CHAPTER-FIVE
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF HILL
AGRICULTURE IN ASSAM
5.1
Introduction
5.1.1
Problems and Prospects:
(a)
Shifting Cultivation (Jhum)
(b)
Infrastructure
(c)
Irrigation
(d)
Fertilizers
(e)
Agricultural Credit
5.2
Conclusions
141
5.1 Introduction: The modernization of traditional agriculture results in
qualitative and quantitative improvement o f farm inputs. The agricultural
transformation is much more in evidence in the quality and quantity inputs
used, than in the change in the output or change in cropping pattern (Khusro,
1992)66 Agricultural production can be increased through the judicious use
o f land, labour and farmers’ involvement with improved varieties of seeds,
fertilizers, irrigation and technological transformation. The main problems
of agricultural development in any region therefore, relate to the problems of
agricultural inputs as well as infrastructural facility. In the hill districts of
Assam, the agricultural inputs and infrastructure have not been significantly
developed, though many changes have taken place during the post
independence period. As a result, the agricultural development has remained
stagnant.
In the present chapter, an attempt has been made to focus some
agricultural problems as well as the prospects of development in the hills of
66. Khusro, A. M. 1992: Myth and Misconceptions, Financial Express, March 1992.
142
Assam, so that the government can adopt measures to overcome these
problems in future.
5.1.1 Problems and Prospects:
(a) Shifting Cultivation ffhum t
Shifting cultivation (jhum) is an age-old practice popularly adopted by the
hill tribes, ha Assam, shifting eultivation is practised widely in the two hill
districts: Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills. About 58,000 farm
families are involved in traditional practices, cultivating 09,000 hectares o f
land annually in these two hill districts (NARP, Diphu, 1989).67 The shifting
cultivation is said to be one o f the major problems o f hill agriculture. This
practice has numerous harmful effects on soil and climate. It ultimately
affects crop production and economy o f hill people. Moreover, shifting
cultivation has other ill effects such as loss o f forest cover, loss o f wild
habitat o f many species o f plants and animals, loss o f bio- diversity, soil
erosion, enhanced run-off, depleting ground water resources, siltation o f
water harvesting structures, drying up o f natural streams, non rainy season,
non availability o f fuel wood and fodder etc. Jhum cultivation in the two hill
districts is labour intensive. It is not only an economic problem but in
67. NARP, 1989: Status Repot for Hill Zone o f Assam, 96 pp, National Agricultural Research
Project, Diphu.
143
addition it is a socio-cultural problem (Sachan, 1990)68
The defect of jhuming lies in the fact that the land can produce crops
only once in several years (5 to 19 years) depending on the jhum cycle. But
under settled fanning, the same field can be brought under multiple cropping
with scientific management under irrigation, which can produc two or more
crops. Thus, productivity per bigha under jhum cultivation is significantly
lower than the settled cultivation. As a result o f low productivity on jhum
land, the average earning per family is trifling among the farm households.
Jhum land is free and capital investment is insignificant. Seeds, the main
capital inputs are all domestically produced. Keeping these facts in mind, the
productivity and value products per hectare and return per man-day is very
low. Thus, the level of income from jhuming appears to be very poor
compared to prevailing wage rates. So both in respect o f productivity o f land
and return of labour, jhuming suffered from disadvantages of a primitive
technology. Since such lands are free and there is no private ownership, this
does not encourage the farmers to take adequate soil conservation and
improvement measures. Due to low productivity, there is no surplus, which
can be ploughed back. The growing population has brought about a vicious
circle of more area being jhum leading to shortening of fallow period and
68. Sachan, A.K. 1990: Constraints o f Tribal Developm ent in B .N . Bordoloi (ed.) Constraints o f
Tribal Developm ent in Assam , Tribal Research Institute, Assam, Guwahati.
144
consequent deterioration o f soil fertility, which requires bringing more plots
under jhuming.
To know the rate of yield of jhum and non-jhum or settled cultivation, a
survey was conducted among the sample villages on paddy cultivation.
Altogether 68 numbers o f plots were selected, which consisted of 26
numbers jhum plots and 42 numbers non-jhum plots. The data presented in
annexure table 1.15 reveal the following findings: (1) The average yield rate
of paddy was calculated as a simple arithmetic mean in kg/ bigha separately
for jhum and non-jhum crops. The average yield rate thus obtained in terms
of kgIbigha rice was 231 in jhum plots and 272 in non-jhum plots in the
reference period. (2) The analysis of variance o f yields of rice in jhum and
non-jhum plots were shown 15.1% for jhum plots and 28.1% for non-jhum
plots (3) It appears from table that yield for jhum cultivation, 350-400 kg per
bigha was found only in 3.84 % surveyed plots. Whereas in case of nonjhum (settled) cultivation, 350-400 kg per bigha was found in 26.19 % o f the
surveyed plots. In answering the second research question, that whether the
yield rate of jhum cultivation is inferior to non-jhum or settled cultivation, it
has been found that the yield rate of jhum cultivation is inferior to non-jhum
or
settled cultivation. Findings o f previous studies done by Das69,
69. Das, G.N. 2001: Sweden Cultivation and the Development Programs in N E.India, Akantha
Publishing House, New Delhi.
145
Chowdhury70, Saha71 and Srivastava72 lend support to our findings.
Shifting cultivation is a detrimental process. Though the government has
taken up some projects and schemes to combat shifting cultivation and divert
the jhumias to settled cultivation, yet hill farmers in the two hill districts of
Assam are being continued in the practice of jhuming with variation in cycle
till to day and there is also possibility in future, if an acceptable alternative
technology is not provided. Motivating jhumias to settled cultivation is a
very hard job, as they do not give up easily the age-old practice. Therefore,
efforts should be made to evolve an improved practice in place o f shifting
cultivation, which should be identical to farming with better utilization and
management o f jhurn land to lessen the possible damages.
The Regional Agricultural Research Station, Diphu has already conducted
some experiments relevant to hill agriculture with special reference to
replacement o f shifting cultivation. Efforts are being made to find out
improved practices identical to jhuming but more productive and less
injurious to soil and environment improved technology in place o f shifting
cultivation may be recommended for general adaptation in the jhum land.
70. Chowdhury, S.K. 1984: Problems and Prospects o f Agriculture in Karbi Anglong District.,
Ph.D Thesis, Guwahati University
71. Saha, N. 1970: Economics o f Shifting Cultivation in Assam, Ph.D. Thesis, G.U.
72. Srivastava, S.C. 2001: Agrarian Change, Institutional Relations and Community Preferences:
Perspective o f Shifting Cultivation, A B rief Report on Agricultural Situation o f Hill Zone o f
Assam.
146
The practices include: (i) Replacing traditional varieties by the improved
one. (ii) Use of manures and fertilizers to maintain soil fertility, (iii)
Inclusions of perennial horticultural crops along with field crops to
encourage settled cultivation, (iv) Placing various crops in scientific manner
for better production and utilization of land, (v) Sowing crops in line across
slope to conserve soil and moisture. These techniques should be adopted
step by step by the hill farmers. Shifting cultivation can be improved to
obtain higher production, economic returns and check deteriorative in soil
fertility by growing pineapple, turmeric, ginger, chillis, rice, maize, sesame
and cotton across the slope in the centre (Sarnia et al, 1995).73
Rice based cropping sequences viz; rice green-gram, rice-arhar and
rice-black gram, and rice-cotton are found economically remunerative in the
25% hill slope. Rice may be taken in the summer and second crop may be
placed in the rainy season. These cropping sequences can easily be raised in
the hill slope in lieu o f jhuming (Sarma, Medhi, 1993).74 Inclusion of
Perennial horticultural crops and use o f perennial grasses as hedge across
73. Sarma, et al. 1995: Improved Practices in Place o f Shifting Cultivation and Its Effect on Soil
Properties at Diphu in Assam, Indian Journal o f Agricultural Sciences, 63(3): 196-201.
74. Sarma, N. N, Medhi, N. N. 1993: Production o f Potential o f Rice-based Cropping System in
Hills Zone o f Assam, Indian Journal o f Agriculture, 63 (12): 827-9
147
the slope leads the farmers to go for settled cultivation rather than
shifting cultivation. Adoption of suitable cropping sequences in hill
slope will also keep hill farmers away from shifting cultivation.
Cultivation in between contour grass hedge results in more production,
minimizing
run-off erosion and loss of available nutrients. It is also
noted that cultivation in between grass hedge develop natural terraces,
which will encourage hill farmers to go for settled cultivation without
any damaging effect on soil.
According
to
soil
conservation
department of A ssam , the
land capability system to suit the people and the concerned areas
will
be helpful to reduce the incidence of jhuming and encourages
settled cultivation. Accordingly,
slope
up to 50% (20/;)
with
good
soil is suitable for permanent agriculture, slopes from 51 to 100%
(25//-26//)
are
suitable
for
horticulture,
plantation
crops,
coffee,
rubber, black pepper etc. Slopes above 100% (45//) are suitable for
forestry.
This
approach with
modification
of technique
according
to locality and people, may achieve moderate success in the hill
areas o f Assam.
148
(b) Infrastructure
An effective infrastructural facility is necessary for increasing
agricultural productivity. For the modernization of agriculture through
technological innovations, the most essential components of infrastructure
are rural electrification, transport and communication, marketing facility and
education. Rural electrification is the most important infrastructure for the
development of agriculture. Availability of assured and abundant cheap
power in the rural areas is a pre-requisite for the introduction o f perennial
irrigation in the agricultural fields. By bringing electricity to the villages, to
be used for domestic purposes and for pumping water from wells, cost can
be efficiently reduced. Pumping water for irrigation by electricity costs only
one-tenth of the cost o f lifting it by bullock-power and one third of that of
using diesel engines. Therefore, electricity in the rural areas must be
regarded as a vital need rather than an amenity or luxury.75
But the progress of rural electrification in Assam has been extremely
meagre. The situation is worse in the two hill districts of Assam. The same
condition is reflected in the share of power consumed in irrigation in the
total power consumption. A bulk o f the villages in the hill districts are not
connected with electrification. Data presented in annexure table 1.16 reveal
75. Ministry o f Irrigation and Power: Planning for Power Developm ent in India, 1995.
149
that the percentage o f the overall villages electrified is 45, which gives a
very grim picture about the progress o f rural electrification in the hill
districts. The picture for the hilly villages is even grimmer with only 28.57
percent. For agricultural purpose, electricity was not totally used by sample
villages.
The future prospects of rural electrification in the hill districts are bright,
if the government takes some concerted initiatives. Firstly, it is not enough
merely to make more power available to the rural areas but it is also
necessary to ensure that connections are sanctioned and actually provided
without delay. Secondly, the villagers seeking power connection should not
be confronted with condition, which are beyond their ability to fulfill.
Thirdly, rural electrification programmes should be subsidized as has been
done in the advanced countries. Farmers should be provided electricity free
of cost for agricultural purposes. Fourthly, small diesel sets should be
installed for supply lines. Fifthly, emphasis should be laid on the
energisation o f clusters of irrigation pumps keeping in view the ground
water availability of various areas. Lastly, rural electrification co-operative
should be extended and this should be closely linked with the industrial
processing co-operatives.
150
Agricultural productivity is determined to a great extent by the
proximity of a market centre to the farms and cheaper and easier transport.
The farm output in a remote place may be abundantly produced. But the
surplus output, if it cannot be transported easily to the markets has little
value in monetary terms, and therefore, the agriculture of that place is less
efficient than that in another place situated near a market centre. If
agriculture were not market oriented, the farmers would not get any
incentive to grow more than what is necessary for their self-subsistence.
Thus, the system o f transport and communication is o f vital significance in
deciding whether a faim is to remain in the subsistence level, or be
commercialized and technicalised.
The transport and communication in the two hill districts of
Assam have not been developed commensurate to the requirements of
agricultural marketing. Most of the P.W.D and village roads of the districts
are unfit for transportation. During the rainy season, the roads are worse. A
large proportion of villages are not connected even with ordinary un­
metalled roads. Data presented in annexure table 1.17 reveal that about 55
percent villages have no all weather earthen soil in the 20 sample villages.
Overall 5 percent o f the surveyed villages have no approach roads. The
situation o f the hilly villages is worse compared to plain villages. The field
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survey also reveals that in 45 percent of the overall villages the nearest
distance of bus stop is 1 km to 3 km (see annexure table 1.18). This has
proved the extreme backwardness of roads and communication in the hill
districts of Assam. Likewise, the railway, airway and waterway have not
played a significant role so far in transporting the agricultural products o f the
farmers, as these are not within the easy reach of the farmers in the region.
The telephone and telegraph facilities in the region are also worse, as in 20
and 45 percent of the sample villages the nearest distance of post and
telegraph offices is more than 5 km. (See annexure table 1.19 and 1.20).
The transport system as an external stimulant to the agricultural
commercialization must approach each and every village of the farmers.
Therefore, the government as a vital infrastructural need must develop it.
There are ample opportunities to develop transport system in the hill districts
o f Assam. The developmental schemes must be implemented to develop this
system with central, state and local government efforts. In this regard, the
local government like the District Councils in the two hill districts should
play an active role so that agricultural backwardness of the region can be
lessened with the help of infrastructural development. Collection and
distribution of scattered agricultural produce from every individual farmer
may be highly expensive and disproportionate to the transport cost and that
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might be a disincentive for the growth o f efficient transport system. In this
regard, collective and co-operative farming is a convenient form of farm
organization for giving incentive to the growth of an efficient system of
transport and communication. Because the trucks may collect most
economically the agricultural produce from some central places where the
co-operative storehouses are located, instead o f going from village to village
and distributing these in the central markets or consuming centers or
transport outside. It should always be remembered that the road development
should not only be a social welfare measure with a huge expenditure on road
development. In order to make the large expenditure on road development,
an economic investment as well as efficient and well-planned transport must
be introduced on these roads for the movement o f goods and services to and
from the countryside.
Agricultural marketing in Assam is carried on by both the free market
and the state controlled market. However, the system of free agricultural
marketing is predominant in Assam. The open market also plays a dominant
role in supplying agricultural produce to the urban and rural consumers, as
the quantum of agricultural produce supplied by the government through fair
price shops and consumer co-operatives is inadequate.
153
The storage, marketing and processing facilities in the hill districts
are very poor. The storage system is not scientific and adequate. Therefore,
food grains cannot be stored safely. The granary is the main storehouse of
the farmers. Many farmers preserve food grains in their bedrooms for fear of
theft. It is found in the districts that generally landless and marginal farmers
use baskets made of bamboo for storing paddy, as they consider separate
granary as uneconomic for the small quantity of paddy and other crops they
have to store.
Marketing facility in the hill districts is poor and the farmers become
victims o f unscrupulous traders. The rural marketing centers are practically
monopolized by the traders taking advantage of lack of communication and
information. The markets are periodical and controlled by the unscrupulous
traders. There are no adequate weighing and grading facilities and price
information is lacking due to absence o f transport and communication
facility. As a result, the traders deny to pay proper prices. Thus, agricultural
produce does not get proper price remuneration. It is observed in the field
survey that the quantity of paddy sold to the government agencies is almost
negligible. This is due to the low prices offered by the government to the
farmers. The traders who generally come from towns or cities to the rural
open or free markets to purchase paddy or other agricultural produce
154
take this advantage. On the basis of data collected from four important
markets in Assam, Rehman (1978) 76 found that the small peasants sold 5
percent o f their total marketed paddy to the FCI, 4 percent to the co­
operative, 2 percent to the rice millers, 2 percent to the paddy dealers, 66
percent to the local markets, which are free or open and 21 percent to the co­
villagers. This shows that the quantity of paddy sold to the government
agencies is almost negligible. In the hill districts, the marketing facility is
poorer than the state as a whole. The field survey of 20 villages shows that
only 10 percent of the villages have quite good access to market and these
villages have the markets within 1 km. Almost 25 percent o f the villages
have market at a distance of more than 10 km. This means that a bulk of the
villages in the hill areas have very poor access to market (see aimexure table
1.21). The public distribution system in the sample villages was surveyed
and it was found that almost 15 percent of the villages have easy access to a
fair price shop within 1 km. 20 percent of the villages have fair price shops
within the range of 3 to 5 km. Another 20 percent of the villages have fan-
76. Rehman, A. R .M. 1978: A Study on Agricultural Marketing in Assam, an Unpublished Ph.D
Thesis, Guwahati University.
155
price shops at a distance o f 5 to 10 km. And 30 percent of the villages have
fair price shops at a distance of 10 km. or more (refer annexure table 1.22).
The processing units such as rice and hauler mill, oil and ghurghari,
flourmills etc are not available in the villages in the two hill districts of
Assam. They are located at the urban places, which are far from the villages
for commercial purposes. A very few farmers possess indigenous types of
oil and ghanis, but these are utilized for domestic needs only. The
agricultural production and the agrarian economy are interlinked with these
infrastructures.
The processing of marketed products is very important, as it brings
together the buyers and sellers and helps them to arrive at a reasonable price.
However, in the rural markets, there are absent o f processing facility,
grading and weighing and in this connection, the middlemen take undue
advantage of the ignorance of the farmers.
There is prospect of development of agricultural marketing in the
hills of Assam despite of having many marketing constraints. There is scope
for enlarging co-operative marketing and other co-operatives in the hills.
This network may ensure better distribution as well as remunerative prices
\
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for agricultural produce to the farmers. Thus, the fanners in the rural areas
can be safeguarded from the unscrupulous traders.
Government should give incentive to establish more marketing societies
with a view to collect large quantities of food grains like paddy, maize etc
from the cultivators at price fixed by the society. If such facility is provided,
the cultivators will be able to repay their loans just after harvesting and they
can be saved from the exploitation of middlemen. This will also ensure
proper weighing and grading facilities.
To facilitate the collection o f food grains, large warehouses should be
established in important paddy growing centers of the two hill districts. The
present scenario of warehouses in the hill region is not up to the mark
compared to other plain districts o f Assam. Attempts should be made to
establish regulated markets in the region. Market may be regulated either by
local bodies or under state legislation. Such regulated markets in the region
can remove malpractices in correct weight, unsuitable quality standard and
standard terms for buying and selling. Besides, lack o f up to date market
news, drawbacks of facilities like sheds for the sale of products, storage
accommodation for agricultural products etc can also be regulated. The
market committees should be given responsibility for enforcement o f fair
grading practices,
licensing of market functionaries,
deduction of
157
unauthorized market charges, introduction of open auction systems of sales
and enforcement of standard weights. They should also maintain market
yards, providing facilities for parking carts, rest houses for farmers,
canteens, godown and sheds for auctioning the proceeds.
Provision for storage and warehousing facilities preserve agricultural
produce safely and distribute them in times of scarcity. By holding back a
part of the surplus at harvest time, the middlemen prevent a sharp fall in
prices of commodities so that the producers’ share in the benefit is increased.
By letting out agricultural produce from the store in seasons when prices are
normally likely to rise sharply, they check the rise and bring about some
stability in market prices, which benefit the consumers immediately. Storing
is therefore, a very important part of marketing. This point was realized by
the Royal Commission on agriculture and subsequently supported by the
central banking enquiry committee.
For an all round development of agricultural marketing, adequate and
appropriate transport facilities are indispensable.
There are ample
opportunities to develop transportation network in the hills of Assam. For
this purpose, the state and local governments should give highest priority for
the construction of all weather roads in all the villages. The rail transport
authority should introduce a unified rates policy for different classes of
158
goods. Provision for ventilated wagons and refrigerated transport for
perishable products should be made. Good metalled roads linking the
villages to market or cities should be constructed. This facility will reduce
the cost of transport and make it easier for the grower directly to market his
product in the towns or cities, thus eliminating middlemen. Likewise, the
government should undertake some initiatives to expand communication net
works through facilitating telephone, post and telegraphs in the rural areas.
Education is very important in the sense that it is the stepping-stone
to the other forms of development. In all types of education, elementary
education is the foundation of intellectual well being of any society. Unless
elementary education is suitably strengthened, no matter how much more
sophisticated higher education is available; it will make no visible impact.
Indeed, education accelerates the economic growth. The effective utility of
manpower depends on education, training and experiences of the people.
Investment in education is not only highly productive, but also yields
increasing returns. In all the productive sectors like agriculture, industry, and
service, investment in human capital formation i.e., in education and training
can rise efficiency and productivity of the people. Education is therefore,
needed to introduce new system of land use and methods of agriculture, new
159
means of communication to carry forward industrialization and to build the
educational system (Lekhi, 1996).77 The primary and secondary education
can contribute much to the economic development in the backward areas.
Higher education is also important, as it results in creating highly trained and
technical manpower, scientists and research oriented persons.
The educational scenario in the hill districts of Assam is not
encouraging. This is one of the important constraints o f economic
development o f the hill region. Although there are educational institutions,
the literacy rate is very poor. The students’ strength in post primary level
generally goes down very sharply. The literacy rate in hill districts is around
51 percent according to 1991 census. The literacy rate in case o f hilly tribes
like the Karbis and the Dimasas in the two hill districts is much lower than
other community living in the districts. The educational institutions are
also significantly insufficient. Although the primary schools have been
established in most o f the villages, they are not sufficient in numbers and the
condition o f school buildings are not good. The number o f teachers in all the
primary schools is large and
generally teachers are not qualified
77 Lekhi, R. K. 1996: H ie Economics o f Development and Planning, Klyani Publishers, New
Delhi.
160
according to required norms. There is absence of teachers training
programme as well as vocational guidance. There is lack of technical
institutions like engineering and agricultural in the two districts. The data
presented in annexure table 1.23 and 1.24 reveal that 45 percent of the
sample villages have a primary school within 1 km, 25 percent of the
villages have a middle school within 5 and above km and 40 percent o f the
overall villages have a secondary school within 5 and above km. The field
survey further reveals that there are hardly graduate and postgraduate
students in the villages. Students are not interested for higher and technical
education. There is lack of investment in education on the part of
government as well as local bodies. Due to much illiteracy among the rural
people, agriculture is backward in the hill districts. In agriculture, there is
overall absence o f modem methods of farming. Cultivators are ignorant
about the use of fertilizers, pesticides, developed seeds and irrigation.
Another important finding in the field survey was that youths who have
passed HSLC or HS standard become job-seekers. They generally go to
cities and towns for seeking jobs. In doing so, they become indifferent
towards agriculture and other works. Though they have owned cultivable
lands, they do not work in agricultural fields. This attitude of the young
generation in the hills has created a new problem for economic development.
161
To upgrade education in the hill areas o f Assam, more emphasis
should be given for the development o f elementary education. More and
more primary schools need to be setup in remote areas. It is necessary to
recruit teachers from the tribal group matching with that o f pupils in the
primary schools. Teachers should be given training and other guidance to
improve their method of teaching. Education experts are unanimous to the
idea o f imparting education in mother tongue at least up to high school level
to the children. To make primary education effective, the medium of
instruction has to be in the mother tongue of the pupils. In the tribal areas,
government or local bodies should provide free books and other learning
aids to the children so that the poor tribal people can send their children to
the schools. All the infrastructural facility like school furniture, buildings,
playground etc should be well furnished for all round development o f the
students. The teachers in the middle and secondary schools should
compulsorily be given periodical training facility. While framing the schools
curriculum, a course should be included to highlight the harmful effect of
jhum cultivation. This education in the school level supported by identical
efforts by some other agencies through audio-visual aids or other means is
expected to create a relatively more favourable atmosphere for adopting
some permanent source o f livelihood. In college level or in higher education
162
level, emphasis should be given for science education. Existing colleges
should be provided necessary supports to introduce science stream so that
the tribal students can acquire scientific knowledge. This knowledge o f the
young generation will be helpful to motivate the people in the rural areas to
leave traditional method o f cultivation and other uneconomic social
institutions, which are posing threat to tribal development. Emphasis should
also be laid by the state acid central government to establish at least two
technical institutions in the two hill districts o f Assam.
From the above discussion, it can be inferred that the infrastructural
development has not been taken place in the hill districts o f Assam. As a
result, agriculture sector in the hill economy is under developed. In
answering the third research question, raised in chapter one, that whether the
poor infrastructural facilities are responsible for agricultural backwardness
in the hills of Assam, it has been found that the poor infrastructural facilities
are basically responsible for agricultural backwardness in the hills of
Assam.. Paul78, Reddy and Rao79 also arrived at the same conclusion.
78. Paul, B.K.1988: Technological Strategy for Tribal Development in the North East, Application
o f Science and Technology for Tribal Development, TRI, Assam, Guwahati.
79. Reddy, B.S.N and Rao, N.V. 1988: Appropriate Technology and Its Transfer Strategy for
Tribal Development, Application o f Science and Technology for Tribal Development, TRI,
Assam, Guwahati.
163
(c) Irrigation
Agriculture has held a dominant position in the country’s economy.
But this major occupation is rendered hazardous by scanty rainfall in large
areas and by erratic monsoon elsewhere. Partial failure or even delayed
arrival o f the monsoon can cause extensive damage to crops. Therefore, it is
utmost important to supplement rainfall and to mitigate the grave
consequences o f a dry spell by supplying water artificially to parched land.
Irrigation is deemed necessary for the maximum agricultural production, or
for multiple cropping when rainfall fails. The production o f irrigated crops is
on an average 50 to 100 percent higher than that o f the unirrigated crops in
the same locality 80. If proper irrigation facilities are provided to rice and
wheat producing areas, the additional production o f the two crops may be
increased by 6 and 10 metric tones respectively81.
Inadequate irrigation facility is one o f the important reasons for low
agricultural production in the state o f Assam. Though excessive rainfall
occasionally causes devastating floods in the state, co-existence o f both
flood and drought is not rare 82.To overcome these problems,supply of water
through irrigation is not sufficient in the state, because the achievement
80. ICAR Handbook o f Agriculture, 1969
81. Planning Commission, Third Five Year Plan, 1961
82. Chowdhuiy, R. K. 1991: Economic problems o f Assam, Kitabghar, Guwahati.
164
in irrigation has remained very poor as compared to all India level.
Likewise, the imgational facility in the two hill districts o f Assam is also
poor compared to other plain districts. Irrigation in hill districts is apparently
a misplaced priority in consideration of the topographic peculiarities and
lack o f adequate wet paddy cultivation in the areas of common able size.
Most o f the rivets and streams are seasonal, perennial sources can be found
to be very rare. Projects already taken up are heavily cost intensive resulting
in higher cost of production. Water is mostly needed for raising Rabi Crops
and other Cash Crops at higher altitudes. Kharif Crop is mostly raised in
rain- fed areas requiring very little or no support o f irrigation water, except
in times o f natural calamities.
Development o f command areas requires much higher normative
cost. Whenever landmass for raising wet paddy and similar types o f crops
are available, it should be the outlook o f the administration to ensure supply
o f irrigation water adequately, and in time. However, this is not seen in the
hill areas o f Assam. There is lack o f consensus tie up between the agencies
taking up irrigation projects and those responsible for raising agricultural
crops. There is multiplicity of reasons for poor yield o f irrigation projects in
the hill districts. They are: (i) Irrigation schemes are smaller in size. In order
to establish benefit ratio, permanent nature o f head works are not being
165
done. That is why recurring expenditure for maintenance of project becomes
higher than the initial investment of the project, (ii) Size o f the command
area to be irrigated being smaller, the cost of the irrigation schemes becomes
higher. The schemes are not economical, (iii) Soil condition in the hills
unlike any plain area being porous, lower part of the surface contain gravels,
water can not be retained in that soil. That is why, the size of the canal and
discharge o f water has to be enlarged adequately. This warrants increase in
cost of the project, (iv) Because o f temporary nature of head works in the
irrigation schemes, destruction occurs over the canal almost every year
during monsoon period. This entails repairing cost o f both canal and head
works perennially, (v) The nature o f works being flow irrigation instead of
lift irrigation, discharge of water has neither been controlled nor regulated
properly in the hill districts, (vi) The command area irrigable has not been
vast in the hill districts in a compact boundary, for which no large or
medium irrigation project is undertaken, (vii) Owing to acute deforestation;
the degree of rainfall has declined significantly over the last few years.
Irrigation system being exclusively stream fed, the supply of water over the
channel become difficult, for which no double cropping can be practised.
After the month of November, no requisite water can be made available.
166
Apart from the above problems, some other problems are also related
to irrigation in the hill districts of Assam. For example, the socio­
demographic
compositions
in
these
areas
have
been
remarkably
heterogeneous among the various types of communities, in N.C. Hills, the
Dimasa people have their own arable land suitable for settled cultivation,
which other communities do not have. For other communities, jhum
cultivation is only for one year and of temporary nature. Under this
backdrop, any investment in irrigation schemes tent amounts to a sectoral
allocation rather than a totality.
Official data do not seem to reflect a correct scenario. Practical use of
irrigation water planned by the government machinery seems to be lacking.
During the field visit most of the irrigation schemes of the government have
not been found to be functioning properly. This is perhaps due to defective
construction and lack of repairing works. Many canals are higher than the
riverbeds and only during the monsoon; those can have water flow and
remain unutilized during Rabi season. This situation is acute in case o f hilly
ureas of some parts of Hamren and Bokajan sub-divisions of Karbi Anglong
and Harangajao and Maibong blocks of N. C. Hills.
During the survey it was found that the landless, marginal and small
fanners do not practise irrigation. However, the medium and big farmers are
167
irrigated their lands in a very small size. The field survey reveals that about
81 percent farm families do not have irrigation facility. Only 19 percent farm
families of overall sample households have irrigation facilities, which is
significantly much lower than the households of the plan districts of Assam
(see annexure table 1.25). In answering the fourth research question, raised
in chapter one, that whether the irrigation facility in the hills is satisfactory.
it has been found from the above study that irrigation facility in the hills is
not satisfactory. Findings of previous studies done by Mishra, et al x\ Das SJ
lend support to our answer.
Greater possibility still exists for expansion of irrigational
facility in the hill districts to cover more and more area under irrigation For
this purpose, main rivers and their tributaries may be used. Along with river
hilly streams may be used for irrigation purposes. As rivers often dr\ up
during summer season, a constant flow of water can be maintained only if
storage reservoirs are made across the rivers from which canals may be dug
Though irrigation of these areas will be a costly affair, yet the
construction of reservoirs would help the hill farmers to adopt some
superior agriculture
with new technology for better production.
83. Mishra, et al: Prospects o f Micro Irrigation in North Eastern Region o f India. Journal o f the
North Eastern Council, Vol.20. No3, July-Sep, 2000.
84. Das, M M. 1983: Peasant Agriculture in Assam, Inter India Publication, New Delhi
168
To adjust unfavorable topography of the hill districts in Assam,
wherever ground water exists; reliance should be put on its maximum
exploitation by making tube wells as in western Rajasthan, Gujarat and some
parts of Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. The areas like Howraghat, Bokalia.
Dhansiri in Karbi Anglong, Kalachand, Harangajao and some parts of
Maibong sub-division in N.C. Hills can be irrigated through ground water,
as these areas have good water potential. The scope for micro watershed
development projects or command area of an irrigation pipe outlet warrants
priority in the hill districts ensures optimum utilization. The tribal people of
N.C. Hills particularly, are not able to get benefit from command areas of
surface irrigation projects as their lands are not developed, and they are not
able to bear the cost of construction of field channels. So land shaping and
development should form an integral part of irrigation project in tribal areas,
and the government should take this up. For making full use of irrigation
facilities in tribal areas, much more intensive and extensive support is
necessary.
Before construction of any irrigation project, it needs to be
demonstrated physically about their merits and demerits before the farmers
The demonstrational centers should also provide for training of the
Cultivators, thereby creating betterment in their individual field of activity
169
In the hill districts of Assam major and medium irrigation projects are less
viable due to shortage o f plain land, shortage o f perennial flow of water and
uneconomic cost o f construction. Therefore, the government should lay
emphasis more on the construction of minor irrigation project. Water can be
supplied to the plain and hilly areas adequately in the districts through minor
irrigation schemes.
The achievement of inigation in the hills has remained very poor.
This is because almost all the irrigated area under food grains crops
belonged to rice alone. Therefore, it is necessary to cover irrigation under
other food grains like wheat and other horticultural crops. The government
should provide minor irrigation facility in the unused and under used areas
especially for wheat cultivation. In fact, wheat cultivation with appropriate
irrigation in the hills may change the total agricultural scenario in the state.
(d) Fertilizers
Irrigation and fertilizers are intimately related. Fertilizers are unusable
without assured supply of sufficient water. In the same way, without the use
of fertilizers, irrigation remains less effective. The use of HYY seeds also
requires application of suitable doses of fertilizers. In fact, irrigation effects
all the component elements of agricultural output growth. Irrigation can
open up virgin land as well as extend gross crop area by putting more lands
under extensive cultivation and multiple cropping. Irrigation paves the way
for fertilizer application in the crop fields and as such yield on irrigated land
is certainly higher than the yield on land under rain-fed conditions (Minhas
and Vaidyanathan, 1977) x\ Chemical fertilizers like nitrogenous fertilizers,
phosphoric fertilizers and potassic fertilizers are becoming more popular
among the farmers in the advanced states of the country. The poor states can
be benefited more by practising agriculture, as the traditional types of crops
exhibit considerable improvement in yields by the use of these fertilizers
(Memoria, 1984) 86. In rice as well as cash crops growing areas, the chemical
fertilizers can be used for improvements in yields by augmenting soil
nutrients. Punjab, Hariyana, Tamil Nadu and irrigated tracts of Maharastra
have used the highest fertilizers per hectare. As a result, these states have
been able to produce abundant rice, wheat and other cash crops.
However, it should be remembered that adequate supply of
nutrients is only one the factors that determine crop yields and that the
application of fertilizers is not sole means of making good nutrient
deficiencies in soil and plants. Equal attention must be paid to the other soil
and crop management practices such as good tilt, proper drainage, soil
85. Minhas B. S and Vaithyanathan, A. 1977: Growth o f Crop Output in India (ed). Chapter III. P58.
86. Mamoria. C. B. 1984: Agricultural Problems o f India, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad
171
conservation, adequate bulky organic manure in the soils and satisfactory
soil micro- organism activity. Each one of these alone with fertilizers plays a
vital role in determining eventual production (Bhattachaijya, 2001)87.
The hill zone of Assam has a very low level of fertilizer consumption.
The current rate of fertilizer consumption is 4.6 kg per hectare, which is
lower than state average of 21 kg per hectare and national average of 80 kg
per hectare. Data on consumption of fertilizers in the hills of Assam from the
year 1989-90 to 1998-99 are available with the Directorate of Agriculture,
Government of Assam. The data presented in table 5.1 reveal that the
consumption of fertilizers has been fluctuating due to unavailability of
fertilizer stocks in proper time, sudden hike in price of potassic and
phosphoric fertilizers and inappropriate policy o f the government. Thus,
consumption o f fertilizers according to official records in the hill zone is not
encouraging in view of the fact that fertilizer is not available in the hills to
supply to the dealers and departmental subsidy schemes. Moreover, the
practice of shifting cultivation in the hill zone has also created a bottleneck
for extensive use of fertilizers. Low fertilizer consumption has great impact
on the level of productivity in the hill districts of Assam.
87. Bhattacharjya, B. 2001: Sustainable Agriculture in Shifting Cultivation Areas, in a Brief
Report on Agricultural Situation o f Hill Zone o f Assam, Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Diphu.
172
Table 5.1
Trend of fertilizer consumption in the hill zone of Assam (kg/hectare)
Year
N+P+K
Year
N+P+K
1989-90
2.49
1996-97
4.50
1990-91
2.19
1997-98
4.60
1991-92
2.20
1998-99
4.60
1992-93
2.60
1993-94
4.00
1994-95
4.20
1995-96
4.21
Source: Directorate of Agriculture, Govt, of Assam, 2000.
N: Nitrogen
P: Phosphorous
-
K: Potash
Statistics on the use o f chemical fertilizers by sample farmers of 320
%
households have been shown in Annexure table 1.26. Altogether 30 percent
sample farmers have been found to be using chemical fertilizers. But the
average amount o f fertilizers used per bigha of land was very low. It was
less than 1 kg. per bigha. Community wise the practice of use of fertilizers
among the Karbis and the other tribal community was the lowest. However,
the practice o f the use of fertilizers in case of non tribal was higher at 2.24
kg per bigha. In answering the fifth research question, raised in chapter one,
that whether the application of fertilizers among the farmers in the hills is
widespread and popular, it has been found from the above study that
application of fertilizers among the farmers is not wide spread and popular.
173
Singh 88 and Barthakur 89 studies also observed that the practice of the use
of fertilizers among the farmers in the hills was less wide spread and
popular.
There are mixed causes, social and economy, which discourage the
farmers from applying fertilizers in the two hill districts of Assam. Some of
the causes observed in the field survey are: (i) The farmers are not familiar
with the use o f fertilizers. The fertilizers are not within their easy reach. The
agencies and dealers in fertilizers stay in towns and cities and as a result,
contact with them is difficult, (ii) There is no timely supply of fertilizers. So
it does not come to the benefit of farmers, (iii) The cost is very high, which
becomes unremunerative to the farmers; especially to the marginal and small
farmers. (iv)The counselling given by the extension services are too
inadequate to help the farmers in the proper utilization of fertilizers, (v) Lack
of irrigation facilities, developed seeds, natural calamities, and practice of
jhum cultivation stand as major obstruction.
In order to secure maximum response to fertilizers in the two hill
districts, crops should be irrigated. Because the response of the crops under
un-irrigated condition is usually uncertain and relatively small. As such,
88. Singh, D.K.: Perspective for Sustainable Agricultural Development, Journal o f the North
Eastern Council, Vol.20, No.4, Oct-Dec, 2000.
89. Barthakur, I.K. 1995: Problems o f Agricultural Development in Arunachal Pradesh (With
Special Reference to Subansiri District.) Ph. D Thesis.
174
to increase the use of fertilizers in the crop fields, government should
undertake some schemes to supply water permanently so that the farmers
can cultivate in due time.
To increase the practice of the use o f fertilizers among the
farmers in the hills, it is necessary to shift the mode of cultivation from jhum
to other forms of settled cultivation like cash crops, terraced etc. This is
because o f the fact that fertilizers are not generally used by the farmers in
the jhum lands in the hills. Therefore, some concerted efforts should be
made by the government to rehabilitate the jhumias by giving them plain or
terraced lands so that they can resort to permanent cultivation.
To overcome the obstacle relating to timely supply o f fertilizers
according to needs o f the farmers, infrastructural facility should be
strengthened in the two hill districts. The communication facility, bank
credits, education and marketing may immensely help the farmers to use
more and more amount of fertilizers for better production in the hills.
Special attention should also be made o f making fertilizers available at
reasonable prices or at free o f cost
In order to arrest the harmful effect of chemical fertilizers on land
and plants, stress should be given on the application of biofertilizers like
compost, rhizobium culture, azolla etc. The biofertilizers have been proved
175
to be less harmful to soil and plants and also advantageous from productivity
point of view. Therefore, government agencies should take initiatives to
popularize these fertilizers among the farmers in the hills.
The farmers should be imparted education and training in the
right direction cm the judicious use o f fertilizers. Adequate and balanced
doses cm only increase the productivity level of lands. The National
Commission on agriculture while pointing out the importance o f fertilizer
had commented that it has been the experience throughout the world that
increased agricultural production is related to judicious consumption of
fertilizers.
(e) Agricultural Credit
As the bank finance is provided through co- operative societies, it is
indirect, and the farmers generally do not know the bank credits. On the
other hand, societies receive loans from Apex Bank, Land Mortgaged Bank
and Commercial Banks directly or indirectly. Agricultural credit o f the RBI
is an indirect one, supplied only through the Apex Bank of the districts.
The co-operative societies enjoy many advantages such as: (i) These
societies possess intimate knowledge of the character and abilities of their
members, and of local production possibilities, (ii) Small co-operatives cm
instill in its members strong feeling of responsibility for prompt payment of
interest m d repayment of loms, m d cm also provide strong incentive to
176
thrift and savings, (iii) The procedure of deposit and withdrawal is far less
complicated, since identification and similar problem do not exist. The
official to be approached belong to the same village as the members and
work in the same trade; and the fact that money accumulated through
savings is generally to be spent within the village centers that additional
sense of confidence need to encourage villagers to practice the habit of
banking.90 (iv) Further, as a means of reaching the last man in the last
village, co-operative credit has no rival except the money-lender. It offers
the only possible method o f proved merit for reaching the people as a whole.
It is the only practical alternative to usury.91
However, it is to be admitted that credit obtained from co­
operative societies is a meagre one from which no profitable investment can
be made. Credit societies have hardly met even the urgent need of the small
and marginal farmers and landless labour, which are deeply indebted to the
money-lenders. The co-operatives supply only 35 percent o f the rural credit
requirements, out of which, the larger part goes to the bigger agriculturists
and only a minor fraction goes to the smaller cultivators92. Whatever
Medium and long term loan is sanctioned by the land mortgaged and
9 0 .1. L. O; Cooperation as a Means o f Mobilizing Small Savings.
91. Calvert, H. 1945: Cooperation in the Colonies, p.31.
92. Report o f the Co-operative Planning Committee, 1946.
177
commercial banks respectively always remain above the capacity of the
small and marginal farmers, because they cannot offer proper security for
the credit, in the two hill districts o f Assam, the tribal farmers particularly in
i
the hill areas do not have ownership right over their lands. The village
council is still the ultimate owner of the land. As a result, the tribal farmers
cannot get loan for agricultural purposes from commercial banks for non
availability of land documents.
As agriculture lies at the mercy o f monsoon with uncertainty of
production prevailing at all times, and as the bank’s traditional credit
principles and rules are different for the illiterate farmers to understand and
follow, a psychological barrier exists between the banks and the cultivators.
Moreover, there is an abnormal delay in getting credit caused by the red tape
in bank offices. Sometimes on account of delay in the process of getting
loan, the farmer is forced to utilize loans for unproductive purposes and this
involves him greater amount of debts (Khan,1992)93. The small, marginal
and medium farmers in the two hill districts o f Assam cannot aspire after
tractors, pump set etc given by the banks as credit, as they may possess
below 10 hectares of land. They are to remain satisfied without or with small
doses of modem inputs like fertilizers, seed, pesticides etc., which they
93. Khan, Waheeduddin, 1992, (ed): Spatial Planning Organization and Marketing, p-92.
178
manage themselves or approach the co-operative societies for loans to
purchase them. The fanners having below 10 hectares o f land cannot enjoy
the benefit of economic holdings to adopt modem scientific method of
cultivation with the application o f tractor, pump sets and other irrigation
means along with fertilizers as practised in Punjab and other parts of die
world.
Apart from co-operative societies and banks, the other sources of
agricultural finance are friends and relatives, money-lenders and Mahajans.
Though the big fanners depend on their self resources for agricultural
operation, the landless, marginal and small category farmers are forced to
depend on relatives and friends, village money-lenders and Mahajans for
financing their agricultural operation. The borrowing from friends and
relatives are mostly free of interest or a meagre interest However, the
borrowing from money-lenders and Mahajans are costly, as they charge
maximum possible rate o f interest (Mali, 1981) 94. In the hill districts of
Assam, non- institutional sources o f agricultural credits have great impact on
the tribal farmers. Because the tribal farmer often approaches money-lenders
and Mahajans for agricultural finances despite o f charging higher rate o f
94. Mali, D. D. 1981: Some Aspects o f Rural Credit in Magalaya: A Village Case Study in T.
Mathew (ed), North Eastern Hill Regions o f Ihdia-Problems mid Prospects o f Development,
Agricole Publishing Academy, New Delhi.
179
interest. These loans are easier as compared to banks or other institutional
finances, because the farmers can easily approach the money-lenders and
mahajans without much difficulty.
Data presented in annexure table 1.27 reveal that 39.88 percent of the
sample households get loan from institutional sources like co-operative
societies and commercial banks. Among the different communities only
23.18 percent Karbis and 27.54 percent other tribal are able to get loan from
institutional sources. This is because o f the fact that the institutional loans
are not easy to get. The farmers have to fulfill many conditions, which are
beyond their capacity to meet. So, majority of the farmers approach before
non- institutional sources like village money-lenders, Mahajans as well as
friends and relatives. About 52 percent households in the sample get loan
from non intuitional sources. 52.63 and 30.70 percent of the Karbi and other
tribal households borrow from these sources respectively. In fact the loans
from these sources are easy to get, as the farmers do not need to fulfill any
conditions unlike the institutional sources. In answering the last research
question, raised in chapter one, that whether the agricultural credit from
institutional and non-institutional sources is adequate, it has been found from
the above analysis that institutional sources are not adequate to the farmers.
However, non-intuitional sources are though sufficient, the farmers need to
180
borrow at abnormal rate of interest Findings of previous studies done by
D eka95, Zaman 96, Bezbarua97 lend support to our findings.
Again data presented in annexure table 1.28 show that 39.88 percent
o f the overall households utilize loan in consumption purposes and 28.90
percent in performing rituals and festivals. Only 31.21 percent of the overall
households utilize loan in production purposes. Among the different
communities only 12.96 percent Karbis in the sample utilize loan in
production purposes and 50 and 50.73 percent spend loan money in both the
performance of rituals and consumption purposes respectively. While in case
o f other tribal, 22.23 percent households in the sample utilize loan in
production purposes and 40 and 31.28 percent in rituals and consumption
purposes respectively. However, 64.81 percent o f the non tribal households
spend loan money in production purposes.
The above table also reveals that the extent of indebtedness is the
highest in case of the Karbis and the lowest in case of non tribal. The above
discussions again reveal that the farmers belonging to the Karbi community
generally spend loan money on unproductive purposes.
95. Deka, B.R.1986: Agricultural Credit in Assam, a Study on Institutional Sources from 195174, Guwahati University, Ph. D D iesis.
96. Zaman, R. 1999: Bridging Gap through Groups Action Proposal for Tribal District o f Karbi
Anglong o f Assam, Bulletin o f the Assam Institute o f Research for Tribes and Scheduled Castes,
V ol. 1, N ov-xi.
97. Bezbarua, M.P: Towards a Strategy for Economic Development o f Karbi Anglong-Reform Committee
on Economic Affairs, Autonomous Council, June, 2000.
181
There are bright prospects o f agricultural financing in the two hill
districts of Assam. To strengthen agricultural finance and to remove the
constraints involved in it, the government should take some constructive
initiatives. In this regard, the following recommendations of the rural credit
survey committee may be forwarded here: (i) State participation in the share
of capital of co-operatives and the nationalization of imperial banks, (ii)
Strengthening of the co-operatives credit structure at all levels, (iii) Linking
up of credit with marketing, (iv) Development of processing on co-operative
lines, (v) Promotion of storage and warehousing, (vi) Improvement of
training facility and the strengthening of supervising and administrative
machinery.
Apart from the above recommendations, it can be suggested that the co­
operative societies should admit to their membership o f all classes of
cultivators including marginal and sub-marginal cultivators, landless tenant
etc.and provide them adequate credit on the basis of their production
requirements and repaying capacity. On the other hand, all short and
medium-term loans should be given without mortgage of landed property.
Because the tribal farmers in the hills of Assam cannot produce land
documents due to absence of ownership right on the hilly lands.
182
The loans of commercial banks should be cheaper so that the farmers
can easily afford these loans for agricultural purposes. A mild rate of interest
should be charged in respect of all loans. Generally it should be below 8
percent. The administration o f bank loans should be made less rigid and the
delay in granting o f loans and the unfairness in the realization of joint bonds
should be remedied. On the other hand, loans should be made useful to
popularize agricultural improvements and in mitigating the difficulties of
farmers by making these loans freely available in backward tracts where co­
operative credit societies cannot be successful. The banks should also
provide subsidized loans to the farmers during the period o f natural
calamities like flood and drought In the two hill districts o f Assam, more
branches o f commercial banks should be built, as the existing branches are
not sufficient at present to meet the requirements o f the fanners. It is also
suggested that in the hills o f Assam, land development banks should get top
priority. Because these banks can provide long term loans to the farmers,
while the other banks and co-operative credit societies cannot. These banks
should also have a two-tier structure with central land development banks at
the state level and primary land development banks at the sub divisional or
district level like other agriculturally developed states in the country.
To prevent the exploitations on the part of tire farmers by the non-
1 8
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