Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian Wars after the Conquest
of Canada….. selection
It is difficult for the imagination adequately to conceive the extent of these fresh-water
oceans, and vast regions of forest, which, at the date of our narrative, were the domain of nature,
a mighty hunting and fishing ground, for the sustenance of a few wandering tribes. One might
journey among them for days, and even weeks together, without beholding a human face. The
Indians near Michillimackinac were the Ojibwas and Ottawas, the former of whom claimed the
eastern section of Michigan, and the latter the western, their respective portions being separated
by a line drawn southward from the fort itself. The principal village of the Ojibwas contained
about a hundred warriors, and stood upon the Island of Michillimackinac, now called Mackinaw.
There was another smaller village near the head of Thunder Bay. The Ottawas, to the number of
two hundred and fifty warriors, lived at the settlement of L’Arbre Croche, on the shores of Lake
Michigan, some distance west of the fort. This place was then the seat of the old Jesuit mission
of St. Ignace, originally placed, by Father Marquette, on the northern side of the straits. Many of
the Ottawas were nominal Catholics. They were all somewhat improved from their original
savage condition, living in log houses, and cultivating corn and vegetables to such an extent as to
supply the fort with provisions, besides satisfying their own wants. The Ojibwas, on the other
hand, were not in the least degree removed from their primitive barbarism.
These two tribes, with most of the other neighboring Indians, were strongly hostile to the
English. Many of their warriors had fought against them in the late war, for France had
summoned allies from the farthest corners of the wilderness, to aid her in her struggle. This
feeling of hostility was excited to a higher pitch by the influence of the Canadians, who disliked
the English, not merely as national enemies, but also as rivals in the fur-trade, and were
extremely jealous of their241 intrusion upon the lakes. The following incidents, which occurred
in the autumn of the year 1761, will illustrate the state of feeling which prevailed:—
At that time, although Michillimackinac had been surrendered, and the French garrison
removed, no English troops had yet arrived to supply their place, and the Canadians were the
only tenants of the fort. An adventurous trader, Alexander Henry, who, with one or two others,
was the pioneer of the English fur-trade in this region, came to Michillimackinac by the route of
the Ottawa. On the way, he was several times warned to turn back, and assured of death if he
proceeded; and, at length, was compelled for safety to assume the disguise of a Canadian
voyageur. When his canoes, laden with goods, reached the fort, he was very coldly received by
its inhabitants, who did all in their power to alarm and discourage him. Soon after his arrival, he
received the very unwelcome information, that a large number of Ojibwas, from the neighboring
villages, were coming, in their canoes, to call upon him. Under ordinary circumstances, such a
visitation, though disagreeable enough, would excite neither anxiety nor surprise; for the Indians,
when in their villages, lead so monotonous an existence, that they are ready to snatch at the least
occasion of excitement, and the prospect of a few trifling presents, and a few pipes of tobacco, is
often a sufficient inducement for a journey of several days. But in the present instance there was
serious cause of apprehension, since Canadians and Frenchmen were alike hostile to the solitary
trader. The story could not be better told than in his own words.
“At two o’clock in the afternoon, the Chippewas (Ojibwas) came to the house, about sixty
in number, and headed by Minavavana, their chief. They walked in single file, each with his
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tomahawk in one hand and scalping-knife in the other. Their bodies were naked from the waist
upward, except in a few examples, where blankets were thrown loosely over the shoulders. Their
faces were painted with charcoal, worked up with grease, their bodies with white clay, in patterns
of various fancies. Some had feathers thrust through their noses, and their heads decorated with
the same. It is unnecessary to dwell on the sensations with which I beheld the approach of this
uncouth, if not frightful assemblage.
“The chief entered first, and the rest followed without noise. On receiving a sign from the
former, the latter seated themselves on the floor.
“Minavavana appeared to be about fifty years of age. He was six feet in height, and had in
his countenance an indescribable mixture of good and evil. Looking steadfastly at me, where I
sat in ceremony, with an interpreter on either hand, and several Canadians behind me, he entered,
at the same time, into conversation with Campion, inquiring how long it was since I left
Montreal, and observing that the English, as it would seem, were brave men, and not afraid of
death, since they dared to come, as I had done, fearlessly among their enemies.
“The Indians now gravely smoked their pipes, while I inwardly endured the tortures of
suspense. At length, the pipes being finished, as well as a long pause, by which they were
succeeded, Minavavana, taking a few strings of wampum in his hand, began the following
speech:—
“‘Englishman, it is to you that I speak, and I demand your attention.
“‘Englishman, you know that the French King is our father. He promised to be such; and
we, in return, promised to be his children. This promise we have kept.
“‘Englishman, it is you that have made war with this our father. You are his enemy; and
how, then, could you have the boldness to venture among us, his children? You know that his
enemies are ours.
“‘Englishman, we are informed that our father, the King of France, is old and infirm; and
that, being fatigued with making war upon your nation, he is fallen asleep. During his sleep you
have taken advantage of him, and possessed yourselves of Canada. But his nap is almost at an
end. I think I hear him already stirring, and inquiring for his children, the Indians; and when he
does awake, what must become of you? He will destroy you utterly.
“‘Englishman, although you have conquered the French, you have not yet conquered us. We
are not your slaves. These lakes, these woods and mountains, were left to us by our ancestors.
They are our inheritance; and we will part with them to none. Your nation supposes that we, like
the white people, cannot live without bread, and pork, and beef! But you ought to know that He,
the Great Spirit and Master of Life, has provided food for us in these spacious lakes, and on these
woody mountains.
“‘Englishman, our father, the King of France, employed our young men to make war upon
your nation. In this warfare many of them have been killed; and it is our custom to retaliate until
such time as the spirits of the slain are satisfied. But the spirits of the slain are to be satisfied in
either of two ways; the first is by the spilling of the blood of the nation by which they fell; the
other, by covering the bodies of the dead, and thus allaying the resentment of their relations. This
is done by making presents.
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“‘Englishman, your king has never sent us any presents, nor entered into any treaty with us;
wherefore he and we are still at war; and, until he does these things, we must consider that we
have no other father nor friend, among the white men, than the King of France; but for you, we
have taken into consideration that you have ventured your life among us, in the expectation that
we should not molest you. You do not come armed, with an intention to make war; you come in
peace, to trade with us, and supply us with necessaries, of which we are in much want. We shall
regard you, therefore, as a brother; and you may sleep tranquilly, without fear of the Chippewas.
As a token of our friendship, we present you this pipe to smoke.’
“As Minavavana uttered these words, an Indian presented me with a pipe, which, after I had
drawn the smoke three times, was carried to the chief, and after him to every person in the room.
This ceremony ended, the chief arose, and gave me his hand, in which he was followed by all the
rest.”
These tokens of friendship were suitably acknowledged by the trader, who made a formal
reply to Minavavana’s speech. To this succeeded a request for whiskey on the part of the Indians,
with which Henry unwillingly complied; and, having distributed several small additional
presents, he beheld, with profound satisfaction, the departure of his guests. Scarcely had he
ceased to congratulate himself on having thus got rid of the Ojibwas, or, as he calls them, the
Chippewas, when a more formidable invasion once more menaced him with destruction. Two
hundred L’Arbre Croche Ottawas came in a body to the fort, and summoned Henry, together
with Goddard and Solomons, two other traders, who had just arrived, to meet them in council.
Here they informed their startled auditors that they must distribute their goods among the
Indians, adding a worthless promise to pay them in the spring, and threatening force in case of a
refusal. Being allowed until the next morning to reflect on what they had heard, the traders
resolved on resistance, and, accordingly, arming about thirty of their men with muskets, they
barricaded themselves in the house occupied by Henry, and kept strict watch all night. The
Ottawas, however, did not venture an attack. On the following day, the Canadians, with
pretended sympathy, strongly advised compliance with the demand; but the three traders
resolutely held out, and kept possession of their stronghold till night, when, to their surprise and
joy, the news arrived that the body of troops known to be on their way towards the fort were, at
that moment, encamped within a few miles of it. Another night of watching and anxiety
succeeded; but at sunrise, the Ottawas launched their canoes and departed, while, immediately
after, the boats of the English detachment were seen to approach the landing-place.
Michillimackinac received a strong garrison; and for a time, at least, the traders were safe.
Time passed on, and the hostile feelings of the Indians towards the English did not
diminish. It necessarily follows, from the extremely loose character of Indian government,—if
indeed the name government be applicable at all,—that the separate members of the same tribe
have little political connection, and are often united merely by the social tie of totemship. Thus
the Ottawas at L’Arbre Croche were quite independent of those at Detroit. They had a chief of
their own, who by no means acknowledged the authority of Pontiac, though the high reputation
of this great warrior everywhere attached respect and influence to his name. The same relations
subsisted between the Ojibwas of Michillimackinac and their more southern tribesmen; and the
latter might declare war and make peace without at all involving the former.
………
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“A Delaware Indian,” said Pontiac, “conceived an eager desire to learn wisdom from the
Master of Life; but, being ignorant where to find him, he had recourse to fasting, dreaming, and
magical incantations. By these means it was revealed to him, that, by moving forward in a
straight, undeviating course, he would reach the abode of the Great Spirit. He told his purpose to
no one, and having provided the equipments of a hunter,—gun, powder-horn, ammunition, and a
kettle for preparing his food,—he set out on his errand. For some time he journeyed on in high
hope and confidence. On the evening of the eighth day, he stopped by the side of a brook at the
edge of a meadow, where he began to make ready his evening meal, when, looking up, he saw
three large openings in the woods before him, and three well-beaten paths which entered them.
He was much surprised; but his wonder increased, when, after it had grown dark, the three paths
were more clearly visible than ever. Remembering the important object of his journey, he could
neither rest nor sleep; and, leaving his fire, he crossed the meadow, and entered the largest of the
three openings. He had advanced but a short distance into the forest, when a bright flame sprang
out of the ground before him, and arrested his steps. In great amazement, he turned back, and
entered the second path, where the same wonderful phenomenon again encountered him; and
now, in terror and bewilderment, yet still resolved to persevere, he took the last of the three
paths. On this he journeyed a whole day without interruption, when at length, emerging from the
forest, he saw before him a vast mountain, of dazzling whiteness. So precipitous was the ascent,
that the Indian thought it hopeless to go farther, and looked around him in despair: at that
moment, he saw, seated at some distance above, the figure of a beautiful woman arrayed in
white, who arose as he looked upon her, and thus accosted him: ‘How can you hope, encumbered
as you are, to succeed in your design? Go down to the foot of the mountain, throw away your
gun, your ammunition, your provisions, and your clothing; wash yourself in the stream which
flows there, and you will then be prepared to stand before the Master of Life.’ The Indian
obeyed, and again began to ascend among the rocks, while the woman, seeing him still
discouraged, laughed at his faintness of heart, and told him that, if he wished for success, he
must climb by the aid of one hand and one foot only. After great toil and suffering, he at length
found himself at the summit. The woman had disappeared, and he was left alone. A rich and
beautiful plain lay before him, and at a little distance he saw three great villages, far superior to
the squalid wigwams of the Delawares. As he approached the largest, and stood hesitating
whether he should enter, a man gorgeously attired stepped forth, and, taking him by the hand,
welcomed him to the celestial abode. He then conducted him into the presence of the Great
Spirit, where the Indian stood confounded at the unspeakable splendor which surrounded him.
The Great Spirit bade him be seated, and thus addressed him:—
“‘I am the Maker of heaven and earth, the trees, lakes, rivers, and all things else. I am the
Maker of mankind; and because I love you, you must do my will. The land on which you live I
have made for you, and not for others. Why do you suffer the white men to dwell among you?
My children, you have forgotten the customs and traditions of your forefathers. Why do you not
clothe yourselves in skins, as they did, and use the bows and arrows, and the stone-pointed
lances, which they used? You have bought guns, knives, kettles, and blankets, from the white
men, until you can no longer do without them; and, what is worse, you have drunk the poison
fire-water, which turns you into fools. Fling all these things away; live as your wise forefathers
lived before you. And as for these English,—these dogs dressed in red, who have come to rob
you of your hunting-grounds, and drive away the game,—you must lift the hatchet against them.
Wipe them from the face of the earth, and then you will win my favor back again, and once more
be happy and prosperous. The children of your great father, the King of France, are not like the
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English. Never forget that they are your brethren. They are very dear to me, for they love the red
men, and understand the true mode of worshipping me,’”
The Great Spirit next gave his hearer various precepts of morality and religion, such as the
prohibition to marry more than one wife; and a warning against the practice of magic, which is
worshipping the devil. A prayer, embodying the substance of all that he had heard, was then
presented to the Delaware. It was cut in hieroglyphics upon a wooden stick, after the custom of
his people; and he was directed to send copies of it to all the Indian villages.
The adventurer now departed, and, returning to the earth, reported all the wonders he had
seen in the celestial regions.
Such was the tale told by Pontiac to the council; and it is worthy of notice, that not he alone,
but many of the most notable men who have arisen among the Indians, have been opponents of
civilization, and stanch advocates of primitive barbarism. Red Jacket and Tecumseh would
gladly have brought back their people to the rude simplicity of their original condition. There is
nothing progressive in the rigid, inflexible nature of an Indian. He will not open his mind to the
idea of improvement; and nearly every change that has been forced upon him has been a change
for the worse.
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