Mountains and Lowlands:
Enemies or Partners?
Example of the High Atlas, Morocco
A contribution to the
Johannesburg Summit 2002 –
The World Summit on Sustainable Development
and the
International Year of Mountains 2002
Commissioned and financed by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC)
One-fourth of the earth’s population lives in mountain areas or on their fringes. The highlands provide the
lowlands and their urban centres with resources that are vital to their economic and social development, especially water. But many mountain systems are now out of balance. They are often neglected, marginalised,
and undervalued. To avoid future conflicts, the various stakeholders of highland and lowland areas are being
invited to form a new partnership. This presentation of the High Atlas Mountains and their adjoining lowlands has been prepared to stimulate reflection, open the debate, and post some waymarks along the road to
such a partnership.
Contact Address
Atlas2002, Department of Geosciences, Geography, University of Fribourg
Chemin du Musée 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
Phone:
Fax:
e-mail:
+41 26 300 90 10
+41 26 300 97 46
[email protected]
© University of Fribourg 2002
Layout and print: Schlaefli & Maurer AG, Interlaken, Switzerland
ISBN 3-9522536-2-6
A joint publication of
1
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
Example of the High Atlas, Morocco
Preface Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Preface Embassy of Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
A Initiation to a complex duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
The High Atlas Mountains – the backbone of Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
The High Atlas – a fragile and neglected region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Mountains and lowlands – an inseparable couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
B Processes, problems and trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Population growth and rural outmigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Traditional systems in decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Water – an essential, highly disputed resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
A climatic headache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
Degradation of the natural mountain environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Chaotic management of the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
C A synopsis of the main processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
D Prospects for the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
E Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
Highly productive, small, irrigated
intra-montane basin with rich soils;
Central High Atlas
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
2
Preface
Pre-Saharan landscape
and settlement
(Photo D. Maselli)
Morocco, like the whole of the Maghreb, is characterised by vast highlands. Its mountain ranges are
not only a physical barrier that separates the Sahara
from the Mediterranean, but also an important site
of climatic, ecological, economic and human diversity. This diversity is reflected in the landscape as
well as the land use systems.
Relatively favourable hydrological conditions have
allowed lush, varied vegetation to prosper. This has
turned mountainous areas into verdant lands, which
is especially appreciated because of the contrast
with their very arid surrounding environment.
These lands are attractive to man and have ensured
continued agro-sylvo-pastoral activity which, however, as a traditional subsistence economy, is in serious decline. People living in these mountain regions are poor, and overpopulation encourages
outmigration in search of better living conditions
elsewhere.
This booklet was produced by the Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation (SDC), the
University of Fribourg, the Centre for Development
and Environment (CDE), and the Sahara and Sahel
Observatory (OSS). It is interesting for several reasons, first of all because it takes a fresh look at the
physical, ecological and socio-economic aspects of
mountains in Morocco. The highly complex problems of this type of environment are considered
with realism and insight.
The «Alpine» vantage point is very valuable because Alpine countries, especially Switzerland, despite a very different ecological and socio-economic context, have seen their mountain economies
undergo profound change. Their experience undoubtedly offers important lessons to be learned.
Some of the keywords of this change are: enhanced
ecological functions of mountains, land and resource conservation, diversification of activities,
ecotourism, solidarity, etc.
The stakes are high primarily for the Moroccan
Government, but also for the international community as a whole, because there is an urgent need to
protect the fragile environment with its vital, strategic resources such as water, soil, and biodiversity.
Whatever actions are implemented in the moun-
tains will have a much larger impact, not only on
downstream areas but also on the highland-lowland
interactive systems as a whole. OSS has become interested in this work because on the one hand, it is
part of a global vision of development, and on the
other, it creates new spheres of North-South cooperation between regions sharing the same problems.
Desertification control, which is the paramount
mission of the Sahara and Sahel Observatory, must
be seen within the framework of such a vision that
places problems of development and environmental
protection in their ecological and socio-economic
context, and in a spirit of cooperation that is marked by solidarity and mutual benefit.
Mohamed Skouri
Agricultural Engineer
Member of the French
Academy of Agriculture
Chedli Fezzani
Executive Secretary
Sahara and Sahel
Observatory (OSS)
3
Preface
Of all the Maghreb countries, Morocco is the one
most blessed by nature. Its land is a mosaic of
sharply contrasted regions, composed of coastal
lands, plains and plateaus, mountains and deserts
that stretch from the beaches of the Mediterranean
and the Atlantic to the gates of the Sahara. In the
centre of the land, the impressive Atlas Mountains
rise up as a monumental barrier, water tower of
North Africa and lifeline to the surrounding lowlands. Morocco, as His Majesty the late King
Hassan II would say, is a cross-road of sea, land,
peoples, and civilisations.
In Switzerland, the Alps are comparable to the Atlas
in that they separate the lowlands of the North from
those in the South, and serve as a water tower for
Switzerland’s European neighbours. As in
Morocco’s Atlas Mountains, impressive dams can
be found in the Alpine valleys that contribute to development and wealth.
Diplomatic relations between Switzerland and
Morocco date back to 1921 when the Swiss
Consulate was opened in Casablanca. Much older
relations left their mark on history, however: In the
8th century AD, «Moroccans» temporarily settled
in the Alps, assisting with the development of the
remote reaches of the Valaisian valleys. They
brought with them their ingenious techniques for
constructing irrigation canals. The «Saracens» no
longer live in the Alps, but their traces can still be
seen, both in the place names and in the bisses, the
perfect counterparts of Morocco’s seguias.
Today, although Morocco is not a country of focus
for the Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation (SDC), our country is funding several
projects in Morocco. One leading example is the
systematic inventory of the historic ksour in the
Drâa Valley, together with a contribution to be used
for the conservation and rehabilitation of a certain
number of these monuments. Environmental protection is another field of close cooperation.
Working
with
Moroccan
entrepreneurs,
Switzerland seeks to promote more sustainable
production methods that do not damage the natural
resources. Finally, Switzerland has just pledged to
contribute to the environment-friendly production
of electricity from natural, renewable resources in
the remote areas of the Atlas Mountains.
Thus, Switzerland is providing know-how and experience in three fields that are close to its heart.
This cooperation occurs at a crucial moment for the
economic development of Morocco and is high on
the list of priorities that the Moroccan Government
set itself for the coming decade.
This booklet casts a critical, constructive eye on the
superb Atlas Mountains. We are sure that in its own
way, it will contribute to protecting our common environment.
Daniel von Muralt
Ambassador of Switzerland
to the Kingdom of Morocco
Mountains of snow – mountains of
hope; near Midelt
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
4
A Initiation to a complex duality
The High Atlas Mountains – the backbone of Morocco
The marked topography led to strict
vement, and a mandatory passageway for economic
exchange between the Sahara and the west of the
Mediterranean basin, the High Atlas Mountains
constitute the backbone of Morocco, both physically and socially. The mountains and the surrounding
lowlands are home to approximately 20% of the national population.
The high summits of the Atlas draw a captivating
demarcation line between the Atlantic region of
Morocco to the north, and continental and preSaharan Morocco to the south. Its title, «water
tower of North Africa», is perfectly appropriate.
The summits of these mountains form a mighty barrier to air masses from the Atlantic that release their
humidity on the northern flanks and peaks, to the
benefit of the relatively viable subsistence farming
widely found throughout the Atlas. Several major
rivers, that are vital to Morocco, zigzag down the
slopes of these mountains. They provide water to
the agricultural plains to the north and the beautiful
valley-oases to the south; the rich irrigated lowlands undoubtedly owe their prosperity to the hinterlands. In the form of hydropower, these waterways also provide a substantial amount of the
electricity required by Morocco’s cities.
zoning of land use and vertical
transhumance; Western High Atlas
(Photo D. Maselli)
Maghreb:
group of countries in the north-west
of Africa, namely Morocco, Algeria,
Tunisia, and Libya
Jbel:
The High Atlas Mountains of North Africa form a
west-east orographic wall that traverses all of the
Maghreb* from the Atlantic Ocean to the coasts of
Tunisia. The Moroccan part of the mountain range
starts at the gates of Agadir and runs more than 700
km to the Algerian border; it is the most impressive,
with peaks of above 4,000 m. Its geological structure
is rather simple: the core of ancient basement rock
surrounding the Jbel* Toubkal south of Marrakech
is topped to the west (Western High Atlas) and to the
east (Central and Eastern High Atlas) by a folded sediment cover. This geological heritage is visible in a
mosaic of coloured rocks and a highly diversified topography with strong geomorphological dynamics.
As the cradle of several Moroccan dynasties, an ancient settlement area for the Berber* cultural mo-
the Arab word for mountain
Tanger
or summit
Rif
Berber:
autochthonous people
Oujda
of North Africa
Fès
Rabat-Salé
MA
Casablanca
Midelt
Td
HAor
Be
Errachidia
Essaouira
Ma
Ha
De
c
Ti
Te
Aoc
Agadir
Satellite picture of northern
Morocco, recorded on 25 January
2002 by NASA
H
So
To
HA
Ou
Az
Ig
Da
Dr
AA
AA
A Initiation to a complex duality
5
The High Atlas Mountains have many other potentials. One of their major assets is the beauty and diversity of their landscapes. The vast mountain areas
offer recreation to city dwellers and, above all, foreign tourists. Gentle, ecological tourism is being developed in the mountains of Morocco, an activity
full of promise for the local population. The mountains are also a precious harbour of biological diversity, with an impressive number of endemic
plants (some 11% of the species). They offer vast
pastures for the large goat and sheep herds owned
by the semi-nomadic tribes. Aromatic and medicinal plants find favourable land and climate conditions, and offer good economic prospects. Finally,
an important part of the national forests grows on
the northern slopes – a precious, but endangered heritage, the sustainable management of which has become a major ecological challenge for the country.
The geological heritage and the
influence of both climate and
humanity have created this
very picturesque landscape in
the High Atlas
(Photo M. Stoffel)
Zoning in
the Central High Atlas
In the Central High Atlas, some
one hundred kilometres wide,
the peaks rise to over 4,000 m
(Jbel Toubkal 4,167 m, Ighil
M’Goun 4,068 m). The more or
less parallel summits of the
mountain chains are followed
by plateaus of highland pastoralism including the communal
pastures, the almous*.
The big valleys in the highmountain farming regions are
very fertile; they are rather
densely populated, and intensive terrace farming is practised with irrigation waters from
the traditional seguias*.
Several large dams have been
built here.
Almou:
Berber term for highland grazing
areas
Seguia: an open canal of earth,
cement, or wood, sometimes also
hewn into rock, which conducts part
of the water of mountain streams
along the slopes to the terraces to
be irrigated
The High Atlas with its snow-covered
mountains and freshwater rivers forms
the backbone of Morocco; N’Fis River
near Tinmal
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
6
The High Atlas – a fragile and neglected region
The compartmentalisation of mountain
crests and valleys impedes access
to the modern world; Aghbar region
in the Western High Atlas
(Photo D. Maselli)
Souk: market
Many parts of the High Atlas still
have no modern means of communication and transport; Tagoundaft region
(Photo D. Maselli)
Like other mountainous regions in the world, the
High Atlas suffers from a number of disadvantages
primarily related to its marginality, topographical
compartmentalisation, and a very fragile environment.
As soon as you leave the main lines of communication across the High Atlas and enter the deep,
winding valleys, you begin to feel the remoteness
and isolation that weigh heavily on the mountain
communities. The Berbers often have to walk for
hours to reach their weekly souk*. There are only
few roads suitable for vehicles, and it is difficult to
stock up on basic staples, or to reach a public health
care centre. Considerable efforts are being made to
improve access to certain valleys (asphalting, building new transit roads), but many of the more remote villages still cannot be reached by modern means
of land transport. Electrification of the mountains
is underway, but far from completed.
In a world where liberalism is inexorably getting the
upper hand, subsistence economies such as the one
in the High Atlas are neglected by the planners.
Therefore, politicians and investors are tempted to
focus on regions that are easier to reach and potentially more productive. Still too little is being invested in regions perceived to be problematic. In
this context, the world of the High Atlas – ill understood and not very productive – is marginalised
or even completely omitted from land development
plans. At best, the areas may receive a petty share
of the official manna, causing further delay in their
economic development. The few major investments
often primarily serve the lowlands. Dams are a good
example: Nearly all the benefits are reaped by the
lowland areas where irrigated farming is practised.
The problem of land fragility is patently obvious in
the three domains of sustainability. First, the ecolo-
gical level: The natural environment has been seriously degraded by several decades of reckless management inherited from the times when Morocco
was a French Protectorate (1912–1956). The consequences of this management are not about to disappear. Second, the politico-economic level: The
supposedly renewable resources (water, timber,
soil) are generously dispensed to the rest of the
country, but the mountain people are not paid their
fair share in return. They suffer in particular because their products are barely marketable and their
political weight is not duly acknowledged. Third,
the socio-cultural level: In view of their degraded
natural potential, the mountains – paradoxically –
are overpopulated as well as threatened by outmigration. The valley bottoms and intra-montane
centres are overpopulated because they magnetically draw people from the most remote corners,
where outmigration is a threat as people are attracted to the seeming ease of modern urban life.
Reestablishing an equilibrium in accordance with
the principles of sustainable development is another
major challenge facing the High Atlas, its adjoining
lowlands, and the whole of Morocco. A country located on the fringes of arid lands cannot allow itself
to ignore the development requirements of a large
part of its territory, even if that territory does not have the best economic potential.
A Initiation to a complex duality
7
Mountains and lowlands – an inseparable couple
The High Atlas, however, is not isolated in facing
its challenges. By the vagaries of history, its
northern and southern foothills are inseparably
connected to it, both geographically and ecologically. Large irrigable plains lie to the north (Haouz,
Tadla), while to the south, there are vast expanses
of denuded foothills, traversed by wide valleyoases with their rich vegetation in marked contrast
to the aridity of the regs*. Between the lowlands
and the mountains lies a transition zone composed
of low and medium hills, sometimes called the dir*.
The importance of the relations between a moun-
Dir
Dir means «belt». On the north-western slopes of
the High Atlas (in particular near Beni-Mellal),
this term refers to hills of low and medium elevation and to alluvial cones which serve as a transition zone between the high, calcareous mountains and the lowlands. The soils in this area are
relatively rich, and springs from karst sources
discharge abundant amounts of water at a
steady rate. The land is judiciously divided into
small plots irrigated by a traditional system of
seguias (for intensive horticulture and orchards),
unirrigated fields, woodlands, and rangelands.
tainous area and the adjoining lowlands is obvious.
Since ancient times, civilisation has developed as a
result of close highland-lowland interdependence
and complementarity. The way of life associated
with a subsistence economy has, since time immemorial, mainly depended on the resources offered
by the combination of mountains and lowlands:
(a) grasses from the highland pastures during the
summer, and from the dir or the foothills in the winter, (b) hunting and gathering areas at the top of the
foothills and in the mountains, and ploughable
fields in the valley bottoms and the plains, (c)
timber reserves on the wooded slopes, (d) not least
water, the source of all life, which flows naturally
from the summits to the valleys or to the dir, where
it is captured and channelled to the fields and
orchards through an ingenious network of seguias.
Intra-montane relations between people living in
the upper valleys have always been superimposed
by contacts between lowlanders and highlanders, or
even between inhabitants of the foothills in the
north with those in the south. The tizis* of the Atlas
Mountains were mandatory transit routes for traders’ caravans bringing spices, salt, and other products from the southern fringes of the Sahara and its
oases (Timbuktu). The caravans also brought black
slaves from sub-Saharan Africa; members of the haratine* ethnic group in the southern foothills of the
High Atlas Mountains apparently are their descendants.
These relations were sometimes characterised by
conflict, such as quarrels about pastures or rezzou*.
But they also were neighbourly – and still are when
the two parties’ activities harmoniously complement each other. For instance, even today, during the
harvesting period, masses of workers from the south
of the Atlas Mountains rent their labour skills to farmers in the upper valleys and the northerly dir, to
harvest the crops with sickles using an ancient technique. The territories that have devolved to the
large confederations of Berber tribes often cross
the mountains, extending from one foothill to the
other. Aït* Atta, for instance, can be found from the
Ouarzazate region to the gates of Beni-Mellal,
Reg:
in the desert environment, an area composed essentially of stone and gravel
Tizi: pass
Haratine:
ethnic group of sub-Saharan origin
that lives in the southern foothills of
the High Atlas Mountains
Rezzou (plural of razzia): attacks on
a tribe or an oasis in order to steal the
harvest or the herds
Aït:
Berber term meaning «child of», now
a synonym of clan or tribe
View of the glorious Atlas Mountains
from Marrakech: lowlands, dir,
and mountains form a complex, interdependent system
(Photo D. Maselli)
North-south profile of the High Atlas Mountains and their adjoining lowlands
Northern foothills
Plains
Dir
Southern foothills
Bordering
summits
Intra-montane
valleys
High calcareous
plateaus
High summits
Slopes
Valleyoases
4000
3000
N
S
2000
1000
0
[m]
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
8
The bordering plains
The Tadla and Haouz plains lie to the north. Their
soils are relatively poor in humus, and there is just
enough vegetation to support meagre pastoral activities. Yet, under irrigation from the High Atlas
dams and wells, these lands prove to be very fertile
areas for producing citrus fruits, olives, grain
crops, and sugar beets.
The southern Atlantic slopes (Souss, Hamada* in
the Drâa) are located in the arid and Saharan
zones, strewn with argan trees, which is suitable for
extensive livestock production. Intensive land use
is only made possible by constant irrigation.
Farther east, zones with dunal systems (Dadès,
Tafilalet-Ziz) have very little and very irregular
plant cover, which is not suitable for pastoralism.
Intensive cropping is only possible in the valleyoases (datepalm trees, food crops).
The economic boom in the lowlands
and their urban centres depends
largely on electricity supplied by the
dams in the mountains
(Photo M. Stoffel)
Hamada:
rocky plateau in a desert region
Vast plains are suitable for modern
machine cultivation of monocrops;
these plains are often viewed as the
«useful lands» of Morocco
(Photo D. Maselli)
where they call themselves «Aït Atta of the
shadow» – they who live on the north-facing slopes
of the mountains.
Thus, the ethnic and tribal structures, the bonds of
partnership, and the trade relations that still bring
the traditional Berber communities together or that
connect them with their neighbours in the foothills,
are very old. They have survived centuries of sometimes chaotic history, and remain intact today.
But everything is changing. The big urban centres
are enjoying a major economic boom. The gulf between the appeal of the cities and the remote regions is quickly growing wider. The coastal cities
and, more generally, the areas of Morocco reputed
to be «useful» are developing and diversifying their
economic activities. The mountains suffer from all
this and, because of the law of numbers, are increasingly losing their political, economic, and demographic importance. The economic development in
the areas close to the foothills (Marrakech, BeniMellal, Ouarzazate) is faster than in the hinterland.
The people of working age are leaving the mountains for the lowlands and the cities, and the population imbalance is growing worse. The dichotomy
between the Berber-speakers in the mountains and
the Arabic-speakers or, to be more precise, the
«Arabised» Berbers in the lowlands is becoming
more pronounced in favour of the latter, although
Berber has just been accepted as a language to be
taught in school. During the last few years, many
small regional towns such as Demnate, Azilal, and
Midelt have acquired a certain importance; they
have become better equipped and more attractive.
Yet, they are still marginal and very far from the
real places of decision making. In sum, two deve-
lopment processes at different paces have established themselves along the lines separating highlands from lowlands.
In view of this growing imbalance, a new «contract» urgently needs to be concluded between the
lowlands and the mountains. Together, as partners
of equal standing, mountain inhabitants and city
dwellers need to focus on their common future.
Most mountain people are not aware of the tremendous value of the «ecological assets» in their environment. They do not have the wherewithal to assess what efforts would be needed to use these
assets in a sustainable manner. On the other hand,
the lowland population does not realise that they
owe much of their prosperity to the mountains. In a
spirit of solidarity, it is crucial that an equitable
share of the added value generated in the lowlands
through this «heavenly gift» straight from the
mountains be redistributed – up to now there has
been virtually no compensation.
The following chapters, which develop each of the
aforementioned themes, aim to identify and analyse
these problems globally and in greater depth, along
the three axes (ecological, economic, societal) of
the sustainability concept and of Agenda 21. They
result in a few outlined solutions that can be applied
both in the High Atlas Mountains and in other periSaharan mountain ranges.
B Processes, problems and trends
9
B Processes, problems and trends
Population growth and rural outmigration
Caught in the whirlwind of a veritable demographic
explosion, the Moroccan population has increased
considerably during the last few decades, rising
from 4.6 million at the beginning of the 20th century to 28.7 million in 1994, when the last official
census was made. The annual growth rate is still
high, close to 2%, as a result of the decline in infant mortality and the unchanged fertility rate.
Most of the growth comes from the rural areas
where it is not unusual for families to have five, six,
or even more children.
Population density
In the High Atlas Mountains and the adjoining lowlands, the population density is relatively low compared to the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastal
areas, but the population distribution pattern is complex and differs a great deal from one area to another. In the high-mountain pastures with their seminomadic population, there are barely 10 inhabitants
per km2, while there are close to 22 in the fertile
valleys of the high-mountain farming regions. The
dir has up to 76 inhabitants per km2 in the adjoining
lowlands, the figure is even higher. The relatively
low population density in the mountains and the dir
should not obscure the fact that there are too many
people living in this ecologically fragile environment for it to maintain its equilibrium.
There are also major differences in population between the northern and southern fringes of the
mountains. The creation of irrigated areas in the
Tadla and Haouz plains has led to a marked population increase in these regions and, at the same
time, to explosive growth in cities like Marrakech
(over 600,000 inhabitants) and Beni-Mellal. To the
south, the areas in the semi-arid and arid fringes
seem uninhabited, but this is deceptive. Actually,
settlements are even more densely populated there
than anywhere else. During the last few decades,
population growth rates in the Drâa and Ziz valleys
have exceeded 2.5%, which is considerable for
oases locked in arid zones where agricultural resources are extremely limited.
Population density (inhabitants/km2)
> 100
50-100
20-50
5-20
1-5
<1
Tanger
Oujda
Fès
Rabat-Salé
Casablanca
Midelt
Béni-Mellal
Essaouira
Azilal
Marrakech
Errachidia
Ouarzazate
Agadir
The relative improvement in the average living conditions of the rural population during the last few
years (asphalting certain roads, electrification programmes for mountainous regions, better TV reception, expanding mobile telephony) has been
very effective in enhancing connection to the mo-
Women and child walking along;
background illustration
(Photo M. Stoffel)
Population growth
inhabitants (in Millions)
35
30
25
20
Migration and concentration
In Morocco, there have always been temporary domestic migratory movements; they mainly involve
seasonal agricultural workers from the south.
Permanent migration is a more recent, but growing
phenomenon. Every year, 1.2% of the rural population leave for the cities where 56% of the
Moroccan population now lives.
15
10
5
0
1900
1914
total population
1936
1952 1960
rural population
1971
1982
1994
2010
urban population
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
10
The cities act as magnets and are expanding all the time; city of Fès
(Photo D. Maselli)
Importance of migration
Either as legal or clandestine
emigrants, Moroccans have
been leaving for Europe (especially France, the Benelux
countries, and more recently,
Spain and Italy), but also the
Gulf countries. In 1993, there
were nearly two million
Moroccans officially residing
abroad, of which 80% were in
Europe and over 15% in other
Arab countries. Unofficial figures, however, push the count to
somewhere near five million.
The money transferred by
Moroccans residing abroad to
their home country is extremely
important for the national economy. In 2001, it amounted to
over 3.5 billion euros, i.e. more
than all the revenue earned
from tourism.
Fellah:
farmer, owner of a small
agricultural holding
Berber children in the Western
High Atlas: does their future lie in
the mountains or in the lowlands?
(Photo D. Maselli)
dern world. This manifests itself in a growing loss
of interest in the mountains and gradual abandonment of the most remote areas. The search for better living conditions, spurred by models seen on TV,
has led to a downhill trend. Rural mountain people
leave the most remote areas to live closer to their
weekly souk, before moving on to the nearest administrative centre. Then comes the big jump to the
towns, hopefully a town on the Atlantic coast, from
where one day maybe emigration overseas will follow. Unfortunately, the whole process inevitably
goes hand in glove with precarious living conditions, cultural and social displacement, unemployment and impoverishment. Estimates show that currently 8% of the urban population lives in slums on
the outskirts of the large cities.
The process of concentration is not unique to large
cities for it also occurs in the mountains. Small administrative centres are regional magnets with populations growing exponentially at a rate of up to
10% per year, depending on the region. This massive influx causes huge infrastructural problems for
the small towns as well as the big cities. Receiving
a newcomer costs the community an estimated
2,000 euros, which might be better invested earlier
in the process in order to stem the exodus at the
source.
Results
For the marginal regions, the results of these migratory movements are very varied. Economically,
the money sent to the valleys by the emigrants often covers the needs of parents and relatives who
stay at home; alternatively, it is used to build certain
useful infrastructure, such as wells, thus improving
the living conditions in the mountains and contributing to reducing pressure on the natural environment. Globally, however, the negative social consequences cancel out these few positive effects. At
present, the main problems facing the rural mountain population include a smaller working age population, exodus of the young, no one to take over
cultivation of the lands, aging fellahs* still working
in the fields (in 1998 the average age of the farmers
was 52 years), and the disintegration of the traditional family.
B Processes, problems and trends
11
Traditional systems in decline
The powerful impact of radio and especially television, plus easier access to newspapers and books
for people who have been to school means that stereotypes and models of society that are completely
out of step with the traditional norms are reaching
the most remote places. This concerns all aspects of
daily life: the general way of life, pattern of daily
life, dress, financial matters, travel, etc. These
changes deeply affect the whole of the traditional
community system.
Agro-sylvo-pastoralism
Agriculture, sylviculture, and pastoralism are the
three pillars of the traditional land-use system in
the natural mountain environment. In accordance
with a strategic principle on diversification of
sources of supply and optimal exploitation, this
system combines agriculture and livestock production as a way of responding to the vagaries of
the climate. Revenue from seasonal cereal, vegetable, and fruit crops is supplemented by income
from livestock (animals for traction, meat, milk).
The forests provide the firewood, part of the
forage, and the timber.
the upper valleys, but has been abandoned in certain
sectors of the dir and the irrigated fields in the lowlands as a result of the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and land management that ignore ancestral habits.
Another example can be found in the administration
of local communities, traditionally in the hands of
the tribes. Legal and bureaucratic requirements of
modern times, in particular concerning conflicts
over water rights and between neighbours, do not fit
in with the oral rules that used to govern intra- and
intertribal relations. The current Moroccan legal
system, which is a modern version of Islamic law,
gradually replaces unwritten customary law, the
cardinal principle of which was amiable settlement
of conflicts.
The economic system
The days when country dwellers used a trade and
barter system for their economic dealings have
largely gone by. The principle of self-sufficiency,
based on judicious use of agro-sylvo-pastoralism, is
no longer applicable. The mountains depend on the
Changes in the irrigation systems
The social system
The social fabric is weakening considerably.
Solidarity, which was a key concept in the traditional environment, is slowly fading away. A pronounced tendency towards individualism is taking
hold everywhere, thus upsetting an ancient social
order which favoured the community approach to
solving problems. Communal management of irrigation systems, almous, and forests – which is part
of the tribal heritage – is still practised in some of
The ancient system for collecting and distributing
irrigation water is still widely used in the mountains
and the dir. Villagers are collectively responsible for
managing and maintaining the system, which fosters unity but is also a source of conflict. In the lowlands, the earth canals have been replaced by cemented ones. The farmers have lost much of their
control over management, and the irrigation methods have changed completely (spray, trickle, or central spindle). The new methods are gradually replacing the traditional waterlogging.
Traditional contour farming on terraces,
with irrigation from the seguias,
can transform denuded lands into
splendid mini-oases
(Photo M. Monbaron)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
12
Traditional land use involves a great
deal of manual labour and know-how,
especially for irrigation
(Photo D. Maselli)
Transhumance
This is a seasonal, vertical
pastoral system for groups of
sedentary farmers who usually
live at low altitudes where they
cultivate their lands all year
round. In the summer, they
have drovers shepherd their
herds and flocks (sheep, goats,
camels) to the almous and
communal woodlands at elevations above 2,000 m.
Douar:
originally a temporary collection of
tents arranged in a circle; definition
now extended to signify a hamlet
or small village with permanent
buildings
Ksar:
group of fortified houses
The closely built houses are made
of local materials and blend perfectly into the environment, saving
precious seguia-irrigated farmlands below; traditional village
of Tanzate
(Photo D. Maselli)
lowlands for investment and the lowlands depend
on government funds, with many individuals or families depending to some extent on the money from
a parent or relative who has emigrated to the lowlands or abroad. There is no viable system of trade
either internally or «vertically» between the lowlands, the dir, and the mountains, as there was for
many centuries. Monetisation has been permanently adopted as a result of wider circulation of
money and easier access to bank loans, at least for
the richer classes. For the wealthy, it is easy to get
loans to put new lands to crop and pay for a deep
well that facilitates tapping – secretly and often unchecked – part of the community’s water, without
being accountable to anyone. There are immediate
profits for the investor, who grows rich at the cost
of the community and often gains economic, social,
and political clout.
The gulf between the traditionally rich, dominating
classes and the dominated poor people, who are left
on their own, does not necessarily follow the same
line as in former times. In fact, certain young people from the less privileged classes have been able
to go on to higher studies and climb the social ladder. But here again, there are new gaps. Many of
these young graduates have to face the problem of
unemployment: at the end of 2000, there were
more than 250,000 unemployed diploma-holders in
Morocco (mainly with bachelor degrees but also
with higher diplomas).
The ecological system
The ecological system also suffers from jolts that
frequently jeopardise the environmental balance.
There are, for instance, the very old oral contracts
between sedentary farmers and livestock producers:
The latter see their animals as mobile capital that
can yield a profit if feeding opportunities are taken
advantage of, such as post-harvest fodder in the
farmers’ fields; in return, the animals naturally
spread their nitrogen- and phosphate-rich manure
on the fields. Weakening or eliminating this type of
association would ruin an important part of careful
land and resource management. Forest degradation
is another example of how malfunctioning of the natural system can directly impact on the socio-economic fabric. Forests, traditional zones of cattle
trails and transhumance, are a rich source of forage
as long as their equilibrium is intact, but they can
easily lose this capacity. When the forest canopy is
thinned, the soils become prone to erosion. This sets
off a spiral of detrimental effects: if there is no more soil, there is no more herbage for the herds; animals begin to browse on shoots on the stumps and
sprouts on the trees and, in time, the forest vanishes.
The semi-nomadic herders thus see the gradual disappearance of lands that are important for transhumance. All these discordancies will inevitably result
in the loss of a certain age-old equilibrium that has
harmoniously ruled the social, economic, and political life, as well as the relations of rural and urban
Moroccans with their natural environment.
Changes in habitat
In former times, for climatic and socio-economic
reasons and for defence purposes, the rural douar* was designed as a massive, compact, fortified
ksar*. It has always been located on unprofitable
lands; the present tendency is to build them along
roads. Most homes are for one family, and architectural uniformisation is gradually imposing an
urban model based on costly imported materials.
The old collective infrastructures (gates, meeting
areas and wells, granaries), symbols of village
unity, are no longer being used.
B Processes, problems and trends
13
Water – an essential, highly disputed resource
The High Atlas Mountains, water tower of
Morocco, irrigate the whole country through their
oueds*. Water flows along their northern slopes, in
the Moulouya River, towards the Mediterranean,
and in the Oum-er-Rbia and Tensift towards the
Atlantic. On its southern flanks, the Souss and the
Drâa meet the Atlantic, and the Ziz and the Guir
feed the Saharan chotts*. These rivers and their tributaries recharge the groundwater tables of the northern lowlands, and the slopes and oases in the
south. Tapping the groundwaters (i.e. one-fourth of
the available water resources) is essential for intensive agriculture and for the supply of drinking
water. Certain regions draw on the non-renewable
fossil groundwater reserves, especially in the
Ouarzazate and Errachidia regions, thus putting a
strain on a precious resource.
Limited resources
Although Morocco has the best water supply potential in all of the Maghreb, this valuable liquid remains the principal inhibitor of economic development in the country and a daily concern for a
considerable proportion of its inhabitants. Average
annual precipitation, in theory, provides a useable
supply of 30 billion m3 of water. In reality, traditional and modern techniques can only harness 20
billion m3. It is estimated that in the year 2000,
only 75% of this potential could effectively be used.
Rapidly growing water requirements and recurrent
droughts during the last few decades have further
increased pressure on this natural, but limited
resource.
Surface waters
A number of problems can be traced to the very erratic regime of most of the waterways. The «annual» yields of many rivers are actually the result
of a small number of intensive rainfall events. On
the one hand, the waterways dry up almost every
year and regularly suffer from a considerable overload of harmful chemicals and pollutants. On the
other hand, sudden, untimely floodwaters caused by
storms in the mountains carry away enormous
quantities of material, in particular agricultural
soils which end up encumbering the dams. Two large dams had to be built on the southern foothills of
the High Atlas Mountains after the devastating
floods of the Ziz and Drâa rivers in the 1960s.
Thousands of kilometres of open seguias lead to excessive evaporation, thereby enriching the waters
with mineral salts. In the southern oases, sanding
regularly renders the canals unuseable.
Other adverse effects have resulted from the major hydraulic construction work carried out on
the river system during the last few decades.
Dams hold back large quantities of water, thus
depriving the downstream groundwater of regular recharge that would be provided from the
flooding of the oueds. Owing to the Mansour
Eddahbi dam south of Ouarzazate, there is no
more annual flooding of the Drâa, with detrimental effects on the traditional maider* crops in
the lower reaches of the oued. Furthermore, with
less river swelling, sand slowly invades the river
bed; ensuing wind erosion then causes sanding in
the vegetable gardens near the river banks.
Dams play a vital role in the
economic development of Morocco
Groundwaters
(Photo M. Monbaron)
Exploiting the groundwaters, two-thirds of which
are in the Atlantic areas of Morocco, is not easy
either. Excessive water consumption in the
Haouz region may cause major water supply
problems in the near future. Tapping the groundwaters in the Drâa and Ziz valleys through private wells is not controlled, and hence, these watertables have dropped by close to seven metres
Oued:
river, temporary waterway in
semi-arid and arid zones
Chott:
Dams
saline lands or pastures
Bin-el-Ouidane (1953) was the first big dam to be
built in Morocco. It inaugurated a vast programme to harness surface waters for irrigation
and electricity. There are now 103 dams in operation, of which the biggest 39 have a combined capacity of 14 billion m3. Because of population
pressure, however, Morocco needs to make its
agriculture even more efficient, since only 13%
of the arable lands are irrigated. The rest is
subjected to the vagaries of the climate.
around a temporary lake enclosed
in a depression
Young woman fetching
water with a cup and drums
(Photo: M. Stoffel)
Evolution of the groundwater level of selected oases in the South
(m)
-5
1980
1985
1990
1995
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14
-15
-16
Tinfou (Drâa Valley)
Zagora (Drâa Valley)
Erfoud (Tafilalet)
Rissani (Tafilalet)
Tagounite (Drâa Valley)
1997
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
14
The problem of irrigating downstream oases has led to changes in
Silting in the dams
customary water utilisation rights;
Soil erosion upstream of the dams causes gradual
silting in the reservoirs, amounting to over 50
million m3 per annum, a figure that may even reach
150 million m3 in 2030. For the major Moroccan
dams, the cumulated capacity losses currently exceed 820 million m3, i.e. close to 13% of their
total capacity.
in the Drâa Valley, the users farthest
away are the first to receive irrigation waters (Photo D. Maselli)
during the last twenty years. What is even worse
is that the traditional catchment system that was
well adapted to the local hydrogeological conditions (wells of moderate depth, rhettara*,
arhrour*) are all drying up due to excessive use
of the wells.
Maider:
depression that fills with
water during exceptional flooding
Irrigation
Morocco has invested heavily in irrigation. The
«big dams» policy during the Protectorate, follo-
Rhettara:
underground gallery dug in
the foothills to capture water and
channel it to the top level of
the gardens
Arhrour:
wells using animal (donkey,
dromedary) traction to pump
up the water
Growing crops in riverbeds is
always a lottery: floodwaters may
carry off the harvest, and all the
work that went into it
(Photo D. Maselli)
The bour fields and risk-laden farming
In Morocco, any exclusively rainfed field is a bour
field. Most of them are used for growing cereals.
This type of farming is highly risk-laden because
yields depend on both the volume of rainfall and
its distribution throughout the vegetative season.
In some years, yields in the bour fields are even
below the quantities of cereal originally sown.
wed by the «million irrigated hectares» policy of
the late King Hassan II served to harness a
large part of the country’s water resources.
Altogether 28,000 km of water conduits and seguias were built during the last thirty years. Up
to 77% of public investment was thus devoted to
agriculture, and this impressive effort made it
possible to achieve the planners’ ambitious
goals. Yet 90% of Moroccan farmers have to eke
out a living on arable lands that are not under irrigation.
Small hydraulic installations
The State gave priority to large-scale hydraulic
infrastructure for the cities and lowlands, and did
not pay much attention to improving small-scale infrastructure needed for irrigation and the
supply of drinking water in the mountain valleys.
As a result, local communities were put at a disadvantage, and the State neglected the fundamental principle that the effort made downstream must be accompanied by an equal effort
upstream of the dams to control water use and
thus fight against erosion of the mountain slopes.
Failing to observe this principle irreversibly reduces the profitability of the dams.
B Processes, problems and trends
15
A climatic headache
In Morocco, many of the factors that determine
special regional or local climatic features stem from
the country’s marked topographical compartmentalisation. There are two major gradients, the more
pronounced one running north-south, the other
west-east.
Spring and autumn rains transform
the parched landscape into a
garden with a carpet of spontaneous, but short-lived flowers
(Photo D. Maselli)
«In Morocco, to reign is to rain» (Lyautey)
Annual rainfall is the decisive parameter for agriculture. Precipitation levels vary from 2,000 mm in
the Rif to just a few millimetres in the Drâa Valley
and Tafilalet. The rainfall regime on the northern
slopes of the High Atlas and central Morocco is
Mediterranean, but influenced by the ocean. It is
characterised by wet winters and dry summers with
stormy showers, especially in the highlands. There
is rain on at least 100 days in the Central High
Atlas, but on fewer than 30 days to the south of the
High Atlas crest, where the climate is sub-arid to
arid. In the southern oases, there may not be any
significant precipitation for several years. Yet,
sometimes they receive torrential rainfall (2-3
mm/min or over 50 mm/hr), which contributes
enormously to soil degradation.
Intra- and inter-annual variation
in precipitation
Most of the rainfall usually occurs in the autumn.
If that is not the case, it may be compensated by a
surplus of winter snow. In some cases, especially in
the south, all of the monthly rains may fall on a
single day and run off as floodwater without adequately penetrating the soils.
The annual total of precipitation in a given area can
vary drastically from one year to the next. A normal
year virtually does not exist; it is more appropriate
to speak in qualitative terms of «dry years» and
«wet years». A «wet year» in the south of the Atlas
Mountains is equivalent to a «dry year» in the
north. In this mountainous environment, the number of dry years increases from north to south: Tadla
11%, Haouz 21%, Dadès and Ziz valleys 31%. In
the Drâa Valley, rainfall shortages occur in two out
of three years.
Temperature and evapotranspiration
Morocco is frequently called a cold country with
hot sunshine. This cliché suggests major variations
in temperature. The range of average monthly temperatures is one of the most significant parameters:
below 20°C on the Atlantic coast and above 35°C
in the Haouz. The effect of altitude on temperature
is an equally decisive factor. At 2,000 m in the High
Atlas, the average annual temperature barely ex-
Climatic conditions in the High Atlas Mountains and their adjoining lowlands
°C
mm
Marrakech (470m)
19.5°C
242 mm
30
20
10
0
J FMAM J J A S OND
°C
60
40
30
20
0
0
Idni (1600m)
15.3°C
544 mm
J FMAM J J A S OND
mm
°C
100
80
60
40
20
0
30
20
10
0
mm
Ouarzazate (1117m)
19.7°C
107 mm
60
40
20
0
J FMAM J J A S OND
4000
3000
N
S
Idni
2000
Ouarzazate
Marrakech
1000
0
Precipitation
Temperature
Humid period
Arid period
[m]
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
16
Distribution of rainfall
The north- and west-facing slopes
of the Atlas Mountains are relatively well watered (600–900 mm
per annum on the secondary mountain ranges, a little less on the
high summits). Some intra-montane valleys are semi-arid (Imilchil
300 mm), as are the plains to the
north (Haouz and Tadla).
Marrakech only receives a maximum of 300 mm of rainfall per annum, with very dry summers and
precipitation limited to only 2 or 3
winter months. The Saharan slopes are downright arid, especially
in the foothills and the valley-oases (between 100 and 200 mm of
rainfall, sometimes less).
Snow is vital to both highland and
lowland agriculture since people in
both places depend on this water reservoir for irrigation during
the dry season
(Photo M. Monbaron)
ceeds 10 °C. This presents a double challenge to the
mountain flora: its growing period is considerably
shortened by a first period of dormancy due to summer drought, followed by a second period of dormancy caused by winter chill.
Evapotranspiration is strongly influenced by temperature, and also increases from north to south. It
reaches its maximum on the Saharan fringes of the
country: annual potential evapotranspiration is estimated at close to 1,500 mm in Ouarzazate, in the
southern foothills of the High Atlas. This represents
8 to 10 times the average annual rainfall in the region and in particular signifies the evaporation of a
1.5 m layer of water from the Ouarzazate dam reservoir every year.
Recurrent droughts
Like the other countries south of the Mediterranean, Morocco has suffered from a negative trend
in rainfall over the last few decades. In fifty years,
precipitation has dropped from an annual average
of 600 mm to 300 mm, with more and more successive dry years (1979-1984, 1990-1994, 19982001). During these periods, cropping in the bour
fields was little productive or even poor, and temporary food shortages occurred in the most disadvantaged parts of the country. Arable lands underwent accelerated degradation and destruction as the
desertification process in the marginal lands gained
momentum. In an effort to save their cattle, live-
Bour zones
Bour possible
Tanger
Less snow
The High Atlas receives much of its precipitation
in the form of snow. Up to altitudes of 1000 –
1500 m, snow falls between November and May,
but below 2500 m, it melts quickly. The high
summits may be covered with snow 5 – 6 months
a year. Springtime melting of the snow is essential to agriculture; a year without snow is generally a poor year for agriculture. Precise data on
the snow cover are scarce and incomplete, but records indicate an increasing number of deficit
years. Skiing as a winter tourism activity highly
prized in Morocco, is suffering badly.
Bour sometimes possible
Oujda
Bour impossible
Rabat-Salé
Casablanca
Fès
Béni-Mellal
Essaouira
Marrakech
Azilal
Ouarzazate
Agadir
Midelt
Errachidia
stock producers invaded the forests and cut off the
leafy branches to feed their animals.
Is this apparent increase in droughts due to global
warming or because the anticyclone from the
Azores lasts longer and longer in Morocco during
the winter, as witnessed in 1999 and 2000? If the
tendency for more years to be hot and dry were to
continue, it would have a substantial impact on the
mountainous environment in Morocco; in particular the snows would melt sooner or winter snows
would be replaced by rain. Both scenarios would
entail a fundamental change in the regime of the
waterways.
B Processes, problems and trends
17
Degradation of the natural mountain environment
Following the intrusion of man in an intrinsically
fragile environment, the High Atlas has been subjected to increasing pressure for centuries. The
combination of complex processes such as overgrazing, deforestation, soil loss, and recurrent
droughts has encouraged degradation of an environment where certain areas are practically on the
way to desertification.
Degradation of the forests
The Moroccan forests are a precious and priceless
heritage. They partly cover the Atlantic and
Mediterranean slopes of the Moroccan mountain
ranges; in the High Atlas, forestlands stretch from
the dir to the centre of the range. This heritage, however, is in great danger. For nearly a century, the
forests have been subjected to increasing pressure,
first from the forestry services of the French
Protectorate, and during the last few decades as a
result of the demographic explosion. The causes of
Moroccan forests
Officially, Morocco has 9,000,000 ha of forests
and esparto grasslands (Stipa tenacissima). The
forests are composed of 63% broad-leaved trees
(holly oak, cork oak, argan trees, and acacia) and
20% coniferous trees (cedar, thuya, juniper, pine,
cypress, and fir); the rest is covered with low
formations. The official afforestation rate in the
country is 8%, but the actual rate amounts to only
4%. The wooded areas contain a wealth of biodiversity – some 4,700 species, of which 537 are
endemic. Forests in Morocco have two limits: the
lower limit is determined by water stress and
aridity, while the upper limit depends on elevation
and length of vegetative period.
this degradation are connected to management errors, uncontrolled exploitation, and the vagaries of
the climate.
Clear cutting was introduced by French foresters
during the Protectorate to meet lowland needs, in
particular the need for industrial production of charcoal and rail sleepers. This method is still in use today. The government sells concessionary rights to
professional coalers who engage in clear cutting, especially of holly oak forests, that usually grow on
steep slopes. This method based on a European model is totally unsuitable for the Moroccan mountain
forests. The lack of protective foliage exposes the
fragile soils to the harsh climate. The ensuing erosion, in turn, inhibits the process of stump shoot regrowth and regeneration of the holly oaks.
Furthermore, this practice deprives the local population of a vital and sizeable amount of dead wood.
Since time immemorial, mountain people have taken the wood they needed for their daily lives from
the forests. Unauthorised cutting was relatively limited for many centuries, but has increased during
the last few decades. All the activities in daily life
partly rely on wood and timber: cooking, crafts
(making pottery, ironwork, furniture, but also souvenirs for tourists), and construction (roofs, doors,
walls).
One custom that greatly damages the forest is cutting branches, especially in the holly oaks, to feed
the smaller livestock during the difficult inter-crop
season. This gradual, irrecoverable lopping of the
leafy branches disturbs the vegetative metabolism
of the trees and eventually results in another «dead
forest», of which there are so many in the High
Atlas. This method also contributes to accelerated
soil erosion.
Slowly but surely the last remnants
of an ancient forest are eliminated
by digging up the shootless stumps
of holly oak trees felled long ago
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
18
The above-ground roots of a few
big isolated trees give evidence
of bygone times when the soil
was deep and rich
(Photo D. Maselli)
The customary collection of dead wood for household use is a good illustration of the scope of the ongoing disaster in the forests. It is usually a chore for
women in the Moroccan mountains and, in some
places, accounts for up to 50-70% of their daily activities. As the forests shrink and dead wood becomes scarce, women often have to spend over 10
hours a day trekking dozens of kilometres in search
of wood. Moreover, they have to «compensate» for
the lack of dead wood by uprooting bushes (the
thermal value of which is much lower), thereby increasing the risk of desert encroachment.
In Morocco, 4,500 ha of woodlands are sacrificed
to agriculture every year. An ancient management
system allowed a piece of land to be taken from the
forest for cultivation, as long as it was subsequently returned to the matorral for at least 10 to 20
years. However, this forest fallowing phase has
been eliminated in view of the need to expand agri-
Evolution of woodlands
In ancient Morocco, when forests had reached their
maximum, close to 30% of the territory was
wooded. As the centuries went by, increasing quantities of timber were cut, first to meet the moderate
needs of the local population (firewood, timber,
crafts) and then, on a larger scale, to satisfy the
growing demands of cities and industry. Officially,
Morocco loses 31,000 ha of forestlands and 22,000
ha of rangelands per annum. Actual figures, however, are three times higher. The northern part of the
Azilal province in the Central High Atlas, for instance, lost 45% of its forestlands during the last 20
years. At that rate, there will not be any forests left
in 15 to 20 years.
Where there are no more trees, fuel
needs – especially for traditional
cooking – are met by pulling out
the bushes, thereby contributing
to land degradation and
even desertification
(Photo: M. Stoffel)
cultural lands. Furthermore, farmers secretly expand their farmlands by encroaching on the forestlands, tree by tree, which is difficult for the forestry
officers to control.
Together, all these actions are highly detrimental to
the mountain forests and severely diminish the
country’s forest heritage and its biodiversity. At the
politico-economic level, reducing the woodlands
jeopardises their capacity to absorb CO2 and will, in
time, penalise Morocco on the «CO2 market» provided for in the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Overgrazing
Overgrazing poses another serious problem for the
Moroccan environment, e.g. in the Drâa Valley
where vegetation is extremely sparse. In the five
Drâa Valley palm groves, livestock figures are estimated at 186,000. The large numbers of sheep,
B Processes, problems and trends
19
goats, and dromedaries are too heavy a burden on
a fragile ecosystem, be it the part-time rangelands
far from the settlements, or the year-round rearing
areas with high stocking rates, located within a radius of about 4-5 km from the douars. Degradation
of the plant canopy allows the winds to carry away
sand formerly held down by the vegetation, thus accelerating the process of desertification that is already well underway.
Balance of feed resources in the oases of the South
(x 1000 UF)
1200
1 FU (fodder unit) = 1 kg of barley
1000
800
600
In the mountains, overgrazing has negative effects
on both the almous and the residual forestlands.
The former suffer from soil compaction and elimination of the herbaceous cover around the scarce,
overexploited water holes; in the latter, the
land/animal equilibrium is disturbed by a stocking
rate that often exceeds the pastoral potential by a
factor of three to five. This means that the young
tree shoots are often browsed, which prevents regeneration of the residual forests and causes the tree
populations to age.
400
200
0
-200
-400
Amezrou
Tinfou
Needs of livestock
Environmental pollution
The impact of environmental pollution in the Atlas
Mountains is not yet alarming, but certain problems
are beginning to appear. On the other hand, the cities in the foothills have plunged headlong into the
vicious circle of pollution.
Drinking water supplies and wastewater purification are major environmental concerns in Morocco.
Water pollution and insufficient water purification
have serious effects on both public health and the
economy.
The mountains and the surrounding areas do not
have any wastewater treatment plants. This is a serious problem owing to constant population increases in the small regional centres or the towns located in the foothills. In fact, downstream of urban
and industrial effluents, river water quality is invariably poor, especially during the summer when
Tiguida
Available resources
water levels are low, during the olive-growing season, and even during the winter when floodwaters
carry sediment contaminated with heavy metals.
Farmlands in the Tadla and Haouz plains have a serious problem of groundwater pollution through
insecticides and nitrates from fertilisers.
Furthermore, untreated wastewater is used in
Morocco to irrigate vegetable, cereal, and fruit
crops, with immediate detrimental consequences to
public health (typhoid, parasitosis), while the construction of large dams on the southern foothills of
Feija
Deficit
Esparto grasslands illustrate
the impoverishment of the extensive
pastures in the southern lowlands
(Photo: D. Maselli)
Causes of overgrazing
There are many reasons for overgrazing, the
effects of which enhance one another, namely:
• disorganisation of traditional movement related to semi-nomadism and transhumance;
• increased individualism among herders, to the
detriment of group solidarity that ensures a
certain degree of regulation in the pastoral
lands;
• less pastoral land in forests when woodlands
disappear as a result of clear cutting;
Goats exploit the residual grasses
• opening livestock producers’ associations to
people who are not part of the community using
the pastures;
on the extensive grazinglands, but
• economic profitability requirements for livestock production, with supposed amortisation
in three to four years according to criteria set
by the market economy.
producing the fertiliser needed to
this is hardly enough for them to
fulfil their traditional function of
ensure high productivity on the irrigated plots
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
20
Desertification
When environmental degradation
reaches its terminal phase,
desertification consumes the lands
and prepares the way for
drifting sand
(Photo D. Maselli)
Torrential rains carry away huge
quantities of soil and in next to no
Desertification is the last process of land degradation and, in a fragile environment, involves the elimination of all soil and all the vegetation that
usually grows in the area. In the case of Morocco,
the problems of environmental degradation and desertification not only affect the regions bordering
the desert and the southern foothills of the Atlas
Mountains, for in a country where arid and semiarid zones occupy 90% of the surface area, desertification is an endemic threat for much of the remaining territory. Periods of recurrent drought are
one of the main causes of desertification, excessive
exploitation of the natural environment by human
beings is another.
the Atlas Mountains has eliminated downstream
floodwaters, thus allowing bilharzia to pollute the
stagnating waters along the banks of the oued.
time destroy infrastructure that
required huge efforts to build
(Photo D. Maselli)
The environment is like an open
book for keen, knowledgeable
observers: major geomorphological
activity in the Tagoundaft basin has
formed slopes on which mankind
subsequently created settlements
as well as rainfed and
irrigated fields
(Photo D. Maselli)
Although industrial waste is not yet a problem in the
Atlas Mountains, household refuse is increasingly
spoiling the landscape. Waste collection is very
poor; barely 2% of the waste in the rural regions is
removed. Waste elimination controls are also inadequate. All this directly contributes to spreading
diseases and contaminating the groundwaters.
Most of the landscape is sullied by plastic objects
that are commonly thrown away and that are not (or
only to a very small extent) biodegradable. Even
worse, old batteries and other products with high
heavy-metal contents are often carelessly cast away;
this could become very dangerous for places
where water seeps into the phreatic zone. It is difficult to understand why household refuse from
Soils in danger
Today, the mountain soils of Morocco are generally shallow and not highly evolved. The main
causes of degradation are plant removal (trees,
shrubs, herbaceous cover) by cutting and overgrazing (annual productivity losses of 4 million
fodder units), river erosion (6 m3/ha/yr in the
south), wind erosion, and recurrent drought. In the
irrigated areas, soil degradation and nutrient
losses claim approximately 5% of the output, i.e.
the equivalent of 5,000 tons of cereal in a good
year. In certain mountain regions, the low walls
that protect the soils from being washed away are
abandoned due to lack of labour and know-how.
In an effort to produce more, and more often, lands
are deprived of regular fallowing. The result is loss
of soil fertility and irreversible loss of formerly
productive lands.
small, densely populated towns like Demnate or
Azilal is dumped into the small valleys upstream of
the towns, since floodwaters will carry all sorts of
pollutants right back to the towns and into the
seguias.
B Processes, problems and trends
21
Chaotic management of the environment
Many governmental and non-governmental, national and foreign organisations promote development
activities in Morocco, especially in the mountains.
Efforts have been impressive, but the scope of the
problems to be resolved is huge. Despite some encouraging results, a certain sluggishness handicaps
some of the current actions, which, to date, have
generated uneven results. It seems essential to
make a brief analysis of some of the difficulties
encountered.
Questionable farming practices
Agriculture is one of the leading economic sectors
in Morocco. Because of population pressure, the
State is investing heavily to expand agricultural
lands or increase crop yields. In the irrigable plains,
the lands are cultivated all year round, with growing
use of water, fertilisers, and pesticides; in the long
run, this will have negative effects on the various
components of the environment, such as soils, running waters, groundwaters, or biodiversity. At the
same time, vast areas of fertile land are no longer
used for agricultural production but serve to fulfil
the needs of urbanisation, industry, tourism, and
transport. Errors in judgement and an undeniable
overestimation of the agricultural potential of the
marginal zones, in particular in the mountains,
also contribute to the degradation of the environment and its soils. By allocating fragile lands on the
fringes of arable farmlands to grow rainfed wheat,
for instance, mountain farmers unwittingly facilitate soil erosion by runoff and wind. The same
outcome is programmed for the plains, where the
multi-disk plough renders the sandy soils far more
prone to wind erosion. Furthermore, converting
sandy plains that previously were used as rangelands only, into cereal fields is doomed to failure
because these lands do not have the agricultural potential required to ensure sustained production.
They are quickly abandoned, eroded by the wind,
and turned into semi-desert land. Reduction of
fertile and productive lands, diminished soil use
efficiency, and a tendency towards desertification
are the immediate and often irreversible consequences of these blatant management errors.
Reforestation failure
In Morocco, reforestation started in 1949 and currently accounts for a total of 767,000 ha of woodlands. The evaluation made at the end of 2000
shows that a net 530,000 ha had actually
been reforested, i.e. about 10,000 ha per year. The
much higher objective of 22,000 ha per year has only been achieved one single time since 1970. This
can only be explained by the inappropriate choice
of species, lack of coordination of actions in the
field, insufficient follow-through in the replanted
areas, inefficient land exclosure, and a very low
success rate of below 50%, even below 20% in
some cases. Funding for forest maintenance
(3 euros/ha/yr) is absolutely insufficient to reverse
the trend. In this situation, how realistic are the
objectives of the new 1996 reforestation masterplan, which anticipates reforestation of 80,000 ha
per year for the next three decades (30,000 ha as
protective forests and 50,000 ha for sylvo-pastoral
development)? This is a valid question indeed.
This herd of goats unsuccessfully
seeks browse on the silted lands of
the Bin-el-Ouidane dam;
Ouaouizaght
(Photo M. Stoffel)
No time to lose
Many projects aim to combat various types of environmental degradation to prevent the irreversible
advance of desertification. But all too often,
projects focus more on the damage caused downstream than on the measures to be taken upstream,
i.e. where the degradation has its origins. Hence,
Women bear much of the burden
of daily life, especially in
the mountains
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
22
marginalisation irreversible or is there a bona fide
desire to break the vicious circle of degradation and
«mis-development»?
Reforestation with species that are
not adapted to local conditions often leads to failure; the solution
here is to use native species such as
the cedar instead of the Aleppo pine
Traps on the road to development
People’s daily life is closely connected to the environment that is to be preserved. Interventions are
often carried out without giving the local population
all the necessary information on what is going to be
done, why, the positive consequences in case of
success, the negative consequences in case of
(Photo: M. Stoffel)
deforestation is countered by reforestation, overgrazing is countered by land exclosure, the bed of a
torrent is redesigned to redirect untimely flooding,
and berms are built to prevent runoff on the slopes.
Considering the present situation, these actions are
certainly necessary and often of enormous urgency.
But at the same time, it is crucial to undertake
more basic actions that address the underlying
causes of the problem.
Floundering projects
Despite completion of approach and feasibility
studies, several development projects are not getting
implemented. The Azilal project is a good example.
This mountain development project, which was designed by the FAO in the 1980s, has not been
implemented to this day and probably will not be
realised in the next few years, although all the
sectoral studies and guidelines have been completed.
Why is it being postponed? Was there a shortage of
funding or a change in priorities? In the latter case,
the question has to be raised how important the
mountain areas really are to the planners. Is their
Sustainable development requires
(re)establishing a state of
equilibrium between nature and
man, who uses the lands in
various ways
(Photo: M. Monbaron)
The «uninhabited» mountains
«Solutions are being applied implicitly as remedies to multiple types of mountain degradation
and are being implemented in the mountain areas
as if these were uninhabited. This explains the local population’s opposition, sometimes very determined, to solutions that they perceive as attempts to deprive them of resources that are
indispensable to their survival in an environment
with especially harsh living conditions, and not as
common sense measures to counter imbalances
that threaten their environment.»
(Moroccan Ministry of Environment, 2001)
failure, and the role of the native inhabitants in the
process. Since they do not feel involved in the
planned development work, they do not perceive
these interventions as reasonable measures that are
needed to protect the environment, but rather as
constraints that may deprive them of certain resources indispensable for their survival. Conflict or even
failure is bound to ensue. Moreover, excluding the
people directly involved from the planning process
B Processes, problems and trends
23
risks missing solutions that have proven themselves
in the project area, or promoting ideas that are not
applicable. In fact, mountain people often have
traditions that are based on centuries of experience
and still very much alive, e.g. with regard to soil
preservation or exclosure of given areas for certain
periods of time. This cultural heritage could well be
used as the starting point for selected innovations.
Finally, enrolling the initiative of the local population also needs to be studied. Encouraging the
community to discuss the future of its land, in view
of its continuing degradation, might be a powerful
incentive for guiding community action towards
more sustainable use of its resources.
Ask the right questions
There is a certain confusion in terms of project orientation. Partial or excessively focused measures are
Promotion of butane
There are three major obstacles to the use of this
source of energy, which is supposed to save the forests:
• Eating habits: tajine* cooked on charcoal is reputed to be better than when cooked on gas;
baking bread or cooking a méchoui* requires a
wood oven. (Boiling water for tea is the only instance where gas is faster and more convenient.)
• Light: poorer families that buy butane use it more often as a convenient source of light than for
cooking, thus not sufficiently relieving pressure
on firewood.
• Supply: the empty gas bottles can only be
exchanged at the souk, which is often far away;
this poses a transport problem since the bottles
are heavy and bulky, and the transport capacity
of mules and donkeys often proves insufficient.
causes of environmental degradation and its effects,
since the former are often vague, difficult to identify,
and not very spectacular when compared to the
latter and their evident, impressive scope.
The use of heavy agricultural
machinery often seems inappropriate in a fragile, relatively unprofitable environment, causing
damage especially to the plant
When a sudden flood rushes through a village, carrying away houses and their occupants, sweeping away
the cultivated terraces, and covering the roads and seguias with rubble, the houses will be rebuilt, new terraces will be constructed on the river banks, and the
alluvial mess will be removed.
But what is done to prevent a future disaster of the same kind? Check the conditions of the catchment basin upstream of the run-away torrent, consolidate the
riperian area through reforestation, break the erosive
force of the waterway through solid, well-built bunds
along the river banks, or else prohibit construction
work and human activity in areas considered to be
dangerous – these are long-term measures suitable
for reducing the risks to both the environment and the
population.
canopy and the soils
(Photo M. Stoffel)
Tajine: traditional Moroccan dish
cooked in a terracotta receptacle
on glowing embers
Méchoui: mutton or lamb roasted
on a spit
often applied without the necessary distance to get a
clear view of the situation as a whole. It is not always
easy to distinguish accurately between the real
In the mountains, maintenance work
on centuries-old terraces requires
considerable labour; what future
prospects can keep these young
girls from heading to the towns
and cities?
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
24
C A synopsis of the main processes
of intervention. The suggested approach should be
applicable to other mountain ranges in the semi-arid
and arid circum-Saharan belt, which has similar
ecological, economic, and socio-political problems;
this, in turn, should facilitate comparisons at the
regional level.
These young Berber girls are
entitled to the same opportunities as
the boys so that they can
decide on their own future
(Photo D. Maselli)
To get an overall view of the effects and impacts of
the main processes on the highland-lowland interactive system, all the related parameters need to be
clearly understood. The following two tables offer
a qualitative evaluation of the situation. These results neither claim to be complete nor to reflect any
intrinsic truth; however, the tables should make it
possible to better understand the situation as a
whole, and to determine the most promising lines
Of the five main processes affecting the natural environment, four (soil erosion, overutilisation of water resources, deforestation, and overgrazing) have
essentially negative effects on the domains selected,
with the means of communication being the sole exception.
The impact of possible climate change is generally
greater in the lowlands than in the mountains.
Therefore, political and economic decision-makers
would be well advised to support the measures for
climate degradation control that have been recommended by the scientific community.
Soil erosion stands out as the process with the greatest negative impact. It affects the mountains far more strongly than the lowlands, and contributes to increasing the gap between the rich and the poor. As
an indirect consequence, there is a heightened risk
of conflict, especially in the intra-montane regions.
The effects of overutilisation of the water resources
are contradictory. Expanding irrigated lands and
the possibility of cultivating the cash crops in de-
Synopsis of the main processes
Natural environment
Domain of impact
Climate change
M
L
Soil erosion
M
L
Overutilisation
of water resources
M
L
Deforestation
Overgrazing
M
M
L
L
Forest cover
Feeding potential
Cultivable land
Quality of soils
Available water
Ecosystem
Desertification
Pollution
Traditional ways of life
Traditional infrastructure
Demography
Social fabric/solidarity
Employment
Migration
Means of communication
Access to/participation in the markets
Gap between rich and poor
Potential conflicts
Degree of
negative impact
high
medium
low
Both negative and positive impacts
Degree of
positive impact
M
L
Mountains
Lowlands
Concept: Maselli + Stoffel
C A synopsis of the main processes
25
mand on the urban markets are favourable opportunities for both the mountains and the lowlands.
This should not, however, obscure the fact that the
impact of this process is principally very negative,
especially in the lowlands.
The direct effects of deforestation can be seen especially on the mountain slopes where clear cutting
has triggered other sources of degradation, such as
soil erosion, overgrazing, and reduction in the water retention capacity of the soil. This inappropriate
exploitation of forestlands was started by external
lowland actors, who have reaped major benefits
from it. Therefore, it must be their responsibility to
make the investments required to alleviate the disastrous effects of their policy.
Since most pastures are located in the highlands,
the effects of overgrazing are most strongly felt by
the peasants living within the Atlas range. This seriously compromises their agro-sylvo-pastoral
system, which depends on natural fertilisation by
livestock. As this source of fertilisation has been reduced, there is little hope of maintaining the high
productivity of the irrigated terrace plots.
The two main processes from the economic environment have very different impacts on the do-
mains under consideration. Economic marginalisation most severely affects the mountain regions but
the repercussions are felt in the lowlands as well. If
the lowland authorities want to avoid tensions and
social conflicts with the mountain people, they
should be careful not to disregard the economic
fate of their highland neighbours.
As was seen in the example of water overutilisation,
modernisation can have contradictory effects. It has
a positive influence on the same domains in both the
mountains and the lowlands. This is particularly noteworthy with regard to migration and means of
communication. On the other hand, the negative effects primarily concern traditional infrastructure
and ways of life, as well as the social fabric in the
mountains. In the medium and long term, modernisation can be expected to manifest itself in a
more negative manner in the lowlands also.
Thorny bushes are characteristic of
extensive pastures in the summit
areas of the High Atlas and enrich
the biodiversity with a number of
endemic species
(Photo D. Maselli)
Except for population growth, the processes characterising the socio-political environment offer certain prospects of hope. In fact, much of the identified impact is positive.
The effects of population growth are proving to be
especially detrimental in most domains, both in the
mountains and the lowlands. They put very heavy
Synopsis of the main processes
Economic environment
Domain of impact
Economic
marginalisation
M
L
Socio-political environment
Modernisation
M
L
Population growth
M
L
Modification of
political structures
M
L
Changes in
the way of life
M
L
Forest cover
Feeding potential
Cultivable land
Quality of soils
Available water
Ecosystem
Desertification
Pollution
Traditional ways of life
Traditional infrastructure
Demography
Social fabric/solidarity
Employment
Migration
Means of communication
Access to/participation in the markets
Gap between rich and poor
Potential conflicts
Degree of
negative impact
high
medium
low
Both negative and positive impacts
Degree of
positive impact
M
L
Mountains
Lowlands
Concept: Maselli + Stoffel
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
26
These modifications have had positive effects on a
number of the domains both in the mountains and
in the lowlands. The differences between highlands
and lowlands are rather insignificant, although the
balance sways slightly in favour of the latter.
Improving access to remote regions
by building roads suitable
for vehicles is a priority designed
to stem the exodus of mountain
people and thus reduce the high
risks for the lowlands
The effects of changing ways of life again turn out
to be contradictory. They seem to have relatively little impact on the natural environment, with slightly more damage being done in the lowlands than in
the mountains. This type of change primarily affects
the societal domains. The effects are especially negative with regard to the social fabric, community
solidarity, and the gap between the rich and the poor. They are also the underlying cause for the disappearance of the traditional ways of life and the infrastructure depending on them. Access to the
market economy and propagation of modern means
of communication, on the other hand, have very positive effects.
(Photo M. Stoffel)
pressure on natural resources in the mountains, on
water availability, and on environmental pollution
in the lowlands. Hence there is a vital need to overcome these major problems.
During the last few years, the political structures in
Morocco have been thoroughly reviewed at all levels (strengthening of the multiparty system, changeover of political power, decentralisation, initiation of sectoral actions by the ministries, etc.).
Digging private wells is often an
unfair solution that keeps the poor
people off the road to progress
(Photo M. Stoffel)
An analysis of each domain of impact indicates that
some domains register exclusively negative effects.
It would thus appear very difficult to successfully
change them; this concerns impacts on traditional
ways of life and infrastructure, on demography, and
on the social fabric (solidarity). Some other domains are only influenced positively by one of the
processes. This is the case, for instance, with the domain of potential conflicts: Modification of political structures, and that alone, generates positive effects in this field. On the other hand, access to and
participation in the market economy, as well as further development of modern means of communication are domains registering the most positive effects.
D Prospects for the future
27
D Prospects for the future
Deadlock
Despite the wealth of their resources and natural
landscapes, the Atlas Mountains are currently in a
very uncomfortable situation. Their ecological,
economic, and socio-political systems are seriously out of balance. The situation in the adjoining lowlands is not much better. Major population increases during the 20th century are only one of the
causes of these problems. The mountain system has
become very fragile as a result of excessive exploitation of natural resources, especially the plant canopy, and decades of marginalisation of the region.
Following independence, continuation of the centralised system of authority and control contributed
to withdrawing responsibility from the local communities. The mountain people were dispossessed
of centuries-old forests that they had previously
called their own; this was the main cause underly-
The Aït Hani Project
The «Atlas» micro project, based in the Aït Hani
douar south of Imilchil, illustrates a village community’s exemplary endeavour to take its own
destiny in hand. The project’s long-term objectives are to be achieved by promoting early schooling and providing the appropriate infrastructure,
such as building a kindergarten and expanding
the nursery school. At the same time, a lodge for
hikers is planned to be built to promote ecotourism in this region, which is very well suited to
this type of recreation. Profits from the lodge will
be used to run and maintain the kindergarten. This
is a good example of how a community concerned
with its future can use local resources for its
endogenous development.
ing most processes that led to degradation of the
pastoral environment and, ultimately, the breakdown of the traditional agro-sylvo-pastoral system.
To stem these processes, the first step must be participation of the mountain population in sustainable
development policy and strategy formulation. It is
equally urgent that they resume responsibility for
the lands they live on and be granted the authority
needed to manage these lands themselves. Unless
the economic and political decision-makers radically change their outlook towards the mountain regions, the whole of Morocco may be heading into a
deadlock.
Trying to understand the wishes
and visions of the young people in
the mountains in order to make
Analyses have shown repeatedly that the problems
of the mountains are passed on, often indirectly and
with a certain time-lag, to the adjoining lowlands.
The opposite is also true, but to a lesser degree. The
medium- and above all the long-term destiny of the
lowlands thus depends on the harmonious economic, ecological, and social development of the
mountains.
the right development choices
(Photo M. Stoffel)
The current situation, however, is out of balance:
The rich, irrigated lowlands are enjoying an impressive economic boom, largely buttressed by essential resources from the mountains, while the
mountains are experiencing stagnation or even decline. This highly unequal situation will eventually
become unbearable. The growing problems in the
mountains could severely inhibit Morocco’s economic development, which would be detrimental to all
parties and trigger serious conflicts. Only a strong
and stable hinterland can help the lowlands and
their urban centres sustain the economic expansion.
Therefore, it is indispensable for the lowland authorities to invest heavily in the mountains.
After functioning for centuries, the
traditional system is being
seriously threatened: a joint
strategy should be developed to
tackle the challenges of the future
(Photo M. Monbaron)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
28
Poor farmer
YEAR
OF D
No h
ar
The downward spiral
ROUG
HT
vest
Stock
deple
ted
Lives
tock
f
amis
hed
Enfor
ced
of an selling
imals
Mor t
gagi
the fi ng of
elds
YEAR
OF D
ROUG
HT
Debt
Enfor
ced
of an selling
imals
Sellin
After a year of drought, a small mountain farmer
has harvested next to nothing in his bour fields.
His reserves are depleted, and his animals have
nothing left to eat. He has to sell his animals at a
time when prices hit rock bottom, and then buys
high-priced flour to feed his family. He is forced to
borrow money and mortgages part of his fields.
Successive droughts push the farmer farther and
farther into debt. He sells his whole herd. He feels
driven into a corner and has to sell his mortgaged
lands. With less land and no animals, it becomes
increasingly difficult for him to eke out a living.
One more year of drought makes his meagre reserves melt away. He sells his last fields and has
to choose between two solutions: Get hired as a
day labourer on his former fields or migrate to the
city in the uncertain search of a job…
g of f
ields
Redu
ct
prod ion of the
uc tiv
e are
a
Sellin
go
last f f the
ields
Beco
mes
rer or day labo
uemig
rates
Concept: Maselli + Stoffel
Sustainable development can only
be achieved if the local communities
bear responsibility; otherwise,
The situation is clear: the High Atlas Mountains and
the adjoining lowlands are closely interlinked, for
better or for worse. They share a common destiny
and simply must (re)unite in partnerships of solidarity so as to face the current and future challenges
together.
Signs of hope
Alerted by various development stakeholders, the
Moroccan authorities already seemed ready to respond to the challenges faced by the mountains some
time ago. The Plan d’orientation du Développement
économique et social (National Socio-economic
Development Plan, 1988-1992) clearly, and for the
first time, expressed the need to integrate the mountain regions in the country’s national development
plans. But to date, this goal has not been achieved.
Most actions have only been sectoral, e.g. the Plan
National d’Aménagement des Bassins Versants
(National Plan for the Development of Catchment
Areas), the Défense et Restauration des Sols (Soil
Protection and Restoration) and the Plan National de
Reboisement (National Reforestation Plan). All too
often, they are devoted to overcoming the negative
effects (mainly in the lowlands) of a harmful process, and not to addressing the real causes in the
mountains. No solution can be achieved unless an
integrated approach is used that tackles the source of
the problems.
state-owned resources will continue
to be viewed as goods to be
exploited
(Photo M. Stoffel)
For some time, however, various stakeholders have
shown a desire to prepare and implement a sustainable mountain development strategy. The national
government apparently intends to promulgate a
«Law on the Mountains» that would be carried out
by the elected local authorities together with the
economic leaders and the local population. This
procedure must be able to rely on a radical change
in certain attitudes and mindsets. The participatory
approach being advocated is the opposite of the
centralised management system introduced by the
French and then taken over after independence. All
development plans striving towards sustainability
require such efforts to integrate the civil population
in the decision-making process.
Therefore, it is necessary to develop new covenants
between the lowlands and the mountains, the central authorities and the traditional village communities, city dwellers and rural farmers, rich people
and poor people, the mighty and the marginalised.
To make sure that energies are not dissipated and all
actions coordinated, the various actors must develop platforms for meeting, exchanging ideas, and
negotiating; joint reflection and discussion are needed to identify problems and decide on measures to
be taken. This is a process that will take time and
involve considerable financial and human resources, but if it is handled appropriately, the independent development of the High Atlas, alongside
that of its adjoining lowlands, stands a good chance of taking hold.
All that may seem utopic, nothing but a dream, yet
there are a growing number of examples throughout the world where such participatory processes
had a successful outcome, where the implementation of a participatory development plan contri-
D Prospects for the future
29
buted to improving living conditions, thereby reducing the risks of conflict between competing interest groups who formerly considered each other to
be enemies.
Multi-faceted approach
Analysis of the main processes and their impacts
has clearly shown the need to act with foresight and
determination on the three axes of sustainable development without, however, failing to respond to
urgent needs in the short term. Therefore, functional substitution mechanisms such as promotion of
solar energy or wind power, or assistance to families to encourage the use of natural gas to protect
the remaining forests, should be implemented as
soon as possible. Other measures to foster modernisation of the rural mountains include improvement
of the road network, connections to the running
water grid, better sanitation, promotion of tourismrelated mountain jobs, and urban planning of small
regional centres. These all constitute essential conditions for harmoniously integrating the inhabitants
of rural and mountain regions into the modern
world. It would also be advisable to capitalise on
the attractiveness of organic farming by labelling
local products such as mountain honey, goat
cheese, potherbs, and olive oil. This innovative
agro-economic approach alleviates the marginalisation of the farmers’ world, and has been successfully implemented the world over.
At the level of the natural environment, the cumulative effects of the various degradation processes
The upward spiral
At the end of the same year of drought, a rich landowner buys the fields of the hapless small farmer,
at a very low price. He plants fruit trees on his newly acquired lands. Since he has his own wells and
can store water, he has high wheat yields in the dry
year and earns a good deal of money. A few years
later, his young fruit trees also start producing
abundantly. After the next dry year, this enables
him to buy the remaining lands of the small farmer,
who is on the verge of ruin, again at a give-away
price. The property of the rich farmer increases,
and his social, economic, and political position is
further consolidated. Since his estate is bigger, he
can run it more rationally. He can invest in efficient machines and thus reduce the number of
farm hands and day labourers, in other words, deprive the landless farmers of potential wages…
land
ing p o o r
y
u
B
the
from
ts
rofi
gp
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ea
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of
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c
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Red npow
ma
m
f far
no t
o
i
t
nisa emen
g
der
Mo mana
in
Buy
could be stemmed by deploying proper task forces
composed of local stakeholders and motivated, qualified representatives of all the institutions involved,
i.e. ministries, regional delegations, universities,
and NGOs.
At the economic level, there are debts to be paid because the mountains have been deprived of an important part of their centuries-old heritage, especially trees and soils, with most of the benefits going
to the lowlands. It would be but fair to have the
g la
nd
e
spit
s de ht
t
i
f
ro roug
hp
Hig ar of d
ye
T
GH
ROU
D
F
RO
YEA
in
ent
m
t
s
s
Inve it tree
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r
f
land
ing p o o r
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B
the
from
o
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st d s
e
v
p
ar
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Goo ater p
w
T
GH
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Investor
Concept: Maselli + Stoffel
Construction of new terraces in the
most remote corners of the mountains
shows that there are signs of hope;
improving the socio-economic and
political conditions of mountain
people would contribute to the
development of terrace farming
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
30
Opening the mountains to the
markets and improving access to
modern means of transport would
decisively contribute to developing
a harmonious partnership with the
adjoining lowlands
(Photo M. Stoffel)
Prospects of independent
development –
the example of a micro
power plant
economic community invest part of its profits in
projects to rehabilitate degraded lands. The lowlands could also elaborate other forms of compensation for the mountains, such as micro-credit
schemes with preferential rates for highland communities, or fertiliser and seed supplies sold at low
prices to poor farmers. These measures would allow
for sustainable management of natural resources
that the world, henceforth, perceives as the property
of all mankind.
At the socio-political level, a process of restoring
mutual trust and enhancing traditional solidarity
should be initiated. It is especially important to include women, whose opinions are all too often ignored. These efforts should lead to a new contract
between the societies in the mountains and the lowlands, two partners committed to the same cause –
a better future.
Model for generating independent development
OPERATION
financing
independent development
(value of) energy produced
REALISATION
costs
Why have those mountain regions with adequate supplies of
water at their disposal not systematically built their own
micro power plants? One of the
explanations may be that hydropower is seldom used to foster
independent
development,
which discourages external investors, especially the NGOs.
Providing electricity to light up
streets or homes, to run the TV
set or someone’s refrigerator is
not necessarily synonymous
with sustainable progress. In
terms of the prospects of independent development, it would
be interesting to test models based on the following example:
The State, a development agency, and the local community
share the lost-equity investment
costs for a micro power plant.
The primary goal is to make a
profit, e.g. by supplying electricity to a communal cold storage
facility that is used to preserve
the quality of agricultural produce to be sold on the urban
markets. This facilitates selling
more, at a higher price, at the
right time. Part of the profits cover the maintenance costs and,
possibly, amortise the community investment. Most of the profits
are available for other sustainable development projects in the
community.
realisation costs (lost equity)
maintenance costs
financing of maintenance costs
consumption of local population
remaining portion to generate
added value
Concept: Maselli + Stoffel
D Prospects for the future
31
Final theses
The theses below have been formulated to stimulate in-depth reflection and discussion among societies in the
highlands and the lowlands about their common future – in Morocco and elsewhere … during and after the
International Year of Mountains … over and beyond the Johannesburg Summit.
1. Any lasting climate change will affect the lowlands more markedly than the mountains.
2. Soil erosion is the greatest threat to sustainable development in the mountains and requires determined,
large-scale intervention.
3. Moderate use and equitable apportionment of water play a paramount role in sustainable management
of natural resources.
4. It is crucial to stop deforestation at all cost. It is also important to propose viable alternative sources of
energy and, at the same time, to return responsibility for managing the vital resource of forests to the
mountain population.
5. To overcome the breakdown of the highland agro-sylvo-pastoral system, it is necessary to replace the
scarce traditional fertilisers with imported fertiliser.
6. The economic marginalisation of the mountain areas must be addressed in order to prevent tension and
conflict.
7. Modernisation is an opportunity not to be missed, but it is important to take the potential negative effects into account and to attenuate or, if possible, avoid them.
8. It is crucial to control population growth since it negatively impacts on the natural environment; this is
a prerequisite to sustainable development.
9. Developing modern means of communication and access to the market economy are of paramount importance and need to be promoted, especially in the mountain areas.
10. The necessary measures have to be taken to prevent tensions and conflicts that can quickly destroy what
has been patiently built up; in this context, the participatory approach and to delegate responsibility and
authority to the various stakeholders, especially to women, are of the utmost importance.
Temporary substitutes must be
found for the primary function of
the goats, which is to supply the
intensively used irrigated terraces
with nitrogen extracted from the
extensive grazinglands
(Photo D. Maselli)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
32
E Bibliography
The most important publications used for this booklet:
AGOUMY T. & A. BENCHERIFA, eds. (1987):
La grande encyclopédie du Maroc. Volume No. 9. «Géographie humaine», Cremano, 240 pp.
BENMOHAMMADI A., BENMOHAMMADI L., BALLAIS J.-L. & J. RISER (2000):
Analyse des interrelations anthropiques et naturelles: leurs impacts sur la recrudescence des phénomènes
d’ensablement et de désertification au sud-est du Maroc (Vallée du Drâa et Vallée de Ziz). Science et changements planétaires / Sécheresse. Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 297-308.
GHANAM M. & H. JADER (2002):
Africa, Morocco: Elaborating a policy framework for conservation and mountain development. In: Mountain
Agenda, ed.: Mountains of the World. Sustainable Development in Mountain Areas: The Need for Adequate
Policies and Instruments. Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), University of Berne, pp. 4243. (ISBN 3-906151-63-8)
MASELLI D. (1995):
L’écosystème montagnard agro-sylvo-pastoral de Tagoundaft (Haut-Atlas occidental, Maroc): ressources,
processus et problèmes d’une utilisation durable. Geographica Bernensia. Africa Studies Series A12, Berne,
198 pp. (ISBN 3-906290-89-1)
MINISTERE DE L’ENVIRONNEMENT (2001):
L’aménagement et le développement au Maroc: Population / Environnement, Projet MOR/88/PO9. United
Nations Population Fund (FNUAP) / UNESCO, Rabat, 88 pp.
MÜLLER-HOHENSTEIN K. & H. POPP (1990):
Marokko: Ein islamisches Entwicklungsland mit kolonialer Vergangenheit. Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, 229 pp.
(ISBN 3-12-928803-1)
VERMEREN P. (2001):
Le Maroc en transition. Editions La Découverte & Syros, Paris, 250 pp. (ISBN 2-7071-3453-8)
Despite all the problems and challenges, Morocco is blessed
with mountains and lowlands that
offer a rich and picturesque scenery
(Photo M. Stoffel)
Mountains and Lowlands: Enemies or Partners?
Realised by
Markus Stoffel (UniFR), Michel Monbaron (UniFR) & Daniel Maselli (CDE)
Coordinated by
Markus Stoffel (UniFR)
English version translated by
Tilly Gaillard, Stefan Zach
Figures, graphics, and tables
Igor Lièvre (UniFR)
A better future depends on a new
highland-lowland equilibrium that
can only be achieved if new partnerships are formed; this requires a
Data sources and cited references
page 4:
satellite picture of northern Morocco, recorded on 25 January 2002 by NASA/GSFC
(Satellite Terra, Sensor MODIS, VE Record ID 11571, http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/)
page 9:
demographic data modified after AGOUMY T. & A. BENCHERIFA (1987) and MINISTÈRE
DE LA PRÉVISION ÉCONOMIQUE ET DU PLAN,
Direction de la statistique (http://www.statistic.gov.ma/)
page 9:
«population density» graphic modified after AGOUMY T. & A. BENCHERIFA (1987)
page 13:
«groundwater level» graphic modified after data from BENMOHAMMADI A., BENMOHAMMADI L.,
BALLAIS J.-L. & J. RISER (2000)
page 15:
meteorological data from MÜLLER-HOHENSTEIN K. & H. POPP (1990; Marrakech and Ouarzazate)
and MASELLI D. (1995; Idni)
page 16:
«bour zones» graphic modified after AGOUMY T. & A. BENCHERIFA (1987)
page 19:
«feed resources» graphic modified after data from BENMOHAMMADI A., BENMOHAMMADI L.,
BALLAIS J.-L. & J. RISER (2000)
participatory approach that includes
all societies involved
(Photo D. Maselli)
Cover pictures
Front and back cover:
The melting snows of the High Atlas
Mountains provide spring and
summer irrigation waters for mountain terraces and lowlands; Western
High Atlas, Tagoundaft basin
(Photo: D. Maselli)
Back cover
(small pictures from above):
A dream environment for trekking
and perfect recreation
(Photo: M. Monbaron)
Irrigated terraces – often located
in barren surroundings – strongly
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC)
Freiburgstrasse 130, 3003 Berne/Switzerland
http://www.sdc.admin.ch/
attract both national and foreign
Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS)
Boulevard de l’environnement, BP 31, 1080 Tunis Cedex/Tunisia
http://www.unesco.org/oss/
The shepherd’s teapot is a symbol
University of Fribourg (UniFR)
Department of Geosciences, Geography, Chemin du Musée 4, 1700 Fribourg/Switzerland
http://www.unifr.ch/geosciences/geographie/
Centre for Development & Environment (CDE)
University of Berne, Steigerhubelstrasse 3, 3008 Berne/Switzerland
http://www.cde.unibe.ch/
tourists
(Photo: D. Maselli)
of a way of life and of traditional
values that did not cause the overexploitation of forestlands that
used to be far more abundant
(Photo: D. Maselli)
ISBN 3-9522536-2-6