Eastern Spadefoot
Eastern Spadefoot
Scientific Name
Scaphiopus holbrookii
(Harlan, 1835)
Family Name
Scaphiopodidae
North American Spadefoots
Did you know?
Some people suffer from strong allergic reactions
when handling spadefoots. The reaction may
include watery eyes, a runny nose, and violent
sneezing (Conant and Collins 1998).
Photo credits: Jesse W. Jaycox
Summary
Protection Species of Special Concern in New York State, not listed federally.
This level of state protection means: A native species at risk of becoming Threatened; does
not qualify as Endangered or Threatened, but have been determined to require some
measure of protection or attention to ensure that the species does not become threatened.
NYSDEC may regulate the taking, importation, transportation, or possession of any
Species of Special Concern as it deems necessary.
Rarity G5, S2S3
A global rarity rank of G5 means: Demonstrably secure globally, though it may be quite
rare in parts of its range, especially at the periphery.
A state rarity rank of S2S3 means: Imperiled or Vulnerable in New York - Very vulnerable
to disappearing from New York, or vulnerable to becoming imperiled in New York, due to
rarity or other factors; typically 6 to 80 populations or locations in New York, few
individuals, restricted range, few remaining acres (or miles of stream), and/or recent and
widespread declines. More information is needed to assign a single conservation status.
Conservation Status in New York
Despite intensive survey efforts during the New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation Amphibian and Reptile Atlas project, occurrences were reported from only 13
USGS topographic quadrangles between 1990 and 1999. Two additional occurrences were
subsequently located in Dutchess and Saratoga Counties. A historical population in
Rockland County (DeKay 1842) is apparently extirpated. This species appears to be fairly
localized where it occurs.
NYNHP Conservation Guide - Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus holbrookii)
Short-term Trends
Habitat loss to development, especially of vernal pool habitats, is likely resulting in a
negative short-term trend (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
2006).
Long-term Trends
Long-term trends are unknown, due to the absence of reliable baseline information (New
York State Department of Environmental Conservation 2006). At least one historical
population reported from Clarkstown, Rockland County, (DeKay 1842) is believed to be
extirpated.
Conservation and Management
Threats
Threats include vernal pond loss from development, upland habitat loss and fragmentation,
road mortality, contaminants, parasites, and pathogens (New York State Department of
Environmental Conservation 2006).
Conservation Strategies and Management Practices
The development of an eastern spadefoot management plan would be beneficial (New
York State Department of Environmental Conservation 2006).
Habitat
Eastern spadefoot habitat is characterized by dry sandy soils or loose soils. Spadefoots are found
in pine barrens and associated habitats in Saratoga and Albany Counties and in pitch pine-scrub
oak dunes on Long Island. The Dutchess County location contains limestone bedrock outcroppings,
which are highly erodable and form limestone sand deposits in the surrounding area. The forest in
this area is predominately red cedar.
Associated Ecological Communities
Pine Barrens Vernal Pond
A seasonally fluctuating pond and its associated wetlands that typically occurs in pine
barrens. The water is intermittent, usually a pond in the spring but sometimes losing water
through the summer to become a mostly vegetated wetland at the end of the summer.
These ponds and wetlands may be small.
Pitch Pine-scrub Oak Barrens
A shrub-savanna community that occurs on well-drained, sandy soils that have developed
on sand dunes, glacial till, and outwash plains.
Red Cedar Rocky Summit
A community that occurs on warm, dry, rocky ridgetops and summits where the bedrock is
calcareous (such as limestone or dolomite, but also marble, amphibolite, and calcsilicate
rock), and the soils are more or less calcareous. The vegetation may be sparse or patchy,
with numerous lichen covered rock outcrops.
NYNHP Conservation Guide - Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus holbrookii)
2
Associated Species
American Toad (Bufo americanus)
Fowler's Toad (Bufo fowleri)
Gray Treefrog (Hyla versicolor)
Spring Peeper (Pseudacris crucifer)
Identification Comments
Identifying Characteristics
The eastern spadefoot is a medium-sized toad with smooth skin and small, scattered
warts. Distinguishing characteristics include protruding golden eyes with vertical pupils, two
golden dorsal stripes that are in the shape of a lyre, and a sharp-edged, sickle-shaped
"spade" on the underside of each hind foot (Klemens 1993; Conant and Collins 1998;
Gibbs et al. 2007). The tadpoles are bronze and have a short, rounded, and finely spotted
tail (Wright and Wright 1949; Gibbs et al. 2007). The golden dorsal pattern mentioned
above is also evident on the tadpoles. The call of breeding males has been described as a
coarse "wank, wank, wank..." (Gibbs et al. 2007).
Characteristics Most Useful for Identification
The characters most useful for identification include the protruding golden eyes with
vertical pupils, two golden dorsal stripes that form the shape of a lyre, and a sharp-edged,
sickle-shaped "spade" on the underside of each hind foot (Klemens 1993; Conant and
Collins 1998; Gibbs et al. 2007).
Best Life Stage for Identifying This Species
Adults are most easily identified, although newly metamorphosed individuals have a similar
appearance to adults and can also be distinguished as spadefoots.
Behavior
Eastern spadefoots are fossorial; that is, they are adapted to digging and can remain
underground for weeks or months at a time during dry periods. Adults are nocturnal, with
peaks of activity just after sundown and before sunrise (DeGraaf and Rudis 1981),
especially after warm wet periods in the spring and the summer. Breeding aggregations
usually occur after heavy rains, often in spring or summer in the north, but they have been
recorded in February (small numbers), March, June, September, and October in Florida
(Greenberg and Tanner 2004). These breeding aggregations may include dozens to
hundreds of adults in single pools, where clutches of up to 2,500 eggs are laid in several
batches. The eggs hatch in two days to two weeks. The aquatic larvae metamorphose into
the terrestrial form in two to eight weeks (Greenberg and Tanner 2004). In Florida, the
maximum lifespan was estimated to be seven years (Greenberg and Tanner 2005). Adults
may migrate up to several hundred meters between breeding pools and nonbreeding
terrestrial habitats.
NYNHP Conservation Guide - Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus holbrookii)
3
Diet
Metamorphosed toads eat various small terrestrial invertebrates. Larvae eat plankton
initially, and later feed on small aquatic invertebrates and sometimes other amphibian
larvae, including conspecifics.
The Best Time to See
Although early and late sight records on Long Island range from early to late April and early
September (Burnley 1971), respectively, the best time to see eastern spadefoot toads is at
night during or after heavy rains that coincide with the breeding season.
Present
Active
Reproducing
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
The time of year you would expect to find Eastern Spadefoot in New York.
Similar Species
Fowler's Toad(Bufo fowleri): In contrast to the eastern spadefoot, Fowler's toads have
two tubercles on the underside of each hind foot, instead of the single "spade" of the
spadefoot. They have three or more well-developed warts within each of the largest dark
spots and do not have the lyre-shaped dorsal pattern. Fowler's toads also have ridges and
parotid glands, which are lacking in eastern spadefoots. The pupils are horizontally oval
(Conant and Collins 1998).
American Toad(Bufo americanus): In contrast to the eastern spadefoot, American toads
have two tubercles on the underside of each hind foot, instead of the single "spade" of the
spadefoot. They have one to two well-developed warts within each of the largest dark spots
and do not have the lyre-shaped dorsal pattern. American toads also have ridges and
parotid glands, which are lacking in eastern spadefoots. The pupils are horizontally oval
(Conant and Collins 1998).
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
Craniata
Class
Amphibians (Amphibia)
Order
Frogs and Toads (Anura)
Family
Scaphiopodidae (North American Spadefoots)
Additional Resources
NYNHP Conservation Guide - Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus holbrookii)
4
Links
NatureServe Explorer
http://natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=SCAPHIOPUS+HOLBR
OOKII
Google Images
http://images.google.com/images?q=SCAPHIOPUS+HOLBROOKII
References
Barbour, R. W. 1971. Amphibians and reptiles of Kentucky. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington. x +
334 pp.
Behler, J. L., and F. W. King. 1979. The Audubon Society field guide to North American reptiles and
amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 719 pp.
Bragg, A.N. 1965. Gnomes of the night. the spadefoot toads. 127 pp.
Burnley, J.M. 1971. Early date records of amphibians and reptiles on Long Island. Engelhardtia
4(1):1-7.
Burnley, J.M. 1971. Late date records of amphibians and reptiles on Long Island. Engelhardtia
4(3):17-22.
Burnley, J.M. 1973. Eastern spadefoots, Scaphiophus holbrooki, found on the South Fork of Long
Island during 1973. Engelhardtia 6(1):10-11.
Collins, J. T. 1991. Viewpoint: a new taxonomic arrangement for some North American amphibians
and reptiles. SSAR Herpetol. Review 22:42-43.
Conant, R. and J. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians: eastern and central
North America. Third edition. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Massachusetts. 450 pp.
Conant, R., and J. T. Collins. 1998. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians: eastern and central
North America. Third edition, expanded. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Massachusetts. 616 pp.
DeGraaf, R. M., and D. D. Rudis. 1983. Amphibians and reptiles of New England. Habitats and
natural history. Univ. Massachusetts Press. vii + 83 pp.
DeGraaf, R.M. and D.D. Rudis. 1981. Forest habitat for reptiles and amphibians of the northeast.
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Eastern Region, Milwaukee, WI. 239 pp.
DeKay, J.E. 1842. Zoology of New-York or the New-York fauna comprising detailed descriptions of
all of the animals hitherto observed within the state of New-York, with brief notices of those
occassionally found near its borders, and accompanied by appropr
Gibbs, J.P., A.R. Breisch, P.K. Ducey, G. Johnson, J.L. Behler, and R.C. Bothner. 2007. The
amphibians and reptiles of New York State. Oxford University Press, NY.
Green, N. B., and T. K. Pauley. 1987. Amphibians and reptiles in West Virginia. University of
Pittsburg Press, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. xi + 241 pp.
Greenberg, C. H., and G. W. Tanner. 2004. Breeding pond selection and movement patterns by
eastern spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus holbrookii) in relation to weather and edaphic conditions.
Journal of Herpetology 38:569-577.
Greenberg, C. H., and G. W. Tanner. 2005. Spatial and temporal ecology of eastern spadefoot
toads on a Florida landscape. Herpetologica 61:20-28.
Johnson, T. R. 1977. The amphibians of Missouri. Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist., Pub. Ed. Ser. 6. ix
NYNHP Conservation Guide - Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus holbrookii)
5
+ 134 pp.
Keys, Jr.,J.; Carpenter, C.; Hooks, S.; Koenig, F.; McNab, W.H.; Russell, W.;Smith, M.L. 1995.
Ecological units of the eastern United States - first approximation (cd-rom), Atlanta, GA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. GIS coverage in ARCINFO format, selected imagery,
and map unit tables.
Klemens, M.W. 1993. Amphibians and Reptiles of Connecticut and Adjacent Regions. State
Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut, Bulletin No. 112.
Mathewson, R.F. 1955. Reptiles and amphibians of Staten Island. Proceedings of the Staten Island
Institute of Arts and Sciences. 17(2):28-50.
Minton, S. A., Jr. 1972. Amphibians and reptiles of Indiana. Indiana Academy Science Monographs
3. v + 346 pp.
Mount, R. H. 1975. The reptiles and amphibians of Alabama. Auburn University Agricultural
Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. vii + 347 pp.
NatureServe. 2005. NatureServe Central Databases. Arlington, Virginia. USA
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Fish, Wildlife, and Marine
Resources. 2006. New York State Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy. Albany, NY:
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation.
Wasserman. A. O. 1968. Scaphiopus holbrookii. Cat. Am. Amph. Rep. 70.1-70.4.
New York Natural Heritage Program
This project is made possible with funding from:
625 Broadway, 5th Floor,
- New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Hudson River
Albany, NY 12233-4757
Estuary Program
Phone: (518) 402-8935
- Division of Lands & Forests, Department of Environmental Conservation
[email protected]
- New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation
Information for this guide was last updated on Nov 03, 2015
This guide was authored by
NYNHP Conservation Guide - Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus holbrookii)
6