CHAPTER II
The Geography of the Ganga- Brahmaputra Basin
The Regional Setting
Situated in the Northern half of the Indian sub continent, the GangaBrahmaputra basin constitutes the second largest hydrologic region in
the world. The total drainage area of the basin region is about 17 4 million
hectare spreading over India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan in South
Asia and Tibet region of China north of Himalayan divide. Nestled amidst
the natural watersheds of Himalayas in the north (and beyond into Tibet),
Vindhayas in the south, the Aravalis in the west, Patkai, Naga and
Lushai hills in the east. The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is a single,
sprawling, integrated, transboundary drainage system with a common
terminus. The basin consists of two major river systems of the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra and one relatively smaller river system of the Barak,
which becomes the Meghna in Bangladesh.
About 63 percent of the basin is in India, 7 percent in Bangladesh, 8
percent in Nepal, and 2.5 per cent in Bhutan. Almost 10 percent of the
world's humanity lives in this region, which contains only 1.2 percent of
the landmass.
The Physical Geography of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin
The
Ganga-Brahmaputra basin can broadly be
divided
into four
geographical regions the Himalayan zone, the Great Plains, hilly areas of
east and hill and plateau tracts of the south.
The Himalayas
The Himalayas, with some of the loftiest peaks of the world is one of the
youngest mountain regions on earth and is still rising owing to the
tectonic activity. The Himalayas form a highly rugged and continuous
4fi
stretch (2400 km), between the gorges of Indus and Brahmaputra. Their
width varies from 500 km in Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
The entire Himalayan area as well as plain remained under the level of
the sea till comparatively recent geological times. The region was
occupied by a great geosyncline called the Tethys Sea as late as Mesozoic
times. The sediments deposited in the Tethys Sea were folded to acquire
the present form of the Himalayas and the associated mountain chains,
in the very last phase of mountain building in the earth's history. This
tertiary mountain building [or orogenic phase] is often referred to as
Alpine after Alps, which were also uplifted roughly at the same time.l The
modern Plate Tectonic theory explains the mountain building phases of
the Himalayas.
The Himalayan ranges were formed when the Indian plate was driven
northwards and pushed beneath the Eurasian plate. With the advance of
the Indian plate towards the north, the Tethys started contracting about
65-70 million years ago. About 30-60 million years ago, the two plates
came closer and the Tethys sea crust began to fracture into thrust edges.
About 20-30 million years ago, the Himalayan ranges started emerging.
Intensive erosion from these mountain ranges resulted in the deposition
of molasses in a basin towards south of Himalayan range. The Himalaya
is still rising at the rate of 7.5 - 10 em per year.2 The Himalayas
comprises of three almost parallel fold ranges interspersed with deep
valleys and extensive plateaus (1) Siwaliks - The Siwaliks represent the
outermost range of the Himalayas made up mostly of sediments brought
by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges situated farther north. These
hills have roughly a hog back appearance with relatively steeper slopes
towards south. These hills form almost a continuos chain to the south of
Himachal [Middle Himalaya] from Jammu to Arunachal Pradesh. Their
2
A. Ahmad and Moonis Raza, India: A General Geography, National Council of
Educational Research and Training Publication, New Delhi, 1991, p. 11.
S.M. Mathur, Physical Geology of India, National Book Trust Publication, New Delhi,
1991, p.l4.
47
height varies from 600 to 1500m. The Dangh Range, Dundwa Range and
the Churia Ghati Hills of Nepal form parts of the Siwalik range.
Most of the Himalayan Rivers, which have their sources in the Middle or
Greater Himalaya or beyond in the Tibetan plateau, pass through the
Siwalik range through wide and often steep gorge like valleys. The gorges
of the Teesta and Raidak in West Bengal have joined and form a 90 km
wide gap in the Siwalik range.
Flat bottomed, cultivated valleys called "Duns" in the central part,
covered with thick gravel and alluvium, separate the Siwalik range from
the Middle Himalaya. The Dehradun valley, 75 km long and 15-20 km
wide, is a typical depression of this type. The range is covered with
tropical wet deciduous forests in the east upto the Nepal; the vegetation
becomes thinner farther west.
Middle Himalaya
Lying to the north of the Siwalik range, the Himachal or Middle
Himalaya ranges form a most intricate and rugged mountain system.
The range is 60-80 km wide and 1,000-4,500 in height, with several
---peak-s-rising-up"fo-5~000in.-
marked clearly like
In-the-Eastern Section few ranges can be
Mussorie and the
Nag Tibba ranges.
The
Mahabharat Lekh of Nepal is important Middle Himalaya range
running through the country west to east. Its height varies from
1,500 to 2,000 m above mean seal level. The Middle Mountains form
the great Central belt of Nepal and cover 30 per cent of the Kingdom.
This zone, which has been long been under extensive agricultural
use, is composed almost entirely of mosaic ridges and valleys with
less than 5 per cent being flat land.
The Great Himalaya
The northern most Range of the Himalaya is a long continuous,inner
most and loftiest range. It is the highest range in the world with an
48
average height of 6,100 meters above sea level. One of its peaks, the
Mount Everest (8,848 meters) situated at the northern border of Nepal, is
the highest peak in the world. Its other notable peaks are Kanchanjunga
(8,598 meters), Makalu (8,481 meters) Dhaula Giri (8, 172 meters) etc. 3
This range is forbidding and can be crossed only by a few passes which
too are snow bound during winter months (generally higher than 4,570
meters above sea level), for example Nathu La and Jelep La in Sikkim. 4
Bhutan is a land locked country and almost entirely mountainous with
flat lands limited to the broader river valleys. With altitudes ranging from
200 m to over 7,500 m., it displays enormous physiographic and
ecological diversity.
The complex geological history of the Himalaya and the tectonic stresses
thrown up by dynamic geological process of seismicity, weathering, mass
wastage and erosion affect and modify the environment of the basin. The
central axis of these ranges consists of crystalline rocks, granites,
gneisses and metamorphosed sediments ranging in Pre- Cambrian to as
late as Miocene. To the south of this crystalline axis, occur mixed zones
of sedimentary rocks and metamorphies, which are highly folded and
faulted. The northern contact of these sedimentaries with the central axis
is well marked tectonic feature called the Main Central Thrust (MCT),
along which the crystallines are thought to have moved partially over the
sedimentary zone. Another major tectonic feature called the Main
Boundary Fault (MBF) south of the MCT and running almost along the
entire Himalayan axis from Kashmir to Assam, makes the southern
boundary of the sedimentaries and the northern margin of the Siwaliks.
The geologically young Himalaya, with its residual stresses and highly
compressed and tectonised rocks, is very susceptible to weathering and
damage by seismic activity. The problem is further compounded by the
3
4
C.B. Mamoria, Economic and Commercial Geography of India, Shiv Lal Aggaral and
Company, Agra, 1992, p.4.
Gopal Singh, A Geography of India, Atma Ram and Sons Publication, New Delhi,
1988, p.7.
Af\
steep slopes (300 to 400) of these mountain systems, which results in
heavy landslides and erosion. Human interference in form of various
development activities and the quest for arable lands aggravate the
geologically dynamic processes that lead to disasters and damage to
these mountain's ecosystems. Any development envisaged in the basin
has therefore, to take into account the geological hazards.s
Role of Himalaya
The Himalayas do not only shelter the Great Plains in south from the cold
winds of central Asia in winter and check the moisture laden South West
Monsoons causing rainfall in the plains in summer, but also they are
mainly responsible for the Monsoon type climate prevailing in the
subcontinent. The Himalayas acts as a natural frontier separating India,
Bhutan and Nepal from China.
The Himalayas constitutes the largest reservoir of snow and ice in the
world outside the Polar Regions. Nearly fifteen thousand Himalayan
glaciers as well as the large snow cover, estimated to be 1,400 cubic
kilometers in volume, constitute a vast water storage system. The figure
of glaciers in the Indian part of Himalaya according to an exercise taken
Geological Survey of India safely be taken as 3,000. Nepal and Bhutan
may similarly have 3, 000 glaciers. The Tibetan Himalaya also has
equally large number of glaciers, many of which drain into
the
Brahmaputra, Sutlej and Indus. Around 3,500 glaciers probably drain
into Ganga basin while 611
glaciers drain into the Teesta and
Brahmaputra from southern slopes. It accumulates over the winter and
draining into many rivers and tributaries through the summer dry
season, which is matter of great significance to the economy of the plains
below.
s
B.G. Vergheese and R. Ramaswary Iyer [eds.] Harnessing the Eastern Himalayan
Rivers: Regional Cooperation in South Asia, Konark Publishers,
1993,p.ll.
50
New
Delhi,
Drainage System of the Himalaya
The Brahmaputra has its sources near Lake Mansarovar in Tibet. The
Greater Himalaya Range is bout 1,500 in higher than the level of the
source region of these rivers. It crosses the Great Himalaya through a
very deep and narrow gorge before entering India.6 According to the
geologists, the present course of the river was already in existence before
the Himalayas folded. Subsequently, as the Himalayas rose, the river cut
their beds deeper and deeper leading to the formation of the present
gorges. The rivers thus form antecedent drainage through the Himalayas.
Headwaters of many other rivers including the Bhagirathi, Alaknanda,
Karnali, Gandak, Arun Kosi, Teesta and Manas have cut deep gorges in
the Himadri on its southern slopes.
The Great Plains
The Great Plains stretch in an east west direction between the Himalayas
in the north and peninsular plateaus in the south. The Great Plains is a
depositional surface of great extent formed after the Himalayas. Their
average depth is 1,300-1,400 meters. The crescent of alluvium, from the
Ganga Brahmaputra delta in the east to the Indus delta in the west,
probably represents the infilling of a fore deep warped down between the
peninsular block and advancing Himalayas.
Rivers emerging from the Himalayas deposit their load in fans along the
foothills. These fans have merged together to form a 10-15 km wide
piedmont plain of gravel and unassorted sediments called "Bhabhar",
which forms the northern boundary of the Great Plains. 7 The Terai belt is
marked by a reemergence of the streams on the surface from the
Bhabhar belt. It is a zone of excessive dampness, with a thick growth of
6
7
R.L. Singh, India: A Regional Geography, UBS Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Varanasi, 1993,
p.lO.
D.R.Khullar, India: A Comprehensive Geography, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana,
2000, p.28.
51
forest and variety of wildlife. Terai Zone occupies about 19 percent of the
geographical area of Nepal.
The Ganges plain in upper part has gradient of about 25 em per km.,
where river bluff's, meanders, ox- bow lakes, sandy stretches and nver
channels break the monotony of the flat and featureless plain. It is
drained by tributaries like Yamuna, Ghaghra, Sarda, Gomti etc. The
Middle Ganga Plain is drained by Gandak and Kosi which flow sluggishly
to form levees, bluffs, ox bow lakes, marshes, ravines etc. Almost all the
rivers keep on shifting their course making this area prone to frequent
floods. The Kosi River is notorious in this aspect.
The Lower Ganga plain is formed by the sediments deposited by the
Teesta, Jaldhaka, Torsa and old alluvium tract of Kosi- Mahananda and
Sunkosh. The huge delta of Ganga form two third of this plain, where the
Ganga divides itself into several channels (slope of the land is mere 2 em
per km). The seaward face of the delta is studded with large number of
estuaries, mudflats, mangrove swamps, sandbanks, and islands and fore
lands. The impenetrable Sundari forest called Sunderban covers large
part of the coastal delta.
The Brahmaputra plain
IS
an aggradational plain built up by the
depositional works of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries. Bangladesh is
dominated by the combined delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and
Meghna rivers. The country is laced with numerous distributaries, tidal
creeks and spill channels. Along the South Western coast, the Sunderban
is a heavily forested swamp area with numerous low islands.8
The Aravallis, the Vindhayas, Baghelkhand and Chotanagpur plateau
and the eastern frontier hills which form the western, southern and
eastern boundaries of the basin respectively are geologically old, ranging
in the age almost from the oldest to the Tertiary. These hills except for
s
A.H. Khan and S. Miah, "The Brahmaputra River Development", in Munir Zaman
[ed.J River Basin Development, Tycooly International Publishing Limited, Dublin,
1983, p.89.
52
those belonging to the Tertiary system in parts of northeastern India are
tectonically for more stable as compared to the Himalaya.
Climate
The climate of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is characterized as
"Tropical Monsoon"; clearly indicating on it the dominant influence of the
regions tropical location and the monsoon winds. The word 'monsoon'
conveys comprehensively the rhythm of seasons and changes that occur
in direction of winds in the distribution pattern of rainfall and
temperature with the change of seasons. The Monsoon wind system and
insolation pattern divide the basins weather into hot wet summer
seasons and cool dry winter seasons.
This view of the broad unity of the Monsoon type of climate should not
however, lead us to ignore the regional variations in the climatic
characteristics of different parts of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin.9 The
western parts by and large are hot and arid whereas the eastern areas
are warm and hot. The Monsoon significant climatic feature is the South
West Monsoon winds which bring in the bulk of rainfall from June to
September, the rainfall being heaviest in the mountains and generally
decreasing from east to the west of the basin. Winter rains, usually
caused by western depressions, decreases moving east, are only a
fraction of the total rainfall. The winters rainfall, if occurs timely are very
important for the Rabi crops in the plains. While the rainfall is more or
less evenly distributed on the both sides of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra
and the Barak basins get very heavy rainfall because of the major
depressions traversing these areas do not travel away from the basin. The
annual rainfall in the basin ranges from 1,360 to 2,760 mm (Mukteshwar
· and Darjeeling respectively) and decreases at higher altitudes where
heavy snowfall occurs during winter. The rainfall in the hilly areas of the
basin is heavy and varies from 1,300 to 5,000 mm annually with the
9
R.C. Tiwari ,Geography of India ,Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad, 2003, pp.llB120.
53
world's highest rainfall being observed at Cherrapunji (12,500 mm) in
Meghalaya. In the plains, the annual rainfall ranges from 350 mm
(western plains) to 2,210 mm in the eastern plains and the deltaic area.
The climate in Bangladesh is tropical and wet to extremely wet. The
period from November to February is usually dry and cool. The rainfall
varies from 1,200 to 6,500 mm, the maximum rainfall being recorded in
the coastal areas of Chittagong and the northern parts of the country.
The rainfall distribution patterns are uneven and erratic, the bulk of
rainfall (80 per cent) being received in the Monsoon months from June to
October. Cyclones coming from the Bay of Bengal bring torrential rain,
frequently followed by tidal waves that cause severe damage in the
coastal regions.
There is great seasonal variability in the total amount of rainfall and its
areal distribution in the basin. Consequently, some areas in the basin
suffer from severe drought in the dry months, while floods inundate large
area during the monsoon season.
The heavy rainfall and the instability of the geologically young Himalayan
foothills result in a high level of erosion and frequent landslides in
Northern India, Nepal and Bhutan. Thus, the robust rainfall that makes
the Himalaya such a rich source of hydroelectric energy also causes
severe problem of sedimentation. The rivers carry huge amounts of
sediment from the mountains towards the sea causing siltation and
sedimentation related problems. However, erosion is the combined effect
of rainfall quantity and intensity, soil gradient and type, plant coverage,
agricultural and livestock practices and resource extraction policies. 10
JO
D.A.Eaton and M.C. Chaturvedi , Water Resources Challenges in the Ganges
Brahmaputra River Basin, Lyndon. B. Johnson School Publication, Austin, 1993,
p.2.
54
Drainage
The Ganga- Brahmaputra basin with an annual average run-off of over
1.25 BCM is formed of two large river systems i.e., Ganga and
Brahmaputra river system and a relatively smaller river system i.e.
Meghna.
The Ganga System
The Ganga, the master stream of the system, is formed by two head
streams namely Alaknanda and Bhagirathi, they meat at Devprayag. The
Alaknanda rises near the Garhwal-Tibet border at an elevation of 7,800m
and Bhagirathi has its source at Gangotri Glacier, at an elevation of
about 6,600m. The Ganga enters the Great Plains at Haridwar from
where it flows towards south and southeast to Allahabad. Between
Allahabad and the Bihar West Bengal border, the course is roughly from
west to east and from there onwards towards south. 11 The Ganga is
joined by a number of tributaries on the right and left banks. The
Yamuna and the Son are the important right bank tributaries. The
Ghaghra (Karnali in Nepal), the Gandak and the Kosi, which flow from
the Nepal, form left bank tributaries and contribute a significant part of
the flows of the Ganga particularly in the dry season.
After its confluence, the Ganga continues its eastward flow in Bihar for
another 40 km and as it enters West Bengal it swings around the
Rajmahal hill range. From about 16 km below Farakka, it forms the
common boundary between India and Bangladesh for about 100 krn.
Downstream of Farakka the river divides into two arms, one flows
eastward into Bangladesh as the Padma (Ganges) and other flows
southwest becomes the Hooghly. The river then flows eastwards inside
Bangladesh
and
Joms
the
Brahmaputra
at
Goalundo.
Bhagirathi/ Hooghly takes off India about 40 km below Farakka while the
u
T.C. Sharma and 0. Cautinho, Economic and Commercial Geography of India, Vikash
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, 1983, p.l6.
55
Map 1 THE GANGA BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN
N
LEGEND
--·-- International Bound1ry
o Country Clpltll
®
State Clpltal
~River
,_
•
0
K. G. . 1 Kill Galldakl
SIPI• K. 1 Septa Ko•l
Old 8r~llm. ~ Old Brlllll\lpulra
Like
Dams Barrages
Proposed Barrages
0I
SCALE
'?0 .
".......
100
I
A
Gorai, the Arial Khan, the Kumar, and the Mathabhanga are other
important distributaries in Bangladesh. The combined flow of the Ganges
and the Brahmaputra continues under the name of Padma till it joins the
Meghna near Chandpur.
The drainage area of the Ganga/Ganges system is l,OOO,OOOsq km of
which 861,000sq km lies in India, 140,000sq km in Nepal and 46,000sq
km in Bangladesh with the balance lying in Tibet.l2 The length of the
river from the source to the sea along the Bhagirathi-Hooghly route in
India is about 2,525 km. The distance from the source to Goalundo is
about 2,528 km. The average annual flow in the river as recorded at
Farakka in India in around 380 BCM and as recorded at Hardinge Bridge
in
Bangladesh
around
383
BCM.
The
culturalable
area
in
the
Ganga/Ganges basin is estimated to be about 65.5 million hectare of
which 60.2 mha is in India.
The Brahmaputra System
The Brahmaputra rises in the Great Glacier in the Kailash range of
the Himalaya, at about 5,150 in the Tibet region of China and 1s
locally named the Tsangpo. It flows eastward through southern Tibet
for some 1, 700 km, generally parallel to the ma1n range of the
Himalaya and in joined by many tributaries. It emerges at the
foothills in Arunachal Pradesh in India under the names of Siang and
Dihang. The Dibang and the Lohit join the river near Sadiya town and
thereafter it is known as the Brahmaputra.
During its course, the Brahmaputra River is joined by many tributaries
both from the north and the south. The major northern tributaries are
the. Subansiri, the Kameng, the Dhansiri, the Manas, the Champamati
and the Sunkosh. The principal southern tributaries are the Noa Dihing,
the Buri Dihing, the Disang, the Dhansiri and the Kopili. Throughout its
12
K.D. Adhikary et. al. [eds.J Cooperation on the Eastern Himalayan Rivers,
Opportunities and Challenges, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2000, pp.2-5.
56
course in India, the Brahmaputra has wide braided channel (up to 18
km. in the widest stretch).
After swinging around the spurs of the Garo hills near Goalpara, the river
enters Bangladesh and flows southwesterly for another 270 km until it
joins the Ganges at Goalundo. Many tributaries join the Brahmaputra in
this reach, of which the major ones are the Dudhkumar, Dharla and the
Teesta. Below the confluence of the Teesta the old channel of the
Brahmaputra branches off the left bank. From here to Goalundo the river
is called the Jamuna. The joint stream of the Brahmaputra and the
Ganges beyond Goalundo continues to flow southeast under the name of
the Padma. The Padma is joined by the Meghna River on the left at
Chandpur, 105 km. below Goalundo.
The length of Brahmaputra River from its source in Tibet to Goalundo is
about 2,817 km., of which 1,625 km lies in Tibet, 918 km. in India and
the balance in Bangladesh. The total drainage area of the river is 580,000
sq. km., of which 293,000 sq.km. is in Tibet, 195,000 sq. km. in India,
45,000 sq. km. in Bhutan and 47,000 sq. km. in Bangladesh. The
average annual flow recorded at Bahadurabad (in Bangladesh) is around
620 BCM.
The estimated culturable area in the Brahmaputra basin is around 9.3
million ha, mostly in India and Bangladesh. The estimated present
population ( 1996) in the Brahmaputra basin is around 82 million, with
more than half living in Bangladesh.
The Meghna
The Barak River, which rises in the hills of Manipur state in India at an
elevation of 2,900m, forms the headstream of the Meghna. It flows south,
winding its way through the hills for 250 km before it takes a sharp turn
at Tipaimukh and flows north. At Lakhipur it emerges into the plains and
starts flowing west, in a meandering course. The Barak bifurcates into
the Surma and the Kushiyara near. the Indo-Bangladesh border and both
57
enter Bangladesh. The Surma flows along northern Sylhet and is joined
by a number of tributaries from the hills. The Kushiyara receives the
waters of the north flowing tributaries like the Singla, the Langai, the
Manu, and the Khowai.
The Surma and the Kushiyara join at Markuli after which the united
stream is called the Kalni, which flows in a southerly direction. Near
Kuliarchar, the Kalni receives waters of Ghorautia (which carries the
flows of the Someswari, the Kangsa, the Baulai and the Mogra) and
thereafter the river is called the Meghna. From there the Meghna flows
southwest to meet the Padma (which carries the combined flows of the
Brahmaputra and the Ganges) at Chandpur.
The Meghna is joined by
Titas and the Gumti join from the right, and the Lakhya and Buriganga
from the left, between the stretch of Kuliarchar and Chandpur. Below
Chandpur the combined river is known as the lower Meghna and it soon
forms wide and deep estuary.
The Lower Meghna enters the Bay of
Bengal through four principal mouths, the Tetulia, the Shahbazpur, the
Hatia and the Bamni.
The Meghna from its source flows for about 900 km up to Chandpur, of
which the first 564 km. lie in India and the rest in Bangladesh. The
distance between Chandpur and the sea is about 130 km.l3 The total
drainage area of the Meghna is 85,000 sq. km., of which 49,000 sq. km.
lie in India and 36,000 sq. km. in Bangladesh. The average annual
discharge of the Meghna (at Bhairab Bazar) upstream of its confluence
with the Padma is around 150 BCM.
The culturable area in the Meghna basin is estimated to be 4 million ha,
laying in India and Bangladesh. The population figures
in 1996 was
about 49 million people; the majority of which are in Bangladesh.
13
Ibid.
58
Water Resources
Detailed hydrological data for the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin regwn 1s
not available in published from. However, the picture of the water
resource potential in available in general terms.
The average annual flow in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is estimated to
be around 1350 billion Cubic metres (BCM). The Ganga accounts for
about 500 BCM, the Brahmaputra for 700 BCM and the Meghna for 150
BCM. The combined run off in the tributaries of the Ganga as they cross
into India is assessed at around 225 BCM, the remaining run off in the
river being largely added in India. The average flow in Brahmaputra
system contributed by Tibet (China) and India is around 630 BCM; the
rest balance comes from Bhutan and Bangladesh.l4
Compared to an annual average water availability of 269,000 cubic
metres per square kilometer of the world the availability in the GBM
region is 771,400 cubic metres per square kilometer - which is nearly
three times the world average.
Nepal covers the large part of the upper catchment of north Ganga basin.
It is estimated that its total average annual runoff is about 200 cu.km.
out of which about 170 cu. km. originates within the country itself.
The three Trans Himalayan tributaries (the Karnali, Sapt Gandaki and
Sapt Kosi from Nepal) contribute about 71 percent of the natural and
historic any season flows and 41 per cent of the total annual flow of the
Ganges. 1s
The Bangladesh National water plan (1988) estimates that 90 percent of
the.
14
country's
total
stream
flow
originates
in
the
upper
Ganga-
B.G. Verghese and R. Rangachari "Making Water Work to Translate Poverty into
Prosperity: The Ganga Brahmaputra Barak Region", in Q.K. Ahmad et. al (eds.)
Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Region; A Framework for Sustainable Development,
1s
University Press Limited, Dhaka, 2001, p.83.
G.R. Chaudhary and T.A. Khan "Developing Ganges Basin", in Zaman Munir [ed.]
River Basin Development, Tycoolly Publishing Limited, Dublin, 1983, p.31.
59
Brahmaputra basin. Each day, approximately 3,400 m cu mt. of water is
discharged into the Bay of Bengal, which is about 3. 9 times the average
daily rainfall over Bangladesh.
The groundwater potential of India has been assessed on 171 BCM in the
Ganges sub system and 26 BCM in the Brahmaputra sub system. The
South Asian Regional Vision Document estimates the economically
exploitable groundwater in Nepal as 13 BCM. Similar estimates for
Bangladesh put the annual recharge at 21 BCM.
Another set of data on water resource of the Ganga Brahmaputra
countries is provided by Shahjahan ( 1983), based on studies by National
Commission on Agriculture (India),
H.N.M.
Shrestha (Nepal)
and,
Bangladesh Water development Board.
INDIA
Surface Water: According to the National Commission of Agriculture the
average annual flow of the Ganges is 51 Mham and for Brahmaputra and
Barak is 54 Mham (based on annual normal rainfall and main annual
rainfall).
The commission also views that usable water resources is substantially
less than the total availability in the rivers, due to limitation of
topography, physiography, geology, dependability and quality.
Ground Water: The groundwater potential of the Ganges basin has been
estimated at 26 M ha m, of which 60% is usable. The Brahmaputra
Barak basin has a potential of 1.59 M ham.
BANGLADESH
Surface Water: There are about 300 major rivers creeks and canals in
Bangladesh forming a network together with the three large rivers of the
Ganges,
Brahmaputra and Meghna.
60
The
average
annual
flow
of
Brahmaputra (at Bahadurabad) is 507.4 MAF, of Meghna (at Bhairab
Bazaar) in 116.2 MAF, and of Ganges (at Hardinge Bridge) is 275.7 MAF.
Ground Water: Investigations of the major hydro-geological regions show
that groundwater is available for irrigation and agriculture in an area
covering some 13.85 million acres. The average available groundwater for
extraction in the lean period of November to April has been calculated at
about 9 MAF.I6
NEPAL
Surface Water: Nepal has more than 6,000 rivers with a total length of
45,000 km and an average approximate density of 0.3 kilometer per
square kilometer. The four main river systems of Nepal and their
discharge date are as following Mahakali (6,861 m3.fs), Karnali (1,333
m3js), Sapt Kosi (1,540 m 3/s), Narayani (1,572 m 3/s). About 27 percent
of the catchment area of Nepal's rivers lies in Nepal and only 10 percent
of the surface run off is available from Tibetan side.
Ground Water: In Nepal much of the Terai region and some parts of the
Siwaliks valley region have significant groundwater resources, which are
estimated to be 1.2 million hectare, of which 0.8 million hectare are
rechargeable. Utilization of groundwater in Nepal is about 8 percent. 17
Whatever be the exact figures, the total surface and ground water
resources of the region are adequate to meet all reasonable needs.
Water Resource Development Issues
The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is a water rich reg10n. It is the single
most important natural resource of the basin countries. The development
of water resource can ensure social and economic development of the
16
17
M. Shahjahan, "Regional Cooperation in the Utilization of Water Resources of the
Himalayan Rivers", in Munir Zaman (ed.) River Basin Development, Tycoolly
International Publication Ltd., Dublin, 1983, p.118.
Water Based Integrated Development .of the GBM Region, Institute of Integrated
Development Studies, Kathmandu, 2000, p.22.
61
region by meeting the growing demands of food, energy and water supply
for industry and households. IS
Water is abundant during the monsoon but scarce during the dry season.
The basin has a monthly surface run off of approximately 10 billion cubic
meters for about eight months of the year. During the four months of
monsoon, average monthly run off is 110 billion cubic meters. This
tremendous disparity in the seasonal extremes, coupled with burgeoning
needs for irrigation and development, has made apportionment of lean
season flows essential.
Dry winter season and unreliable rainfall (even during the monsoons
months) make irrigation essential for modern agricultural development
and ensuring food security. Large-scale development of modern irrigation
projects in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin started in the last century,
based on canal irrigation and ground water utilization. The gestation
period of the irrigation projects was unduly prolonged, utilization has
been slow, most importantly, and neither croppmg intensity nor
.
productivity gains have matched expectations. 19
Floods on the Ganges and Brahmaputra take colossal proportions in both
India and Bangladesh. In India, the combined effects of prolonged and
intense rainfall and sleep, well developed, drainage networks in the
Himalayan foothills make low land flooding an annual routine event. 20
The two third area of Bangladesh is flood prone. In exceptionally severe
yeas, half of the country of Bangladesh is inundated. Annual average
flood damage to Bangladesh is estimated at 945 million dollars, but in an
impoverished country even a figure that large understates the hardships.
1s
19
20
S.K. Malia , Three Country Study on Water Resources Development of the GangaBrahmaputra Barak River Basins, Nepal Country Report, IIDS Publication,
Kathmandu, Nepal, 1993, p.3.
B. G. Verghese , Waters of Hope, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
1990, p.96.
R. Kettleman "Conflict and Cooperation over the Floods in the Himalayan - Ganges
Region" Water International, 15, 1990, p.190.
Loss of life, disruption of communication and other social consequences
often cannot be measured in terms of money.
Because of the fragility of the mountains and the severity of the
monsoons, the Ganges Brahmaputra washes huge amounts of sediments
into the river each rainy season. The high level of sediment in water
affects both the basins agriculture and its industry. Siltation has affected
the navigation in India as well as Bangladesh. In Bangladesh continued
siltation has gradually changed the topography of flood plains and
drainage conditions.21
Vast opportunities lie m the generation of hydroelectric energy, which
can transform the economic scenario of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin.
The rivers originating in Himalayan and sub Himalayan ranges with
steep topographical slopes and almost year around availability of the
flows has a tremendous hydropower potential. Although there are varying
estimates generally accepted figures are that India has 45, 635 MW,
Nepal has 83,000 MW and Bhutan has 21,000 MW estimated potential of
HEP. The potential developed so far is meager (5%) as compared to
hydropower potential in the basin region is concerned.22 Major causes
are lack of cooperation among nations, politicization of the water
resource development and management aspects, prolonged negotiations,
disagreements on the location of dams, reservoir safety, resettlement and
rehabilitation issues, environmental concerns, cost and benefits sharing,
etc.
Water quality has witnessed progressive deterioration due to growing
urbanization and industrialization. The increased use. of agrochemicals,
21
22
A.T.M. Huda Shamshul, Constraints and Opportunities for Cooperation Towards
Development of Water Resources in the Ganges Basin, in A.K. Biswas and I.J. Uitto
[eds.] Sustainable Development of the Ganges Brahmaputra Basins, United Nation
University Press, Tokyo, 2000, p.48.
R.B. Shah, "Ganges Brahmaputra: The Outlook for the Twenty First Century", in
A.K. Biswas and I.J.Uitto [eds.] Sustainable Development of Ganga Brahmaputra
MeghnaBasin", United Nation University Press, Tokyo, 2000, p.23 ..
63
discharge of untreated domestic sewage, poor sanitation facilities have
aggravated the problem of water pollution.
The optimum utilization of the water resource, effective management
to meet the multisectoral uses, enhancing the efficiency of water
utilization, technological modernization, checking pollution and inter
countries cooperation are the major issues for the water resource
development in the basin region.
Social and Economic Geography of the Basin
Population
The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin accounts for about 10 percent of
the world population, which contains only 1.2 percent of the
worlds land mass. The total population of the basin has reached a
level of about 600 million by 1999, of which the share of India is
76 per cent, while the corresponding figure of Bangladesh and
Nepal are 21 percent and 3.5 per cent respectively. The total
population figures [year 1998] for the different countries are,
India- 987 million, Bangladesh -128 million, Nepal- 24 million and
Bhutan- 1. 7 million.
The fertile alluvial soil m the plains, warm climate, good rainfall,
numerous small and large rivers and easy agricultural production
attracted people from different areas and the region become one of most
densely populated parts of the world, particularly in the plains. The
density of population is highest in the plains, especially in Bangladesh
7 40 per sq.km (1991 figures) and the adjacent Indian states of West
Bengal (904 per sq. km), Bihar (880 per sq. km) and Uttar Pradesh 689
persons per sq. km [2001 figures]. The population density is significantly
low in the hills of Uttaranchal, North Eastern states of India, Nepal and
Bhutan. The growth of population has caused expansion of agriculture by
cleaning the remaining forest in the hills to cultivate and build new
habitats. As a consequence the region has been losing,ecological balance,
64
and massive deforestation has been aggravating soil erosion, siltation
and flash floods.23
The population of the region has doubled during the last 30 years. The
population
growth
rates
figure
for
1995-2000
periods
of India,
Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan are 1.8, 2.2, 2.5 and 2.4 percent
respectively. Despite some moderate reductions in fertility and mortality
levels, both remain unacceptably high. There is tremendous growth
potential as about half of the population is below 15 years of age and the
Net Reproduction Rate (NRR) is between 1.5 to 2.0 (1991 figures). If the
population of the region continues to grow at the present rate, it may
double again in another 35 to 40 years. The Crude Birth
Rate (per 1000)
still remains high for all countries of the basin; the 1991 figures for India,
Nepal and Bangladesh are 27.5, 29.6, and 31.60 respectively. The
demographic figures reflect the socio-economic situation of the basin
where all the riparian countries still belong to
second stage of
demographic transition characterized by subsistence agrarian economy.24
Poverty
The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is characterized by endemic poverty being home to about 40 percent of the total number of poor people
residing in the developing world. In the region, 60 to 70 percent of the
population
depends
on
agriculture
for
employment,
which
1s
characterized by limited scope of expansion and seasonality. Unskilled
agricultural labour receives low wage, which is inadequate to meet the
basic needs. The factors that lead to poverty in the region are low
productivity, substantial unemployment and under unemployment, low
wages and inadequate access to income generating opportunities. The
poverty in the region manifest itself in low per capita income leading to
23
24
B.G. Verghese et.al. [eds.] Converting Water into Wealth, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd,
New Delhi, 1997, p.3.
Majid Husain ,Human Geography, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2002, p.l28.
inadequate calorie intake, high incidence of diseases and short life
expectancy.
The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is inhabited by about two fifth of the
developing world's poor people with a daily calorie intake of less than
2,200-2,400 Kcal.
The critically vulnerable groups affected by poverty
are the landless and marginal farmers, disabled persons, and destitute
with no access to economic activities, rural non-farm workers, urban
slum dwellers and rapidly increasing female leaded rural households. 25
In India there has been significantly decline in poverty. In 1983,37
percent population was living below poverty line, in 1999-2000 the figure
declined to 26.10 percent, however, there is considerable regional
variation. The population living below poverty line in Bihar, Assam,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh is 42.60 percent, 36.09 percent, 37.43
percent and 31.05 percent respectively, which is much higher than
national average. The incidence of poverty is higher in rural areas than in
urban areas.
Nepal planning commiSSion estimated in 1984 that 42 percent of the
population had incomes below the poverty line 95 percent of the poor
lived in rural areas of whom 82 percent were agricultural labourers of self
employed.
The per capita GNP for India, Bangladesh and Nepal is (as of 1998) 430
US
dollar,
350 US
dollar and
210
US
dollar
respectively;
the
corresponding global average is 4,890 US dollar.
Literacy: The adult literacy has improved in recent decades. For male
the adult literacy rate for India, Bangladesh and Nepal are 67 per cent,
50 per cent and 56 per cent respectively. But female literacy is still very
low in all the countries 39 per cent, 27 per cent and 21 per cent percent
respectively.
2s
Q.K. Ahmad, Nilufer Ahmad and K.B.S. Rasheed (eds.) Resources Environment and
Development in Bangladesh, Academic Publishers, Dhaka, 1994, p.14.
66
Health: The indicators of health present a dismal picture. In India,
Bangladesh and Nepal annual average expenditures on health (as percent
of GOP during 1990-97) were only 0.7, 1.2 and 1.2 respectively. Whereas
the global average is 2.5 percent; and for the high income or developed
countries it is about 6 percent. In riparian countries of the GangaBrahmaputra basin health care systems are inefficient and grossly
inadequate. The Infant and Child Mortality Rates are much higher than
of other developing countries. The Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live
births) [ 1997 figures] for India, Bangladesh and Nepal are 71, 75 and 83
respectively. Large section of the population in these countries doesn't
. have access to safe drinking water. In 1995, only 29 percent, 35 percent
and 20 percent population of the total population (1995) of India,
Bangladesh and Nepal had access to sanitation facilities. The situation is
much worse in the rural areas. The poor sanitation facility has affect on
health situation and water quality available in the region, and there is
wise incidence of water borne diseases especially among children. As a
whole, wide gender disparity is visible in all the social indicators in the
riparian countries of the basin.
Urbanisation: The countries of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin have
witnessed very low level of urbanisation and remain largely rural in
nature. In India the urban population accounts for 27 percent of total
population, for Nepal and Bangladesh the figures are 14 percent and 20
percent respectively. Large scale regional disparity occurs in different
parts of the basin where few cities/metros have grown as big in migration
centers from rural hinterland. In Bangladesh, India and Nepal annual
urban growth rates are 5.2, 3.0 and 6.5 percent respectively (1995-2000).
These rates are much higher than those of Europe (0.5 percent), Latin
America (2.3 ·percent), Australia (1.2 percent), USA and Canada (1.2
percent).
High rural-urban migration is the major cause for rapid urbanization in
the basin countries. An important aspect in rural-urban migration is the
push factor that is increasing pressure of population in the rural areas
67
and the consequent poverty of the people. 2 6 The push migrants from
landless or marginal households, who are unable to find employment in
the labour surplus agriculture sector, and have no or poor access to land
and other productive assess, are forced to move out their villages. In the
urban areas, significant numbers of rural migrants live in slums, having
little access to sanitation, safe water, health, education and other basic
needs. The provision of basic amenities such as piped water supply,
sewerage, drainage, electricity to the slum dwellers and the fringe villages
poses a major problem to the city administration. The slums have high
population density, per room occupancy and high incidence of health
problems. The rural migrants are mostly young males and urban
populations have disproportionate male-female ratios.
Agriculture in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the Ganga-Brahmaputra
basin region countries. It provides employment to the 66 percent of the
labour force in India, 75 percent in Bangladesh and 90 percent in Nepal
(1987-88). The self-employed agriculture is usually subsistence in
nature.
The rising population pressure on land has led to decline in the per
capita arable land. Nearly 45 percent of the basin region is arable but per
capita availability of land in India, Bangladesh and Nepal are 0.17, 0.07
and 0.13 respectively (1994-96 figures). The potential for extending the
arable area under cultivation had already been over exploited.
In India the agriculture sector, provides livelihood to about 64 percent of
the labour force and attributes nearly 26 percent of the Gross Domestic
Product. 27 Besides low per capita land availability, fragmentation of the
land is a serious problem, which adversely affects the farm production.
26
27
R. Ramchandran, Urbanization and Urban System in India, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, 1989, p.92.
India 2002: A Reference Manual, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and
broadcasting, New Delhi, 2002, p.373.
68
The average operational holding has decreased from 2.1 hectare in 19601 to 1.3 hectare in 1991-92. The number of marginal holdings (less than
one hectare) grew up from 22 to 56 million, constituting 48.3 percent of
all land holdings in 1991-92. The Land Reforms programme initiated
which included ceiling on land ownership, consolidation of lands,
redistribution of lands, etc. has not been effectively implemented.
Besides, the lack of credit, economic assets and irrigation facilities has
affected the agriculture output.
Nepal has sluggish and mainly subsistence oriented agriculture. Still,
agriculture is the single largest sector with reference to income and
employment though its share in GNP has declined from 70 percent 1974
to around 50 percent or less yet it remains the source of livelihood for
bulk of the population. The country's cultivable area of 2.6 million
hectare accounts for no more than a fifth of its total land area. In
irrigation the area that has some infrastructure developed is 1. 06 million
hectare, which is 60 per cent of the potential irrigable agricultural land
and 33 per cent of the total potential agricultural land. The land
distribution is showed. 28 Two third of all households owns less than a
hectare of land and 10 percent is landless. The agricultural productivity
is low and increases in production have mostly come from expansion of
acreage. Due to rapid growth of population, Nepal has a food deficit since
1983, cereal output in 1996-97 being a little less than four million tones.
In Bangladesh, the contribution of agriculture to the GDP had declined to
32.4 percent by 1997; still agriculture continues to be the largest
provider of employment. The agriculture in Bangladesh is troubled by
declining cultivated area due to increasing urbanization and diversion of
land to non-agricultural uses. Though the population growth rate has
come down, per capita food grain production and consumption have
remained stagnant since 1980-81.
2s
Nepal Water Partnership, Frame Work for Action: Achie.lling Nepal Water Vision, 2025,
JVS Publication, December 1999, p. 1.
69
The technological transformation is the key factor for agricultural
transformation in Ganges-Brahmaputra basin. The riparian countries
have been using modern technology such as irrigation, HYV seeds,
chemical fertilizers and pesticides since the late
1960's but the
application of this technology has not been uniform in all parts of the
region. The major constraints facing the application of technology have
been limited access to irrigation, fertilizers and credit facilities, an
efficient distribution system and extension services. Besides there is a
need to promote agro based industry and inter-regional marketing of
products.
There must be an acceleration in industrial and service sector growth to
reduce dependence on land, absorb surplus rural and urban labour and
raise labour productivity.
Energy
The countries of Ganga-Brahmaputra basin have a very low dependence
on and utilization of commercial energy. The per capita commercial
energy consumption figures in India, Bangladesh and Nepal are 4 76,
197and 320 Kgoe (Kilogram of oil equivalent) respectively. Per capita
energy use in the world is about 1,680 Kgoe on an average while it is
around
5,340
Kgoe
for
high-income
countries.
The
low
energy
consumption is not due low actual demand. Instead commercial energy
supply is very limited and subject to shortages. The biomass is the major
source of energy not only in the rural areas but also for urban poor .The
consumption of biomass - wood fuel in the industrial sector is also
substantial. 29 The dependence on biomass is causing deforestation and
other adverse environmental impacts in the region.
Despite the poor socio economic situation of the Ganga-Brahmaputra
region the hope lies in the natural endowments of water, land and
29
H.M. Shrestha, "Energy as a Security Issue" in S.U. Khatri (ed.] Energy Policy and
Regional Implication, NEFAS Publication, Kathmandu, 2002, p.90.
70
energy. The abundance of water resource in the region can become the
engine of growth for the millions of the people living in the region. The
shared river system if optimally utilized through collaborative efforts can
enhance
the
quality
of
life
though
human
development
and
environmental sustainability and economic growth. The cooperative
efforts of riparian countries for integrated development and management
of resources, though, have been impeded due to political factors.
Table: GBM Region: Socio-economic Indicators
Indicator
Bangladesh
India
Nepal
Population (million) 1998
128
987
24
Annual population growth rate: 1995-2000(%)
1.9
1.8
2.5
Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 lie births) 1997
75
71
83
Under-5 mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) 1997
104
88
117
Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000 live births)
850
437
1,500
Access to safe water (% of population) 1995
84
85
59
Access to sanitation (% of population) 1995
35
29
20
Adult literacy rate(% of people 15 & above) 1997
50(M) 27(F)
67(M) 39(F)
56(M) 2l(F)
Female (as % of labour force) 1998
42
32
40
Arable land (hectare per capita) 1994-96
0.07
0.17
0.13
Per capita commercial energy use: annual (Kgoe)
197
476
320
Per capita electricity consumption (KWH\h) 1996
97
347
39
Population below national poverty line (%), early
48
37
43
350
430
210
1990-97
1996
1990s
Per Capita GNP (US$) 1998
Notes: Kgoe
=
KWh
Kilogram of oil equivalent,
71
=
Kilowatt hours
Political Geography of The Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin
The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is part of South Asia, which forms a
geopolitical system having its own characteristics. 30 The South Asian sub
continent includes India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan (also
called countries of the Himalayan block. 31 These countries were part of
the British Indian Empire till recently. Hence, for almost a century, their
political system, economy, foreign policy and defence were treated as a
composite unit.
The political geography of South Asia changed radically m 194 7 when
after two centuries of colonial administration; the British were forced to
relinquish their control over the Indian sub continent. The region
witnessed emergence of two states India and Pakistan and few decades
later Bangladesh. The colonial legacies of unresolved boundary dispute,
the division of British India into India and Pakistan in 194 7 without
much regard for the geography and integrity of the major river basins,
followed by the breakup of Pakistan and emergence of. Bangladesh as
sovereign state in 1971, these geopolitical development in the post world
war II era lies at heat of hydropolitics in the Ganges Brahmaputra basin.
Bangladesh and India are runned by democratically elected governments
while Pakistan experiments with democracy have been difficult one.
Bhutan remains a constitutional monarchy while Nepal is gradually
making a turbulent transition from monarchy to democracy. These
riparian states are the members of International Organizations like
United Nations, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
The South Asian countries have also formed a regional organization,
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985 with a
permanent secretariat at Kathmandu.
30
K.R. Singh, "Cooperation for Security", in M.S. Agwani et. al. (eds.) South Asia:
31
Stability and Regional Cooperation, Centre for Research in Rural and Industrial
Development, Chandigarh, 1983, p.77.
The World Bank, M.A.S. Salman and S. Uprety, Conflict and Cooperation on South
Asia's International Rivers, The World Bank Publication, Washington D.C., 2002,
p.S.
72
India, the biggest country in terms of size and population in the region,
had remained the worlds largest democracy from the beginning of its
independence and regular elections have been held in the country to
chose the Central and State (Provincial) governments. Despite the
immense diversity, the central administrations have so far managed to
keep the country together, although separatist movements have on many
occasions threatened India's territorial integrity.32
Due to the pre-independence partition, independent India had lost a
sizeable chunk of its most fertile irrigated land in Indus and Ganges
basin to the newly created state of Pakistan, at both the western and
eastern ends of its border.
The Indus Treaty
The Indus basin is located in the Northwest of India and Pakistan and is
one of the most important rivers in the world. In 194 7 the line of partition
cut across the Indus system, leaving India upstream and the Pakistan
the downstream riparian on five of the six rivers in the Indus system.
After partition, Pakistan got 18 million acres of irrigated land for
population of 22 million in the area around Indus, where India received 5
million acres of irrigated land for the population of 20 million. India had
large areas that needed irrigation facilities, thus it claimed the right to
devote to its own use the waters from Indus system. An understanding
on water sharing between the two new countries was clearly necessary.
After prolonged talks between the two governments and the mediation
offered by good offices of the World Bank two countries signed Indus
Treaty in 1960.
According to the Treaty, the three western nvers Jhelum, the Chenab
and the Indus were allocated to Pakistan, and the three eastern rivers
(Ravi, Beas and the Sutlej) were allocated to India. Certain restrictions
32
R.P. Koirala, SAARC Nepal's Role in Collective Utilisation of Its Water Resources, The
Team publication, Kathmandu 1990, p.l4.
73
Map 2
'fhc Indus River Basin
82..
78•
74"·
CHINA
36"
36'
AFGHANISTAN
lJ2•
32'
INDIA
NEPAL
INDUS RIVER BASIN
74"
o
SELEGED CITIES
®
NATIONAl CAPITALS
0
I 00
200
:.JOO
I
I
I
I
400 Kilomolcn
I
were placed on India as the upper npanan. On the nvers allocated to
Pakistan, India was not allowed to build storages, except to a limited
extent. Restrictions were also imposed on the irrigation development in
India. On Pakistan, the lower riparian, there were some· relatively less
significant restrictions. 33
The treaty also provided for permanent institutional mechanism in form
of
Indus
Water
Commission
to
serve
as
regular
channel
of
communication on all matters relating to the implementation of the
Treaty. There was to be a commissioner each for India and Pakistan, and
there were to be periodical meetings and exchanges of visits. The treaty
has been working reasonably well despite a difficult political relationship
between the two countries. Interestingly, the treaty solved the watersharing problem between the two countries, when the diplomacy has
failed to solve the contentious
issue such as Kashmir.
3 4 The
treaty was
not abrogated even during the two Indo - Pakistan wars. Differences
do
arise from time to time, but these usually get resolved within the
framework of the Treaty. At present there is an unresolved dispute
regarding Tulbul Navigation Project, which is being resolved through
inter -governmental talks.
India: Post Independence Water Resource Development
The new government under Jawaharlal Nehru, facing a severe food
scarcity and massive post partition migration, almost immediately
launched a grand scheme of large-scale surface water development to
increase the agricultural production. The initial spectacular success m
the agricultural sector inspired the Indian leadership to reorient India's
development strategy towards one overriding and widely accepted
national goal: maximizing self reliance. India carried out rapid expansion
of industrial and agricultural infrastructures, which laid emphasis on
33
Ramaswamy R. lyer, "Conflict Resolution: Three River treaties," Economic and
Political Weekly, June 12, 1999,p. 1509.
34
Sangeeta Thapliyal, "Water and Conflict: The South Asian Scenario," Strategic
Analysis, October 1996,p.1041.
74
heavy industry and maximized food gram production. The energy
requirements of this rapid industrialization doubled government efforts
toward large-scale surface water development projects. These projects
were also visualized as the symbol of national of unity and prestige as
well as the harbinger of future development.35
The Ganges- Brahmaputra basin has also a sub national level of political
angle in India. The Ganges flows through states like Uttaranchal, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. The centrally administered territory of
Delhi also lies within the Ganges basin. The Brahmaputra basin on the
other land, covers portions of territories of eight North Eastern Indian
states. As India has a democratic and federal political system, state level
jurisdiction over all the water projects and water allocations, conflicting
needs and interests of the different set up have to be reconciled before
any international agreement with the neighbouring countries can be
arrived at or ratified. On some occasion the centre has been successful in
dissuading the states from implementing water projects which could
harm the Indian neighbours, on other occasions like The Ganges Treaty
1996, West Bengal cooperated with the Centre, though the state's
interest was going to be affected most seriously by the Treaty.36 The
Centre and state cooperation over water in India also depends on the
relationship between the political parties in power at the two levels of
administration, at any point of time. The ups and downs of Centre and
state relations in India continue to
have
substantial impact on
transboundary water management m the basin. India carried out
massive irrigation schemes in post-Independence period without much
concerns over social and environmental impact of the projects. However,
m
recent
years,
the
concerns
of
domestic
and
international
environmental movements and Non- Governmental Organizations have
also be taken into account and reconciled before large water projects can
35
36
Leif Ohlsson, Hydropolitics: Conflicts Over Water as a Development Constraint,
University Press Limited, Dhaka, 1996, pp.124-125.
Frontline, Delhi, April 4 1997, p. 17.
be launched and completed as in the case of Sardar Sarovar Project,
Silent Valley Project etc.
The domestic politics of Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan add further
complications to the basin hydropolitics. Bangladesh emerged as a
sovereign and secular state in 1971. There was an apparent help of India
in freedom of Bangladesh. 37 Bangladesh went through one party rule and
a series of military coups installing General Zia as President, who in 1977
declared the country to be an Islamic state. 38 The defiant attitude of new
regime towards India led to further deterioration in Bangladesh-India
relations, which were already strained by the assassination of the first
and allegedly pro- Indian leader of Bangladesh. Bangladesh entered a
decade of political turmoil, which also adversely affected its relations ·with
India.
Many factions in Bangladesh continue to suspect India of hegemonic
ambitions in South Asia, and different political groups in Bangladesh
continue to exploit any dispute with their powerful neighbour to create
domestic upheaval and gain political leverage with the ruling party. The
water issue indeed constitutes one of the recurrent themes in domestic
politics of Bangladesh. The foreign policy experts in Dhaka feel that the
people of Bangladesh realised since the early days of Independence that
New Delhi was determined to capitalise on Bangladesh's geopolitically
"India locked" situation to do everything to compound the vulnerability of
their country.39 Bangladesh abject poverty, its near total dependence on
waters originating outside its borders and its extreme vulnerability to
floods and droughts have made its domestic politics and international
relations highly susceptible to hydro politics in the basin.
37
38
39
Jagdish C. Pokharel,Environmental Resources: Negotiation Between Unequal Powers,
Vikas Publishing Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1996, p.84.
Khursida Begum, Tension over the Farakka Barrage, University Press Limited,
Dhaka, 1987, pp.156-157.
Iftekharuzzaman, "The Ganges Water Sharing Issue: Diplomacy and Domestic
Politics in Bangladesh", BIISSJoumal, Vol.l5, No.3, 1994, p.230.
76
In Nepal, the post world war II period, until 1981 when the first national
election since 1959 was held, was one of the great political turmoil. Over
the next decade there were many clashes between the various political
parties and the monarchy. Under the provisions of a new constitution
promulgated in 1990, Nepal remains a constitutional monarchy. A new
multiparty democratic order was instituted in the country through
elections in June 1991. In November 1994, a coalition led by communist
party came to power in Kathmandu. The new government decided to take
a pragmatic stance on all issues towards it neighbours, including India.
However, the new leadership also called for negotiating substantial
modifications to the 1951 Treaty of Friendship with India as well as
reexamining bilateral cooperation for several joint water and hydroelectric
projects proposed over the years. In 1995 this government was dissolved
and Kathmandu has been moving towards more friendly relations with
India. However, in the end as in Bangladesh, any attempt by the
Nepalese leadership to cooperate with India over the shared waters
remains vulnerable to exploitation by various political parties/ factions
who many accuse the ruling party of compromising Nepal's sovereignty
and national interest.40
In Bhutan a hereditary monarchy was founded in 1907, followed in 1910
by the Anglo Bhutanese Treaty, which placed Bhutan's foreign relations
under the supervision of the government of British India. After India
became independent, the Indo-Bhutanese Treaty of Friendship replaced
the Treaty in August 1949. According to the Treaty Bhutan agreed to
seek the advice of the Government of India with regard to its external
relations but it remained free to decide whether or not to accept the
advice. Bhutan is now governed by the King, a council of Ministers, a
National Assembly and the powerful :ffead of the Buddhist lamas. On the
whole Bhutan has benefited greatly from friendly relations with India.
40
Arun P. Elhance, Hydropolitics in The Third World. Conflict and Cooperation in
International River Basins, United States Institute of Peace Press, Washington D.C.,
1999, pp.l67-170.
77
But
some
Bhutanese
have
questioned
the
country's
near
total
dependence on India for security, trade and aid.
The analysis of political geography of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin and
the water resource management issues in the thesis focuses mainly on
India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, although China shares the basin
by virtue of its control over Tibet autonomous region. Till date China has
not made any substantial claims relating to its acquired uppermost
riparian status on the Tsangpo -Brahmaputra or any of the tributaries
originating in Tibet. The main reason for this is the unique physical
geography of the basin, which does not allow China to substantially
manipulate the river waters.41
Chinese disinclination to participate in hydro politics of the basin is also
partly due the special status of Tibet in Chinese policy as well as other
domestic and international preoccupations of the Chinese leadership.
China is actively engaged with India through domestic channels to solve
the border problem and recently has stopped making territorial claims
over Sikkim. Though India and China are two Asian regional powers, they
are cooperating with each other on trade and commerce issues. Further,
even if China wishes to develop the hydroelectric potential of the Tsangpo
in Tibet, the mostly coastal and southeastern orientation of its mainland
economy would extract very high costs and losses for transmitting
electricity from Tibet to Chinese cities and industrial areas. Because of
the rugged Himalayas, navigation in the Brahmaputra is also not a
concern for China. Thus, the physical and economic geography of the
basin effectively shut China off playing a major direct role in the
hydropolitics of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin.
Without China's active involvement in the basin's hydropolitics, India is
by ·far the strongest riparian state in the basin. India's size, both in terms
of its area, population and its far superior economic and military
capabilities have placed it in a potentially hegemonic relationship with its
weaker neighbours. These power imbalances have often engendered fear,
41
Ibid, p.l71.
78
suspicion, insecurity and even envy in smaller states. The smaller states
of south Asia have been especially sensitive to issues of national
sovereignty, identity and autonomy and to the very real possibility of
cultural and economic domination by their big neighbour. India many
times has been less than enough sensitive towards perceptions of smaller
states.
South Asia, which has Ganga Brahmaputra rivers, flowing through some
of the world's most density populated and poorest regions, is a geopolitical region whose internal post Independence political characteristics
have interacted with its highly contrasted physical and economic
environments to produce widely differing scenarios for large scale water
development and management. 42 Though in terms of sub continental
hydrography, the post colonial, post partitioned states of South Asia, are
united, sharing the Ganges Brahmaputra basin (India-Bangladesh-Nepal)
geo-politically they stand divided; as against the backdrop of asymmetry
of wealth, knowledge and information, water issues continue to induce
conflict and struggle among them for power in various forms. 43
The political geography of the basin, especially the contentious nature of
domestic politics in each of the riparian states and their interstate
relations, till recently prevented the emergence of riparian relation
conducive to basin wide cooperation. However during 1990's new sense
of dialogue,
cooperation,
mutual
trust are
visible
among
India,
Bangladesh and Nepal. Political will, diplomatic initiatives and track II
exchanges have fostered some sense of urgency for cooperative efforts in
water resource development not only to end decades old transboundary
water related conflicts but also for optimum utilization of water resources
for human development, social economic welfare and environmental
conservation. Hopefully 1996, the year of. Mahakali and Ganges Treaty
will stand as the watershed for riparian relations among the basin states.
42
43
Colombi B.Stephen and Bradnock W. Robert, "Geopolitics, Water and Development
in South Asia: Cooperative Development in the Ganges Brahmaputra Delta" The
Geographical Journal, Vol.169, No.1, March 2003, p.47.
Eva Saroch, "Geopolitics of Water: From Security to Sustainability," Water Nepal,
Vol.9j10, No.l/2, 2003, p.lll.
79