the tattoo phenomenon is part of dress behaviour and
is simply a more permanent form .92 This makes it, from a marketing point of
view, a fashion related service.93 Ultimately this theory explains why the
purpose of both phenomena has made the same shift from expressing one’s
social identity to one’s individual identity, as a result of the changing zeitgeist.
In this case, one could then simply argue that the additional complexity of the
tattoo’s contextual perspective natures in the fact that the tattoo is a
permanent form of expression while fashion is a temporary form.
3.4. Build-up: Social structure
Whereas hierarchy often takes abnormal forms in creative environments, for
both the fashion and tattoo culture the master - apprentice principle has
formed the base for the culture’s social structure. Remarkable is however that
despite their differing interpretation and implementation of that principle, both
are experiencing similar changes.
Within the fashion culture it is believed that the apprentice needs to be
educated and thoroughly taught what fashion and design really are. There is an
educational system which they go through in which the master teaches what
responsibilities come with being a fashion designer and what the boundaries
are of the fashion framework. This is considered crucial as it is important that
the apprentice understands that “the phenomenon fashion indicates
92
93
42 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Peter Leferink), see Appendix M, p. 218
Easey, M., (2009).
limitations” rather than unlimited possibilities “and that within these
boundaries there is a freedom.”94 The process of learning therefore comprises a
careful balance of restriction and independence. Gradually the apprentice is
rewarded with freedom as he or she shows to be capable. The freedom within
the strict framework may then be explored by the apprentice, who is then
expected to find one’s own expressive style through experimentation.
Eventually the apprentice will then graduate through a final master-piece (their
own collection)95 providing them with a solid base to evolve into a respected
fashion designer.
In the tattoo culture there is no such thing as an educational system. “Everyone
can do whatever they want.” It simply “is a free profession and so how someone
wants to fill that in is up to them.”96 But despite that anyone can learn the trade
and that “it’s a pirate’s world”, there still is “a little bit of old-fashioned respect
in it” as well.97 Young aspiring tattoo artists often visit tattoo masters, also
referred to as “the old-timers”, and show them their talent in the hope of
getting an apprenticeship. In the rare case that they are accepted the master
teaches the apprentice his or her own techniques and shares trade secrets with
them which can take several years. In this process the way to preserve and
understand the shape of the body and how it affects the work is crucial.98 Once
the master then feels to have taught the apprentice everything, the student
94
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Peter Leferink, see Appendix K, p. 193
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Peter Leferink), see Appendix M, p. 217
96
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Henk Schiffmacher, see Appendix L, p. 208
97
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Henk Schiffmacher, see Appendix L, p. 208
98
Kakoulas, Marisa., (2012).
95
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 43
becomes an independent tattoo artist and adopts equivalent status from the
master. 99
Both cultures do however also notice that the implementation of this masterapprentice concept is currently changing as the younger generations are
encouraged to the self-educate and “are raised in the belief that everything is
possible and allowed.”100 In combination with the contemporary accessibility of
information, the younger generations no longer feel that the masters of the
profession have any crucial information to add. As a result they simply want to
become an apprentice so that they can “come a few days to hang around” a
master in order to “build their C.V.” and benefit from the master’s status. 101
3.5. Fundament: Key Values
Social and cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz defines the “underlying values
and interests that contribute to the fundamental motivating forces of a people”
as the “ethos of culture”. He explains it to be “the tone, character and quality
of their life, its moral and aesthetic style and mood; it is the underlying attitude
toward themselves and their world that life reflects.”102 By defining the “ethos”
of both cultures and comparing them to one another, thorough understanding
of their motives and attitude can be obtained.
99
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Henk Schiffmacher, see Appendix L, p. 208
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Peter Leferink, see Appendix K, p. 193
101
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Henk Schiffmacher, see Appendix L, p. 208
102
Geertz, C., (1973).
100
44 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Shared “ethos”
ARTISTIC ALLIANCE – as art is the ultimate form of expression
As each culture is certain that their phenomenon is a form of art itself, they
attempt to do it artistic justice in their individual interpretations of it. Not only
are they therefore inspired by other forms of art, they also want to be
associated with them.
AUTHENTIC IDENTITY – lying to the world would make me dishonest to myself
Considering that both phenomena aim to express one’s individual identity, both
cultures place high value on knowing and defining one’s true self as well as on
the search to achieve that.
CREATIVE CONSTRUCTION – where fantasies become reality
Based on the fact that both phenomena are anchored in visual creation, it is
common and appreciated to use more than one creative mean to express
oneself or construct new things. Therefore, the more accomplished one is in
creative expression the more they are admired within the culture.
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 45
BELOVED HISTORY – there is no future without a past
Intrigued and inspired by their historic past, both cultures value knowing
“where they are from.” They are aware that they need to understand their
history in order to create their future.103
HONEST MINORITY – because giving in is not a solution
Individuals from both cultures have often felt to be an outcast or remarkably
out of the ordinary (in good or bad way). Generally they have the impression
that this could not be avoided indicating it can be considered intrinsic.104 As a
result, having been an outcast is often positively valued because it indicates
strength regarding that one has stayed true to one’s own identity despite the
social consequences.
Fashion “ethos”
PROGRESSIVE REDEFINING – change is what builds the future
While for both cultures acknowledging the past is important, for the fashion
culture it is particularly significant as it strives to re-invent itself and
innovatively progress over time. The culture realizes that this can only be
achieved when knowing the past and radically discarding everything that has
been done so far.105
103
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Peter Leferink), see Appendix M, p. 218
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Xiomara), see Appendix I, p. 167
105
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Xiomara), see Appendix I, p. 166
104
46 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
UNIQUE DIFFERENTIATION – testifying of individual thought
Considering that the fashion phenomenon is centred on progress the individual
needs to strive to do the same. The more unique a person expresses oneself
within the fashion framework, while staying true to their individual identity, the
more admired the person is by the rest of the culture. 106
Tattoo “ethos”
REFINED SYMBOLISM – as intellectual understanding is the key
Cryptic or abstract forms of expression are popular in the tattoo culture. Not
only does this give a sense of affiliation, as other people of the culture will
recognise and understand the symbolism, but it also gives their form of
communication extra depth and an air of sophistication.
PARADOXIAL PERMANENCE – knowing that this too shall pass
The element of permanence is exactly what makes the tattoo such a powerful
means of expression. As the tattoo culture places immense worth on this aspect
it thereby emphasizes the finite existence of the individual, acknowledging and
accepting one’s physical limitations.107
106
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Maike), see Appendix I, p. 176
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 47
GENUINE DEVOTION – as its intimacy leaves no room for uncertainty
Considering that the tattoo is a form of self-expression that is in one’s skin and
is inseparable from this person for the rest of their life it is a much more
intimate message than any other. It genuinely testifies of remarkable devotion
and commitment toward the expressed feature. 108
CONSCIOUSLY ALIVE – by simply living in the moment
People in the tattoo culture find significance in the unpredictability of life. They
remind themselves through spontaneous actions and by pushing boundaries
within society and themselves109 that they are alive and that every moment
should be cherished.
107
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Elvert), see Appendix I, p. 176
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Lizzie), see Appendix I, p. 170
109
IPA Phase 1: Initial List of Themes (Lizzie), see Appendix I, p. 170
108
48 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
When assessing the shared values established above it becomes clear that these
originated from the mutual motivation to express one’s authentic identity in an
artistic manner. However, when analysing the values in which they differ from
one another, one will find that their differences are still based on shared
principles.
The most obvious difference derived from their intriguing relation to time.
While both cultures value their historic background it seems that they do so for
very different reasons. Whereas fashion aims to understand the past in order to
discard it and attempts to redefine itself over time, the tattoo is a permanent
and static form of expression for the individual which explains why its culture
values symbolism and tradition. The other main difference between the two
cultures derives from their common need to prove themselves. Whereas in the
fashion culture one can prove themselves worthy by uniquely differentiating
and therefore showing to be capable of individual thought, in the tattoo culture
one’s understanding of sophisticated symbolic expression provides the desired
status.110 One could then argue that this drive to prove worthy is again
grounded in the fact that individuals from both cultures often have felt to be an
outcast at a younger age.
3.6. Summary
Having accurately analysed and comparatively defined the fashion and tattoo
phenomena and their cultures it can be established that the two share several
fundamental principles.
110
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Henk Schiffmacher), see Appendix M, p. 220
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 49
The first of these is that the phenomena have a similar point of emergence in
history and originate from a comparable intention to express one’s social
identity and status. Nowadays, while the purpose to express one’s social
identity shifted to expressing one’s individual identity, fashion remains closely
linked to one’s social context, while tattoos tend to be more related to one’s
personal context.
Secondly, the study identified a significantly similar pattern in the mass
appropriation of each phenomenon. While for both their first introduction to
the mass market was initiated by technological developments during the
Industrial Revolution, the most crucial impetus were the rebellious sub-cultures
who made both phenomena a means of expression for the masses through the
popularization of street styles.
Then primary research established that professionals from both cultures have
remarkable appreciation for the master-apprentice principle, which they
implemented in different ways. However, now that the next generations are
raised in an environment that encourages self-education, this principle is slowly
being replaced by a similar social structure with opposing intentions known as
cv-building. Rather than that the apprentice really learns the trade secrets from
an established master the younger generation simply desires to be in the
presence of a successful professional solely to benefit from the status
associated with their name.
50 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Lastly, the research indicated that the shared and opposing values of both
cultures are based on the same principles; their aim to artistically express one’s
authentic identity, their relation to time, and the need to prove themselves. The
determining factor that makes it a shared or opposing value is simply the
culture’s attitude toward the principle.
As a result, the mutual understanding of each other’s foundations made it
possible for the fashion industry to gain a deep understanding of the tattoo
phenomenon, allowing it to take the articulating and facilitating role that it has
in the contemporary tattoo renaissance development.
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 51
4.
52 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
THE STORY SO FAR
4.1. Main Research Findings
As literature studies showed that the contemporary tattoo phenomenon
became immensely popular in fashion around 2008, by which time the tattoo
had already started to go mainstream in society, one may conclude that the
phenomenon is more than just a temporary fashion trend. The fact that many
fashion professionals expect that its popularity might diffuse or its form will
evolve111 is further confirmation that the fashion industry does not believe it to
be a temporary fashion element either but simply an additional non-apparel
medium of fashion which can become more or less significant over time.
Considering that the first appearance of the tattoo in fashion was intended as
an appropriate contribute to youth culture legends Jimi Hendrix and Janis
Joplin, one can establish that the use of tattoos in fashion was originally a way
for the fashion world to show that it was aware, appreciative, and supportive
of the on-going tattoo development in society. With the different fashionable
tattoo interpretations it articulated its infinite unique possibilities and enabled
consumers to see the tattoo in a different light, eventually making it more
accessible for the masses. Therefore one may conclude that instead of initiating
it, the fashion industry simply emphasized, articulated, and possibly facilitated
the (permanent) tattoo acceptance development in western society.
111
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Peter Leferink), see Appendix M, p. 218 & IPA Phase 1:
Initial List of Themes (Fashion students with tattoos), see Appendix I, p. 177
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 53
For fashion to take this role a few fundamental similarities and differences
between the two phenomena and their cultures are crucial. First of all, the
contemporary principles of the phenomena have a similar point of emergence
in history and originate from the same intention; to express one´s identity.
However, while previously it was about one´s social identity, nowadays it has
become a way to express one´s individual identity. Nonetheless, despite their
similar intention, differences in their implementation remain. Whereas for
fashion the identity expression is closely related to one’s social context, for
tattoos it tends to be more about one’s personal context.
Secondly, the study identified a significant similarity between the drivers behind
the appropriation of each phenomenon by the masses. While for both their first
introduction to the mass market was initiated by technological developments
during the Industrial Revolution, the most crucial impetus was the emergence
of youth cultures in the second half of the 20th century. Rebellious sub-cultures
made both the tattoo and fashion a means of expression for the masses as
street styles started to appear.
Thirdly, the research established
that both cultures have remarkable
appreciation for the Master-Apprentice principle and the notions respect and
craftsmanship are treasured by the current generation of professionals.
However, now that the last few decades younger generations are raised with
the idea that they can teach themselves and be successful in whatever they like,
the master-apprentice principle is slowly being replaced by a similar social
54 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
structure with opposing intentions known as cv-building. Rather than really
learning the trade secrets from an established master the younger generation
desires to be in the presence of a successful professional in order to benefit
from the status associated with their name.
Lastly, research indicated that the shared values of both cultures are mainly
based on their mutual aim to artistically express one´s identity. As a result
authenticity, artistic and creative ability, and awareness of the past are
considered important qualities in both cultures. Meanwhile the differences in
their key values are mostly based on their relation to time. While as a
phenomenon, both evolve and have trends, the actual “products” for the
individual have an opposite relationships with time. As fashion is a means to
redefine oneself over time, progress and uniqueness are highly valued. The
tattoo on the other hand is a permanent expression of one´s identity and is
therefore static for the individual, resulting in that permanence and devotion
are cherished values. This difference clarifies why the fashion culture has drawn
more toward the tattoo culture than the other way around.
Having established that the tattoo phenomenon in fashion is the articulation of
the on-going tattoo acceptance development in western society, which is based
on shared values and fundamental principles rooted in the artistic,
identification, and expressive purposes of both phenomena, one could argue
that a harmonized co-existence of both phenomena is achievable. Keeping this
in mind the current appropriation of the tattoo by fashion followers can be
subjected to grounded analysis in order to determine the concept’s durability.
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 55
4.2. A Mismatch
In a semi-structured interview with a fashion design professor it became
apparent that the tattoo was initially adopted by the fashion culture in its
original form with the purpose to express one’s identity and not deliberately in
a fashion context.112 At this point the tattoo was not yet intentionally utilized in
fashion itself but the people dictating fashion were already conscious of its
identification value. However, as the tattoo then started to become mainstream
Figure 2.
in society and turned into a style element in fashion itself, the literal tattoo
“product” in the fashion environment started to evolve.
It moved along the curve of the product life cycle and was adopted by the early
majority of fashion consumers (see Figure 2.). In this hasty process its purpose
was misinterpreted and it became a fashion statement in itself. While authentic
identification, artistic expression, and unique personality remain essential
qualities for the core of both the tattoo and fashion culture, the current tattoo
adopting fashion crowd is massively going for trend inspired cliché tattoos.113
Now that tattoos no longer need to be unique and meaningful for the fashion
consumer, the tattoo industry is no longer sympathetic to the tattoo
appropriation of the fashion industry.114
Considering that “the tattoo is of course a folk culture and it may therefore
manifest itself in any way” people could possibly want,115 these fashion
statement tattoos are just as genuine as any other tattoo. Nonetheless, as they
112
IPA Phase 1: List of Themes (Peter Leferink), see Appendix M, p. 219
La Chanelphile, (2011). Real Chanel Tattoos – A Permanent Impression.
114
Observational Research, see Appendix N, p. 227
113
56 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
allow “ the tattoo to be determined by what is going on at this moment” they
neglect the fact that “if there is anything that is not subservient to fashion (…) it
is of course the tattoo.”116 Therefore, from an anthropological perspective, this
new tattoo “product” in fashion is not based on authentic cultural values and is
less likely to be a sustainable concept.
Figure 3.
4.3. Returning to the initial principle
The fashion community that seems to have remained true to the initial
(successful) tattoo appropriation of the fashion culture can be classified as the
innovators and early adopters. Despite that the tattoo phenomenon in the rest
of the consumer landscape evolved in to a pure fashion statement, they have
stayed true to their initial interpretation as they believe that “tattoos are not
one homogenous thing”117. They argue that “it’s not like you’re all wearing the
same T-shirt” considering that the symbol and/or meaning can still be unique
for the individual. 118 This is the essence of the tattoo for the innovators and
early adopters; “It’s the fact that you know it’s there”119 and so it is merely a
form of identification and expression for themselves. Possibly, by returning to
these fundamental principles and values of the tattoo, tribes within the
fashion culture can successfully adopt the tattoo once again (see Figure 3.).
115
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Henk Schiffmacher, see Appendix L, p. 207
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Henk Schiffmacher, see Appendix L, p. 206
117
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Lizzie, see Appendix E, p. 119
118
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Lizzie, see Appendix E, p. 119
119
Transcript Focus Group Discussion – Fashion students with tattoos, see Appendix G,
p. 141
116
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 57
5.
58 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
SHOWING THE WAY.
The fundamental similarities between the two cultures seem to indicate that
there is the possibility for a more genuine co-existence of the two phenomena
in the fashion industry than what is happening at the moment. By making a
detailed outline of the current successful appropriation of the tattoo by a
contemporary fashion tribe, a possible new initiation point can be defined for
the fashion industry to build on.
5.1. Tribe Profile
The following profile will shed light on
a fashion community within the
innovators and early adopters segment, by highlighting their values, the process
in which they construct meaning, and the crucial part that the tattoo plays in
their mentality. As they are the future generation that will guide the fashion
industry, it will form the appropriate foundation for a relevant and durable
fashion concept.
These INDEPENDENT CREATORS are expressive arts students who take a
particular interest in fashion. They tend to have an international background
and are ambitiously orientated within the expressive arts sector.120
120
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 182
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 59
With an early awareness of their preferences121 they are driven to continuously
explore these, often resulting in individualistic self-aware personalities when
reaching young adulthood. This in turn makes them particularly self-conscious
at a younger age, often causing them to feel like an outcast.122 As a result they
are alert about their surroundings, but less dependent on others for
appreciation (despite their emotional character) making them more selfconfident123 than the general fashion consumer.
Combining their interest in artistic expression and profound dress they are
exceptionally skilled in expressing their identity with body adornments. In a
society where social identity is devaluing they are conscious of the growing
need to emphasize their personal identity. As they are firmly searching for
individualistic meaning in many aspects of their life, they feel the occasional
impulsive need to act out and be spontaneously random. At these moments
they search for their own boundaries and return to their adolescent hunger to
experiment. 124
Their individualistic mentality is crucial in the way they make their choices. It is
tremendously important to them to initially act from their own beliefs and do
things to please themselves rather than others.125 This is not per se from a
selfish motivation but it is simply to assure that they “don’t regret anything”126
121
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 182
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 184
123
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 184
124
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 184
125
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 183
126
Transcript Focus Group Discussion:Fashion students w/tattoos, seeAppendix G, p.133
122
60 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
or make someone else’s mistakes. Therefore they often oppose and question
collective judgements, disregarding the social consequences. Grounded in this
drive to question social norms, they admire free-spirited people who are for
example “unwilling to identify their sexual orientation or their own gender”127
despite that it might make their lives more complex.
While very much intrigued by concepts such as science and religion the
INDEPENDENT CREATORS feel no personal affiliation and have no intention to
answer life’s mysteries. They do however adopt the symbolism from such
concepts and give it their own (possibly contrasting) meanings, such as “if I
become a famous rock-star” I would get “either Jesus or Madonna and child in
colour, with doves and roses tattooed on my back.”128 This aspect of combining
contrasting elements is something they are particularly interested in as it forces
people to question the element’s stereotypical context and indicates that their
choices are thought through.
In their behavioural patterns, confrontational humour is a returning element.
For example, by overindulging - “I love clichés and stereotypes. They are just in
our minds but that makes it nice to create them in reality. ”129 – they make fun
of norms, society, and even life itself with a playful but serious undertone. By
counteracting common but illogical principles they try to provoke society and
make people think for themselves. Meanwhile for the INDEPENDENT CREATORS
127
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Lizzie, see Appendix E, p. 107
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Lizzie, see Appendix E, p. 112
129
Transcript Focus Group Discussion – Fashion students with tattoos, see Appendix G,
p. 145
128
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 61
themselves it is merely a way to deal with the things they do not agree with, as
it allows them to not take everything too serious.
Despite that they are primarily visually stimulated, the INDEPENDENT
CREATORS are fascinated by multiple forms of expressive arts. Whereas they do
not aim to understand the technicalities, they are inspired by the creation of
shapes in architecture and furniture design, as these processes encourage them
to explore new constructive forms in their own expressive fields. Nevertheless,
while music is not a visual medium they do consider it important to the creative
process as they are aware of and appreciate its powerful emotional affect.
As for their fashion preferences, the INDEPENDENT CREATORS do not prefer
branded over unbranded items, but they are aware of what fashion brands are
up to and know which brands fit their own style. Having grown-up in an
environment where geographical boundaries no longer matter, they are aware
of the different cultural influences in fashion and like to bring the best of the
different worlds together.
However, now that the average consumer has
started to combine different cultural aesthetics in their dress the INDEPENDENT
CREATOR aims to do this in a new way by using the basic principles but
discarding the obvious characteristics. This is now leading to their style
becoming more functional, androgynous, reference-less and abstract.130 Their
endless curiosity and drive to explore new international (underground) labels
and art forms, which they translate into new clothing styles, is what classifies
them as trend-setting.
130
62 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 189
These fashion conscious individuals are in the search off something permanent
as they find themselves within an unstable fast-paced environment. For them
the tattoo is exactly that. They are aware of how serious committing to a
permanent form of self-expression is, but nevertheless they prefer it to be a
spontaneous act which is relevant to their identity, simply because overthinking
it will lead to forced meaning.
131
Considering that they feel to be mature and
developed enough to know their own identity, they are confident that they will
not regret their actions.132 Despite the awareness that their identity evolves
over time, they believe that as long as it fitted with their identity at that
moment, it will simply become part of them and their nakedness. 133 An crucial
part of this peace of mind is that they have accepted and appreciate the
unpredictability of life and have therefore decided to live in the moment.134
Whereas the INDEPENDENT CREATORS have accepted tattoos in a general sense
they do differentiate between tattoo types and styles and believe that “at times
tattoos can be a sign of lower class.”135 They are however aware of the fact that
society occasionally still implements these stereotypes for all tattooed
individuals and realize that therefore sometimes the image of a tattoo can be
undesirable. While this does not keep them from get tattooed, they do believe
“it is important to be able to cover them up at times.”136 Taking this into
consideration it becomes apparent that getting a tattoo is no longer to show
131
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 187
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 184
133
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 185
134
IPA Phase 2: Data merging – Clustering themes (students), see Appendix J, p. 184
135
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Lizzie, see Appendix E, p. 114
136
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Lizzie, see Appendix E, p. 113
132
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 63
rebellion to others but it is now evolved into a form of rebellion in the sense of
taking control over themselves.
While the fashion industry has continuously attempted to marry the tattoo and
fashion cultures by merging the phenomena, it seems that this does not do
justice to the tattoo. The INDEPENDENT CREATORS show that simply by
respecting fashion and tattoos as separate entities and allowing them to
complement one another, the adoption of both cultures is successful. Whereas
this tribe has already embodied the symbiotic co-existence of the tattoo and
fashion phenomenon it would be interesting to investigate the possibility for a
(fashion) concept based on the same principle.
5.2. Symbiotic co-existence
When attempting to marry the two cultures, while doing them both justice, it is
important to keep in mind that the tattoo culture will feel affiliated based on
“how authentic” the tattoo influence is and “if it is used in the right way.”137
Therefore the involvement of the tattoo industry itself would be crucial.
Nonetheless, as the Amsterdam Tattoo Museum has shown with its listings of
live concerts and art exhibitions,138 the tattoo culture is interested in working
together with different forms of art when done appropriately.
137
138
64 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Transcript Semi-structured Interview with Henk Schiffmacher, see Appendix L, p. 204
Amsterdam Tattoo Museum, (2012).
A platform at which the cultures can meet and complement each other would
be an interesting way to translate the anthropological phenomenon into a
physical concept. At such a platform, multiple expressive arts sectors can come
together to show their harmonic co-existence with tattoos, not only to inspire
people but also to create awareness of what it is that society is adopting.
From an operational point of view this platform could be an organization which
has an open space, where every month an expressive arts field shows how it
can uniquely complement or interpret the tattoo. In the case that the space
would be empty, the platform could simply be used to give lectures and show
documentaries on the fashion and tattoo phenomenon.
In order to assure that the executed ideas are in line with the symbiotic
co-existence of the phenomena, the platform’s organization should outline a set
of values which should not be opposed. Nonetheless the organization itself
could of course also initiate concepts. They could for example invite an up-andcoming fashion label to design a collection which emphasizes the wearers’
tattoos. This collection could then be sold or exhibited at the platforms’ space.
The following month there could be an exhibition on how different forms of
body adornment can be combined to express one’s identity. For example by
describing the purpose of different adornment forms and telling the stories of
people who implement them through photographs and short clips.
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 65
The next month the tattoo industry itself could then get involved for instance by
turning the space into a tattoo studio which does not only tattoo people, but
also leather. One could then get a leather jacket, bag, pair of shoes, bike seat, or
even a piece of furniture tattooed. Naturally these are simply examples of the
infinite possibilities.
By having the space content change every month the platform is in line with the
fast-paced zeitgeist, but by having a theme it shows to be consistent and
provides a form of stability. One would however need to investigate if the
tattoo phenomenon alone is enough or whether it would be interesting if the
platform focuses on a different fashion inspiration source each year.
66 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
With this suggestion for fashion platform marrying the tattoo and fashion
culture the study’s circle is round. In this time where the individualistic
consumer has demanded the full attention of the industries, it has become ever
so hard to understand their complex needs and desires. This study has shown
that by anthropologically studying the “fashion process” 139 of a fashion related
means of expression (the tattoo), the consumer mentality and creation of
values can be grasped. Therefore, based on the thorough understanding of the
tattoo adoption by the future fashion professionals generation, a relevant and
sustainable fashion concept could be defined.
139
Sproles, G. B., (1974).
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 67
68 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
POSTSCRIPT
The following clarifying insights are aimed at enhancing the study’s
transparency and therefore its perceived value.
Research Limitations
Despite that the findings of this study are realistic, valuable, and provide the
fashion industry with new insights, remarks can be made regarding the
research.
While primary research was conduct amongst the innovators and early adopters
of the fashion consumers (to establish the purpose of and meaning behind their
tattoos) there was no primary research done for the early majority segment of
the fashion consumers. The conclusion of the study that the tattoo
phenomenon was misinterpreted by this second group of fashion followers is
entirely based on secondary research. While this does not per se make the
findings incorrect, the difference in sources and therefore possible biases must
be acknowledged. For example, when speaking directly with the research
subjects they are likely to make themselves look as good as possible, while
when using already interpreted findings from another researcher the aim and
tone may be very different.
Although the survey was directed at all individuals within western societies it
was unintentionally subjected to snowball sampling. One can therefore argue
that it was not fully representative of western societies as a whole. This does
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 69
however not mean that its data was of no value. As most respondents were in
the age category 15-25 years, which can be classified as the contemporary
youth culture, the data eventually formed a starting point for the research as
youth cultures are known to instigate (or be early adopters of) new
movements.140 With the survey data confirming that tattoos were becoming
more common amongst (mainly) youth cultures it formed a valuable base from
which the secondary research was conducted, that indicated that the
development had already moved on to multiple layers of western societies.
The IPA method of selecting research participants is known to be “purposive
sampling” and attempts to find “a fairly homogeneous sample” in order to
conduct a valid sociocultural anthropological study of a specific culture or
community.141 One could consequently debate that the study in that respect
provides claims and conclusions which are too general for the research scope as
the study repeatedly refers to “western society”. The reason for doing so is
however that the research was conducted amongst international individuals
who have lived in different western societies for at least 10 years and are
currently doing so. It should be noted that the sample is however not
representative of all communities in western societies, but was conducted
amongst people active in the fashion and/or tattoo culture.
Despite the fact that the research was constructed in a manner aiming to
minimize unintentional bias, it must be acknowledged that it is impossible to
140
141
70 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Faqs.org - Internet FAQ Archives, (2008).
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P. and Larkin, M., (2009).
exclude all bias. As the researcher was a fashion student, it can be assumed that
a fashion approach and perspective on the matter was automatically chosen.
While this might not necessarily devalue the conclusions for the fashion
industry it should be noted that it is possible that the researcher’s bias caused
valuable information to be missed or misinterpreted. To provide insight on any
possible researcher biases, which may have affected the study, a researcher
profile can be found in the appendices of this report.142
Another limiting aspect of the study is the timeframe in which it was conducted.
Whereas typically an anthropological study spans over half a year up to a few
years, this study was limited to approximately three months as it was submitted
to the curricular timeline. Naturally this could be an indication that the
phenomena studied are only partly explored and that when taken the
appropriate amount of time one will find additional influential aspects.
Furthermore it is important to realize that the social context of the data
collected is extremely significant to its deduced meaning. In another time within
a changed social context entirely different conclusions can be made when
assessing the data collected in this study.
Future research recommendations
Taking the above mentioned limitations of this study into consideration certain
modifications could be beneficial for future research.
142
Researcher Profile, see Appendix O, p. 228
The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 71
Primarily it would be advisable to conduct the study over a larger timespan
appropriate for an anthropologically natured research. In addition, to confirm
the secondary research findings, it would be worthwhile to arrange for primary
research on the early majority segment of fashion consumers whom have
appropriated tattoos as well. Then, to fortify the feasibility of the findings, it
would be preferable to conduct the primary research not only in one
geographical area (in this study the Netherlands) but to set up interviews and
focus groups in other western societies as well. Eventually it could then also be
interesting to not only triangulate different research methods, as has been
done in this study, but to also triangulate different methods of analysis, again in
order to enhance the validity of the findings.
Abbreviations
72 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
C.V.
Curriculum vitae
IPA
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
E.g.
Exempli gratia
Et al.
Et alteri/ and others
p.
Page
U.S.
United States
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76 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Flash Your Tattoo, (2012b). Covering Baldness with Tattoos. [online] 12
February. Available at: http://flashyourtattoo.com/blog/tattoos-bodyart/covering-baldness-tattoos/ [Accessed 07 March 2012]. Reference: 56
Geert Hofstede & Gert Jan Hofstede, (n.d.). Culture. [online] Available at:
http://geerthofstede.nl/culture [Accessed 26 April 2012]. Reference: 10
GLAMCULT, (2012). Diesel Only the Brave Tattoo fragrance. [online] 8 March.
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Reference: 45
Highsnobiety, (2011). Scott Campbell x Louis Vuiton “Utah Tattoo” Bag. [online]
04 January. Available at:
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International Markets Bureau, (2010). Global Consumer Trends: Individualism.
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La Chanelphile, (2011a). Beautiful dreamer: Peter Philips interview on Nowness.
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Montreal Gazette, (2011). Zombie Boy transformed – temporarily. [online] 20
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Moms Today, (2012). Show me your gramp stamp: 5 tattoos for grandparents.
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The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion - 77
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Oxford Dictionaries, (2012b). Trend. [online] Available at:
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73, 75, 77
Runway Reports.x, (2012). Tattooed Fashion. [online] 05 February Available at:
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2012]. Reference: 39
Sportswear International, (2012). Replay Launches Spring / Summer Campaign.
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Tattoo Archive, (1998a). Sailor Tattoos. [online] Available at:
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Tattoo Archive, (1998b). Tattoo Machines. [online] Available at:
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Tattoo Bob, (n.b.). Wat is Permanente Make-up? [online] Available at:
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2012]. Reference: 63, 64, 71
78 - The Contemporary Tattoo Phenomenon in Fashion
Trendy Style, (2011). Modellen met Tatoeages. [online] Available at:
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Course Material
Mossinkoff, M., (2008). Methodology issues, Minor Research & Retail.
Amsterdam Fashion Institute, unpublished. Reference: 20, 22.
Van den Berg, N., (2008). Fashion Reader, Theoretical Backbone: First Semester
2008/2009. Amsterdam Fashion Institute, unpublished. Reference: 59, 60, 61
Documentaries
MuMa - Museum Maluku, (2012). Tattoo Odyssey. [film documentary] viewed
at Tattoo - who are you? exhibition.
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