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DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Source A
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Time Frame
3000 B.c.-1500 B.C.
320 B.c.-535 A.D.
1526-1857
1756-1947
1947-present
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Harappan Civilization
Maurya and Gupta Empires
Mogul Empire
British Rule in India
Independence
OVERVIEW
A key theme in Indian history has been cultural diffusion. This
pattern of civilization has resulted from an interplay between native
Indian civilizations and the foreign cultures brought into India through
a succession of invasions. This complicated mix of cultures-native
and foreign-has created diversity and tensions within Indian society.
Key Concepts: Culture
Religious and cultural
differences hindered
national unity in India.
EARLY INDIAN HISTORY
Human civilization emerged in India along the rich farmlands of a
river valley, a pattern repeated elsewhere in the world.
Indus Valley Civilization
Between 3000 and 1500 B.C., the Harappan civilization devel­
oped along the Indus River. Harappans built dams and levees to irrigate
large crops for trade. Food surpluses allowed the Harappans to support
an urban, or city-based, society. Archaeological digs show evidence
of a well-organized central government.
Foreign Invasion and Conquest
India's wealth attracted repeated foreign invasion.
ARYANS
Between 1500 and 1200 B.C., the Aryans swept into
India out of Central Asia. Aryan and Harappan cultures blended to
provide the basis for later Indian cultures. Two key developments
appeared: (1) an early form of the Hindu religion and (2) a caste sys­
tem, or society based on well-organized, hereditary social classes.
History and Society
Though the Republic of
India prohibits
discrimination based on
caste, social inequality still
exists within Indian society.
MUSLIMS
In the eighth century, a succession of Islamic invaders
brought the Muslim religion to India. By the 1500s. another Muslim
group, the Mongols, founded the great Mogul Empire. From their
81
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
82
Unit 2: Global History
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Geography of Ancient India
Regents Tip Practice your
data-based skills by
answering the following
questions about the map:
Which river flows through a
delta into the Bay of
Bengal?
The Khyber Pass allows
passage through which
geographical barrier?
Circle the correct choice.
a Himalaya Mountains
b Vindhya Mountains
c Hindu Kush Mountains
d Eastern Ghats
Brahmaputra R.
Mohenjo­ Daro
20"N----+----i
ARABIAN
SEA
E'>.]
200
I
I
400 Miles
---+-
I
I
Indus Valley civilization
2500 B.c.-1500 B.C.
Aryan invasions
about 1500 B.C.
200 400 Kilometers
INDIAN OCEAN
I
900 E
70"E
capital of Delhi. Mogul rulers led the country for over 300 years and
stimulated a new cultural flowering. Starting in the 1700s, British
imperial expansion gradually eroded Mogul control.
Classical Indian Empires
Between foreign invasions, two great native Indian empires
arose.
Key Concepts: Culture
Buddhism spread to
Southeast Asia, Tibet,
China, Korea, and Japan,
where it was adapted by
the various native cultures.
History and Society In
India, religious beliefs and
social organization are
closely related.
MAURYA EMPIRE (321-185 B.C.)
The Maurya dynasty, or
hereditary ruling family, built a well-run empire that included much of
the subcontinent. Ashoka the Great, the best-known Maurya ruler,
converted to Buddhism and sent missionaries to spread Buddhist teach­
ings elsewhere in Asia.
GUPTA EMPIRE (A.D. 320-535) Under the Gupta dynasty,
Hinduism dominated Indian life. Because of great progress in the arts
and sciences, the Gupta era became known as the Golden Age of Hindu
culture. The accomplishments of the Guptas included creating a
numeral system with the concept of zero, making discoveries in astron­
omy, and using surgery. A wave of invasions by the Huns broke up the
Gupta empire into small kingdoms. But the intluence of Hinduism
remained strong.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
India
BRITISH IMPERIALISM AND INDIAN
NATIONALISM
83
MAKING CONNECTIONS
In the 1600s, Great Britain entered into a period of commercial
empire-building. The British government granted a charter to the Brit­
ish East India Company to build trading bases in India. By 1756, the
British had used these bases to force rivals, especially the French, from
the subcontinent.
British Colonial Rule
The British used a policy of "divide and conquer" to take over
India. They undermined efforts by Indian princes to unify. Also, the
British possessed better weapons and armed Indian soldiers known as
sepoys to protect British holdings. In 1857, the sepoys revolted when
the British violated their religious beliefs. The British suppressed the
Sepoy Mutiny and took control of India from the East India Company
in 1858. British governors ruled about two-thirds of India directly and
closely supervised local Indian princes in the rest of the country. The
colonial government improved health conditions, expanded transporta­
tion and communication systems, and widened educational opportuni­
ties. But the British generally treated Indian culture as inferior.
Key Concepts: Change
The changes introduced by
the British under
imperialism were designed
primarily to strengthen
colonial rule.
The Independence Movement
Two centuries of British rule unified India and created a sense of
Indian identity. However, Indian leaders resented being banned from
positions of top authority. They also were stung by Christian criticisms
of the Hindu and Muslim religions. In 1885 urban intellectuals from
India's middle class formed the Indian National Congress. Religious
divisions between Hindus and Muslims led to the creation of the
nationalist Muslim League in 1906.
When World War I erupted, many Indians served with the Brit­
ish. They hoped their loyalty would loosen British colonial bonds.
When the British refused the Indians greater freedom, Mohandas K.
Gandhi organized a mass political movement for independence. Gan­
dhi called for broad-based reform, including improved status for
women and "untouchables," the lowest social caste in India.
I ..
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···./i>
•.. Passive Resistance: Aqltnpaignofn~nYiokntno~~oopel"ation.
• ···CiviIDiS9bedien()e:.. Refusal.te··.?lJeyunjustJawsand··.~ . • •. <•.•.•. .•. . •. •. •.• •. •
\ViltingnesstQsuffer.. PUJ1islltn~nt.(illdu(ijn~Qe~ti~gsa~d •.. •. •.•. •.••.•.•. .••••.. /
iInpri$onl11ent}··WithP<ltiellc~<tI1dse;lf-cfntroL<
•..••••..·.•·••••.•••.••..••.•. ••.••••••.••..•••..•••.••••.••••.•••••.••..•.•.
l;sri~!i1it~rr~~ti~~~'~
. . 4119 ball· olltnW?Iig salt.
History and Politics Dr.
Martin Luther King, Jr.,
used methods practiced by
Gandhi to combat racial
segregation in the United
States in the 1950s and
1960s.
. . . . . . . •. .•••.. . . . .••.. . . .
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
84
Unit 2: Global History
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Explain how
religious differences have
contributed to political
instability in India.
Regents Tip
Freedom and Partition
World War II weakened British control of India. In 1947 British
leaders agreed to Indian demands for independence. To avoid civil war
between Hindus and Muslims. the British partitioned the subcontinent
into the Hindu nation of India and the Muslim nation of Pakistan.
Independence set off a mass migration, or movement, of people.
About twelve million refugees-Muslim minorities from India and
Hindu minorities from Pakistan-left their homes to resettle in one of
the two new nations. Thousands of people were killed in bloody riot­
ing. Gandhi tried to restore peace. but a Hindu fanatic assassinated him
in January 1948. Jawaharlal Nehru. India's first prime minister,
steered India through its first difficult years of nationhood.
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
India's huge population and its economic and political power
made it a leader among the Third World. or developing nations of the
post war era. Like many African nations, India tried to follow a policy
of nonalignment.
Democracy Amid Strife
History and Politics
For
more on India as a
democratic republic, see
Unit 5, Global Politics.
History and Politics
Political and territorial
disputes with both Pakistan
and China encouraged
India to develop nuclear
weapons. The spread of
nuclear weapons in a
traditionally unstable
region is a cause of global
concern.
History and Society
Technological progress and
industrial growth have h-ad
uneven effects on the
standard of living of the
Indian people. For more on
food production and
overpopulation in India see
Unit 6, The World Today.
Despite great religious and economic turmoil. India has retained
its democratic institutions. In 1966, Nehru's daughter. Indira Gandhi,
became prime minister. Voters turned Gandhi out of office in 1977 for
her suspension of civil liberties. She returned to power in 1981 and
governed until her assassination in 1984 by Sikhs who sought the crea­
tion of a separate Sikh state. Today India functions as a democratic
republic, similar to the United States. Power is divided between
national and state governments. Since independence India has pre­
served its democratic institutions despite problems from religious con­
flicts and the suspension of civil liberties (1975-1977) by Indira
Gandhi.
Economic Progress
When India achieved independence, it began to develop its indus­
trial potential. India's technological progress was demonstrated in
1974 when Indian scientists exploded a nuclear device. The entry of a
Third World nation into the "nuclear club" marked a major shift in
global power.
Agriculture, however, remains the mainstay of the Indian econ­
omy. In the early 1960s. use of new high-yield grains created a "green
revolution .. , While India has doubled its food production since 1947.
this gain has been matched by doubling of the population.
Pakistan and Bangladesh
After independence. Pakistan was governed by a succession of
military regimes. Notable exceptions included the civilian govern­
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
India
ments of President Zulfikar Bhutto (1971-1977) and his daughter,
Benazir Bhutto (1989-1990), the first woman to head a Muslim
nation.
Boundary disputes between Pakistan and India have occasionally
erupted into armed conflict. In 1971 with the military assistance of
India, the area called East Pakistan became the independent nation of
Bangladesh. Three years later, West Pakistan (known today as Paki­
stan) agreed to recognize Bangladesh. However, tensions over another
disputed area-Kashmir-have remained high.
85
MAKING CONNECTIONS
History and Geography
See the map in Unit 1, The
Geographic Setting, for the
political boundaries of India
and Pakistan.
MAJOR HISTORIC THEMES
1. India's earliest civilization emerged in the Indus River Valley.
2. India's history reflects an intermingling of native cultures with the
cultures imported by foreign conquerors. This blending of cultures
has produced great human diversity on the subcontinent.
3. British colonial rule helped create a sense of Indian identity.
4, After independence, cultural differences continued to trouble the
partitioned subcontinent.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
MAKING CONNECTIONS
OVERVIEW
The subcontinent of South Asia includes the nations of India,
Pakistan. Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. The region is home to a diversity
of peoples and cultures. For example, .India alone has 15 major lan­
guages. including English. and more than 800 dialects. Religious
diversity also characterizes the region. India is the birthplace of Hindu­
ism, the world's oldest religion, and Buddhism. In nearby Pakistan and
Bangladesh, Islam prevails. In Sri Lanka most people follow Bud­
dhism. This section focuses on India because of the length of its
ancient civilization and its unique culture.
Key Concepts: Identity
Identity in India is still
based more upon cultural
groupings than upon
national or political loyalty.
INDIAN SOCIETY
Indian society is organized around extended families and the
caste system.
Traditional Indian Families
Most Indians live in a type of extended family called the joint
family. This kind of family structure includes married brothers who
live together with their families. They hold all property in common.
and younger brothers assume responsibility for educating the children
of older brothers.
MA RRfA GE Like most African societies, India is patriarchaL or
male dominated. Traditional marriages in India represent a union
between two families rather than two individuals. A wife usually
moves in with her husband's family, a custom known as patrilocal
marriage. Parents often arrange marriages for their children. and most
marriages are strictly determined by the caste system.
Society and Politics The
village remains central to
India's social structure. In
many former colonies,
adherence to the traditional
social order has deterred
the national government's
efforts to develop a strong
sense of national unity and
purpose throughout the
country.
The Caste System
The caste system is a system of social stratification, or the rank­
ing of people. It is based on Hindu beliefs and has long been a part of
Indian society. Although the Indian constitution banned discrimination
on the basis of caste in 1950. the system still int1uences many people's
lives.
191
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
192
Unit 3: Global Society
MAKING CONNECTIONS
VARNA Traditional Indian society rested upon four main varna,
or occupational groupings.
• Brahmans, a religious class of priests
• Kshatriyas, a warrior class
• Vaisyas, a class of landowners, merchants, and herders
• Sudras, a laboring class of servants and peasants
The Harijans were a group of people outside the caste system
known as the "untouchables," or outcasts. They were not considered
one of the varna.
EFFECT OF THE CASTE SYSTEM Thousands of subcastes
have developed within the four varna. The castes into which people are
born affect their occupations, marriage partners, and rights and duties
within society. The caste system is an important aspect of beliefs in
Hinduism, India's primary religion.
INDIAN RELIGIONS
Key Concepts: Culture
In India religious beliefs
and social organization are
closely related.
Hinduism is the predominant religion in India. However, a
number of other religions exist within Indian society, leading to con­
flicts among the Indian people.
Hinduism
Hinduism began about 5,000 years ago and is considered the
world's oldest religion. Approximately 83 percent of India's popula­
tion practices Hinduism.
FOUNDING
No one person founded Hinduism. It evolved over a
long period of time into a tlexible, tolerant religion that allows for indi­
vidual differences in beliefs. Unlike Christianity and Islam, Hinduism
does not have one sacred book, such as the Bible or Koran. Instead
Hindus have the Vedas, collections of prayers and verses, and the
Upanishads, philosophical descriptions of the origins of the universe.
DEITIES
Hindus believe in one supreme force called Brahma,
whose presence is everywhere and in all things. Hindu gods are consid­
ered aspects, or manifestations, of Brahma. Three major deities, or
aspects of Brahma, are Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver of
life), and Shiva (the destroyer and re-creator of new life).
REINCARNA TION
A belief in reincarnation, or rebirth of the
soul in another body after death, forms the basis of Hinduism and
underlies the entire caste system. Hinduism maintains that people's
actions in this life determine their reward or punishment in the next
life. A person's caste is the reward or punishment for karma, deeds
committed in a previous life. Acceptable behavior means following the
dharma, or rules and obligations, of the caste into which a person is
born.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
India
CYCLE OF LIFE Because Hindus believe in reincarnation. they
practice cremation. or the burning of dead bodies. They see life as a
cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The cycle of reincarnation continues
until a person achieves moksha. the highest state of being and perfect
internal peace.
HINDUISM AND SOCIETY Hinduism is both a religious and a
social system. It especially affects the lives of people in rural India,
who form the bulk of the population. The untouchables must still drink
from certain wells and take jobs no other caste would consider. Recent
laws have aimed at improving their lives, but centuries of belief in the
caste system have hindered change.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Buddhism
India is also the birthplace of a second great world religion,
Buddhism.
FOUNDING The founder of Buddhism was a prince named
Siddhartha Gautama. who lived in Nepal from 563-483 B.C. Gau­
tama rejected his wealth to search for the meaning of human suffering.
He became the Buddha. or Enlightened One, after meditating under a
sacred bodhi tree.
FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
193
Buddhism rests upon the Four Noble
Truths.
• All life is suffering.
• Suffering is caused by desire.
• Desire can be eliminated.
• There is a path, or way, to end desire.
NOBLE EIGHT-FOLD PA TH
To eliminate earthly desire, a
person needs to follow the Noble Eight-Fold Path. The path requires
right speech, action, views. intention, livelihood, effort, concentra­
tion, and mindfulness. By following this path. a person will move
toward nirvana, a state of perfect peace and harmony.
CYCLE OF LIFE Buddhism does not have a belief in a supreme
being. The goal of life is nirvana. Achievement of nirvana may take
many lifetimes. and Buddhists accept the Hindu concepts of karma and
reincarnation. However, Buddhism was created in opposition to the
Hindu caste system. As a result. all people can achieve nirvana without
moving up through the castes.
CUL TURAL DIFFUSION Buddhism spread from India to
China. Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Peoples outside of India
adapted Buddhist beliefs to fit their cultures. Today more than 300
million people follow Buddhism. about 10 percent of whom live in
India.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
194
Unit 3: Global Society
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Key Concepts: Diversity
Religion has worked both
to unify and divide the
people of India.
Other Religions in India
Although Hinduism and Buddhism are the two largest religions in
India, other faiths are also practiced.
JAINISM
lainism was founded in opposition to Hinduism. It
preaches nonviolence, refusal to kill all living things, and vegetarian­
ism.
SIKHISM
Sikhs follow the beliefs of their founder, Nanak. These
beliefs include monotheism (one God), rejection of the caste system.
and reincarnation. Male Sikhs do not cut their hair and have tradition­
ally belonged to India's warrior class.
CHRIS TlA NIT Y European missionaries introduced Christianity
to southern India during the age of imperialism.
.
Key Concepts: Culture and
Change
Differences between the
Islamic world and the world
view of Hinduism resulted
in cultural change when the
two philosophies came into
contact with each other.
These changes are the
result of cultural diffusion.
ISLAM
Approximately 11 percent of the Indian population practice
Islam. founded by Muhammad (A.D. 570-632). The followers of
Islam believe in one God, Allah. (Islam means "submit to Allah's
wilL") They do not eat pork, and pray five times a day facing Mecca.
the religion's sacred city located in Saudi Arabia. Islam arrived in India
in the 700s, and the major concentration of believers lives in the far
western and eastern parts of the country. When India won independ­
ence, violent clashes between Muslims (followers of Islam) and
Hindus led to the creation of West Pakistan and East Pakistan.
Changes in Traditional Indian Society
Indian society has undergone major changes since independence
in 1947.
EXTENSION OF THE BRITISH SYSTEM OF EDUCA­
TION British emphasis upon equal education, including the right of
untouchables to attend school, has broken down some caste barriers.
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT In the campaign for
independence, Mohandas K. Gandhi supported increased rights for the
untouchables, a demand ret1ected in the Indian constitution. The con­
stitution also gave women the right to vote (1950) and recognized their
right to divorce and inherit property. In 1966 Indira Gandhi became
the nation's first woman prime minister. However, constitutional
changes have been slow to reach the masses of untouchables and
women, especially in rural areas.
Key Concepts: Change
Urbanization in India has
tended to weaken
traditional beliefs and life
patterns.
URBANIZA TlON The movement of people from rural areas to
cities has tended to break down restrictions imposed by the caste sys­
tem.
INDUSTRIALIZA TION The rise of industry and growth of new
jobs has blurred caste distinctions and increased social mobility.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
India
195
MAKING CONNECTIONS
INDIAN ARTS
Indian arts show the strong influence of its three major reli­
gions--Hinduism. Buddhism, and Islam.
Architecture
Hindu temples. such as those at Ellora, include carvings that tell
important Hindu stories that can be understood even by those who can­
not read. Buddhist architecture is best illustrated by the carved caves of
Ellora. However, the most famous monument in India is the Taj
Mahal, located in Agra. It was built in the 1600s by a Muslim ruler
named Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife. In accordance with Islamic
law, the Taj Mahal contains no carvings or paintings.
Literature
The Mahabharata is an epic poem about the intluence of a Hindu
deity named Krishna. It contains the Bhagavad·Gita, a poem setting
forth correct Hindu conduct. Another famous Hindu epic poem, the
Ramayana, also expresses Hindu values.
Music
Indian music is centered primarily around its melody and a count­
less variation of notes called ragas. A long-necked stringed instrument
named the sitar has influenced the music of Western artists such as
George Harrison and the Beatles.
Movies
Today India produces more movies than any nation in the world.
Adventure films and films with religious overtones are favorites.
MAJOR SOCIAL THEMES
1. Hinduism had significant impact upon Indian society as a religious
and social system.
2. Traditional Indian society is based on the joint family and the caste
system.
3. The caste system and its beliefs provide a highly organized and
structured society in which people believe social mobility comes
only through reincarnation.
4. Provisions in the Indian constitution, urbanization, industrializa­
tion, and westernization of education have brought some changes to
traditional Indian society. However, Hindu belief in the caste sys­
tem has slowed change.
5. India is the birthplace of two major religions-Hinduism and Bud­
dhism. While Hinduism has stayed primarily an Indian religion,
Buddhism has spread throughout Asia as a result of cultural diffu­
sion.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
MAKING CONNECTIONS
How did
Gandhi's tactics influence
the civil rights movement in
the United States during
the 1960s?
Regents Tip
PRE-WORLD WAR II
Given India's diversity in its people, religions, languages, and
regions, nationalism developed slowly. The first attempt at organized
opposition to British colonial rule was the formation of the Indian
National Congress in 1885. Many of its Indian leaders were college
educated in Europe. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the group's best­
known leader, broadened the support of the Indian National Congress
by appealing to the masses. Gandhi led an extensive nationalist move­
ment, nonviolent in nature, which eventually gained India independ­
ence from Great Britain after World War II.
POST-WORLD WAR II
For
more information on
religion in India, see the
section on India in Unit 3,
Global Society.
Politics and Society
290
Like the Africans who served in the military forces of their colo­
nial powers, many Indians served in the British armed forces during
World War II. The experience of Great Britain in World War II left it
unable to continue to control the Indian subcontinent. The land was,
therefore, partitioned into two areas based upon the concentrations of
its two religious groups: India for the Hindus and East and West Paki­
stan for the Muslims. In 1947, the British granted these areas inde­
pendence from colonial rule. Yet bloody riots broke out between
Hindus and Muslims. Thousands were killed, millions left homeless.
Religious conflicts continue to be a part of political life in India to this
day.
Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister of indepen­
dent India. He had been a close associate of Gandhi during the inde­
pendence movement. Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi (no relation to
Mohandas Gandhi) became prime minister of India in 1967. Many of
her policies, such as mandatory birth control, were controversial. In
1975, she declared a "state of emergency," suspended many demo­
cratic rights, and jailed outspoken critics of her government. As a
result, she was voted out of office in 1977. She returned as prime min­
ister following the 1980 election. In October of 1984, Indira Gandhi
was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards. The attack in June by
the Indian army on the Sikh Temple at Amritsar, their holiest shrine,
was directly related to her death.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Source B
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
56
Global Studies - A Review Text
©N&
N
Unit Two:
South And Southeast Asia
Stretching from the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea to the Pacific Ocean, the
vast southern region of the continent of Asia encompasses such wide variety
of people and cultures that it will be considered in two sub-sections: South
Asia, in which the large nation of India will be the focus, and Southeast
Asia, with seven nations on its large peninsula and two vast island nations
off its coasts.
.,. -:,.
1Ir....
"
I. The Physical/Historical Setting
A. South Asian Sub-Continent
The Indian subcontinent's geographic characteristics and general location
have had enormous influence on the cultures and economies of this area.
Today, it is the site of two large nations (pakistan and India) and four
smaller ones (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka). The area is a huge
peninsula, jutting into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea on the west
and the Bay of Bengal on the east.
The subcontinent is north of the equator, and its climate is generally of the
Type (Mid-Latitude Rainy). The major physical features of the region
have a considerable effect on the climate.
"en
The world's highest mountains, the Himalayas, stretch 1,500 miles along
the northern reaches of the subcontinent in three parallel ranges. The pre­
vailing summer winds ("summer monsoons n ), which blow northeffStward off
the Indian Ocean, deposit considerable rains. The mountain barriers capture
the rains, and drain into three major river systems: the Brahmaputra, Gan­
ges, and Indus. The winter monsoons blow southward across the dry
Asian interior and, while cooler, these winds are very dry.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Unit 2: S. & S.E. Asia - Physical/Historical Setting
57
PlateaUB
Plains ­
Desert
S. & S.E. Asia:
Physical Features
The Indo-Gangetic Plain, stretches from Pakistan to Bangladesh.
Located at the foot of the Himalayas, it has fertile, alluvial soil (rich in min­
erals from mountains' drainage), a benefit of the steady summer monsoon.
The Deccan Plateau occupies most of the peninsula area
~
and holds much of India's mineral wealth. Most of the popula- E~nt
tion lives along the Deccan's edges, in the narrow coastal valleys where the rainfall is heavy.
'V'
Because India's rainfall is uneven, it has been a decisive influence on life in
the region. Life in the three major river valleys revolves around the summer
monsoons. An insufficient seasonal accumulation can often cause drought
and famine, while too much rain can cause flooding and destruction. The
Indus River irrigates northwest India and Pakistan. Major crops along its
route to the sea include wheat, cotton and vegetables. The Ganges and
Brahmaputra flow through northwest India, and both empty into the Bay of
Bengal. Products of their valleys include wheat, rice, jute, sugar cane, and
vegetables.
B. Southeast Asia
Geographic factors were also influential in shaping a variety of cultures in
Southeast Asia. The term "Southeast Asia" was coined by the Allied military
command in World War II, when the area, known for its diversity, was
occupied by the Japanese.
Southeast Asia is bounded by the Indian Subcontinent on the west, China
on the north, the Pacific on the east, and Australia to the south. It is
approximately 4,000 miles east to west, and 3,000 miles north to south. It is
divided into nine nations: Myanmar (formerly Burma, name changed in
1989), Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam on the mainland;
and the island nations of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Global Studies ­ A Review Text
58
©N&
N
Like India, the portion of the region on the Asian mainland is a
vast
peninsula jutting out into the Indian and Pacific oceans. It
Diversity
has a rugged, mountainous terrain with the population clustered
~ around its river valleys. The north-south mountain ranges of the
mainland divide the populations and are responsible for the
numerous cultures of the area. The scattered islands of the south and east
are another reason for cultural diversity. Of the islands, Singapore is a small
island group, extending from the tip of the Malayan peninsula. Indonesia and
the Philippines are archipelagos (chains of islands which are really the
peaks of undersea mountain ranges).
~
The rivers and surrounding seas are the connecting tissues of life in South­
east Asia. The most important river systems of the mainland area are the
Irrawaddy and Salween in Burma, the Chao Phraya in Thailand, and the
Red River in Vietnam. The longest river of the area is the 2,SOO-mile
Mekong. It starts in the north as the border between Laos and Thailand,
then flows through the heart of Cambodia and empties into the sea at the
southern tip of Vietnam. Each river system has served as an avenue of con­
tact for the people living in their fertile valleys. They remain the main areas
of agricultural production and commercial avenues.
Half of the area of Southeast Asia is composed of seas and straits. These
sea lanes have provided easy access for the coastal inhabitants and island­
dwellers. Examples of these traditional routes are the Gulfs of Thailand and
Tonkin, the Java Sea, and the Luzon Strait.
As with India, monsoons dominate Southeast Asia's climate. The summer
monsoon, blowing off the Indian Ocean from the south, is very wet. Unlike
India, however, the Southeast Asian winter monsoon blows southwestward,
off the Pacific, and carries considerably more moisture along the east coast
and into the islands. Therefore, the region has more climatic variations (A
and C Types dominate).
li<:1 [Af] Tropical
Winter Monsoons
ID ~::~ :::e:
\
a
(Ii
~
Dry
[ew] Mild
•
[Hs] Dry
•
[varies] Highland
'<;)
[Hs] Steppe
-<;)
VA)."
J~
\
.
S. & S.E. ASia:
Climatic Features
~. JJt1,ot~
~t>~ ~IJ;;;/
'\:)
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Unit 2: S. & S.E. Asia - Physical/Historical Seffing
/ . -......" Early S. & S.E. Asia
~
Civilizations
~~IIII"~;~-
,-" "\
-v........
)
Lv_n.
250 BC §
59
Maurya Empire
400 AD ~ Gupta Empire
3000 BC ~ Indus Valley
800 AD D Thai
800 AD •
Khmer
A
C. Early Civilizations
Geographic conditions have contributed greatly to South Asia's long history
of disunity and the evolution of a variety of cultures.
The Indus Valley is the birthplace of India's civilization. Two early city­
states were Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. Their inhabitants raised rice,
wheat, and cattle. Pottery and dwellings excavated by archeologists at the
sites of these cities date back to 3000 B.C.
The subcontinent's history alternates between waves of conquest and
stable periods with the conquerors being assimilated. The most common path
of conquerors was out of Central Asia through the Khyber Pass of northwest­
ern India. From 1500 to 500 B.C., the Aryans brought the Sanskrit lan­
guage, the horse, and iron products. Alexander the Great led an invasion in
the 4th century B.C. The Mauryas, under their great leader, Asoka, estab­
lished an empire in the 3rd century B.C. which unified most of the subconti­
nent. The Muslims established a Mughal (Mongol) Empire which lasted
from 1526 to 1857 A.D.
Long before the birth of Christ, Indians had established a thriving trade
with Arabia, Persia, and the east coast of Africa. The first Europeans to reach
India were the Portuguese, who established trade stations and made India
the gateway to the Orient.
D. Development Of Hinduism
Since its origin around 3000 B.C., Hinduism has had great influ­ ~
ence on Indian society. While Hinduism allows for many varia­ Culture
tions, there are certain basic beliefs. Chiefly worshipped are: Brah­ ~
rna, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer.
A central belief is reincarnation (rebirth of the soul in another form of life).
Hindus believe in two key principles, Karma and Dharma. Karma is the idea
that a person's actions carry unavoidable consequences and determine the na­ ture of subsequent reincarnation. Dharma is the sacred duty one owes to
family and caste.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
60
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Hinduism is more than a form of worship. It is a way oflife and has been a
strong, unifying element in Indian culture. It plays a major role in daily life,
determining an individual's associations, occupation, and one's spouse. To­
day, eighty five percent of Indians consider themselves Hindus.
Two other major sects, Buddhism and Sikhism, began as movements to
reform Hinduism. Buddhism emerged as a major religion between the 6th
and 4th centuries B.C. It attempted to diminish the importance of castes, the
rigid Hindu system of hereditary social groupings dictating one's rank and oc­
cupation.
Buddhists believe that the cycle of reincarnation is broken when one
achieves a perfect state of mind called Nirvana. Sikhism was founded in in
the 15th century AD. It totally rejects the caste system, teaching complete
human equality.
The intertwining of the Hindu religion and the social class structure
through castes, created a stable and ordered society for centuries. Caste
assignment was accepted as one's lot in a present incarnation. The most
desirable castes, or varnas, were: Brahmin (priests), Kashatriya (warrior),
Vaishya (merchant or farmer), and Sudras (laborers). The Dalits (untoucha­
bles) were the lowest caste, prohibited from contact with others and assigned
the most distasteful tasks.
E. Buddhism: Outarowth Of Hinduism
The Buddhist movement hada profound effect on the Hindu social struc­
ture. It follows the basic beliefs set forth in the 6th century B.C. by Siddarta
Gautama, a noble of northern India known as Buddha, or the Enlightened
One. He issued the Eightfold Path and the Four Noble Truths. Through
prayerful contemplation, one seeks to follow these rules to achieve Nirvana, a
state of blissful happiness.
In the 3rd century B.C., Ashoka unsuccessful­
ly sought to make Buddhism the established
religion of the empire. However, the faith did be­
come popular in Asia. Through the zealous mis­
sionary work of its priests, the movement spread
into Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, and most of the
Southeast Asian peninsula.
F. Islam Becomes A Maior Religion
Islam spread rapidly in the Middle East and North Africa after its
establishment in the 7th century AD. Waves of Muslim conquerors also
moved eastward into Persia and the subcontinent from the 8th to the 16th
centuries. The Hindu population resisted the Islamic faith of their rulers and
this created instability for a long period. Arabian Muslim invasions in the 8th
century was followed by Turkish and Mongol Muslims c. 1000 AD.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Unit 2: S. & S.E. Asia - Physical/Historical Setting
61
Beginning in the 16th century A.D., the Mughal conquest provided the
highest degree of centralization since the Asokan Empire of the 3rd century
B.C. The Mughals established the Sultanate of Delhi. Under the emperor
Akbar (1555-1605), efficient government, religious toleration, and culture
flourished.
Subsequent rulers were less able to keep the empire under control and
fanaticism and civil war became frequent. An exception was Emperor Shah
Jahan (1629-58) in whose reign religious strife diminished, trade expanded,
and art flourished. Shah Jahan built magnificent palaces and buildings such
as the famous Taj Mahal.
Many of the Muslim rulers' difficulties can be traced to the fundamental
differences between Islam and Hinduism. Mohammed (570-632) was the
originator and major prophet of the faith. God's (Allah's) revelations to
Mohammed appear in Islam's sacred text, the Qur'an (Koran). Muslims
must follow the rules of the Five Pillars (bearing witness, giving alms, pray­
ing five times each day, fasting during the holy month of Ramadan, and mak­
ing a pilgrimage to Mecca). Islam also follows the concept of spreading
through the jihad, or holy war, against non-believers.
Islam moved into Southeast Asia beginning around the 13th century A.D.
primarily as Muslim merchants spread trade along the Malay peninsula and
into the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines.
Hinduism And Islam Compared
Hinduism
Islam
Sacred Writings
Vedas - epics of the gods
Qur'an (Koran)
Social
Organization
rigid castes
social equality
Dietary Laws
no beef or milk products
no pork or wine
Concept Of Duty
Dharma
Five Pillars
Position On
Violence
Forbidden - no taking of
any form of life
holy wars
accepted
Pilgrimage
city of Benares
Mecca
Submission To
Authority
family more important
than individual
all submit to will of
God
Afterlife
reincarnation as reward
or punishment for actions
paradise, or
punishment for
evildoers
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
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62
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G. Other Religious Movements
And Influences
Hinduism's long history has seen numerous reform movements centering
on the caste system and the individual's responsibility in the scheme of
reincarnation.
Ghuru Mahavira founded a sect in the 6th century A.D. called Jainism.
It teaches that escape from the cycle of rebirth comes from correct faith,
knowledge, and non-violence to any living thing.
I~\
Diversity
'<4d#
Ghuru Nanak founded Sikhism in the 15th century. It com­
bines elements of Hindu and Islamic beliefs. It is monotheistic and
holds to the total equality of all men. Martyrdom of Sikhs was in­
fluential in changing this group into a cult of military brotherhood.
Today, the Sikhs are known for their military skills. They form a
large group within the Indian army, and some seek independence
for their home province of Punjab, in northwestern India.
Reformers failed to bridge the gap between the two major religions. By the
arrival of Europeans the divisions in Indian society were deep-seated, and
would remain a source of friction.
Questions
1 A person studying Hinduism would be interested in the concept of fate or
destiny called
1 Karma.
3 Qur'an (Koran).
2 Ashoka.
4 Jihad.
2 A caste, as in the Hindu religion, is
1 method of worshipping gods.
2 a form of reincarnation.
3 system of hereditary social grouping.
4 the waging of a holy war.
3 The Deccan Plateau, which contains most of India's mineral wealth is
located
1 north of the Himalayas.
2 in the Indus River Valley.
3 along the coast.
4 in the center of the peninsula.
4
Monsoons are seasonal
1 prevailing winds.
2 grain harvests.
3
4
hurricanes.
religious rites.
5 Which separates the Indian subcontinent from the rest of Asia?
3 Himalaya Mountains
1 Pacific Ocean
2 Deccan Plateau
4 Ganges Valley
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
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II. The Dynamics Of Change
A. British Assumption Of Power
As the Commercial Revolution emerged in 16th century Europe, trade
opportunities led the British and other powers to begin subjugation of South
and Southeast Asia.
Role Of The British East India Company
British conquests began in 1612. The East India Company, a government
chartered trading monopoly, was granted commercial rights by the Mughal
emperor. As competition arrived from the Netherlands, Portugal and France,
the emperors often found themselves involved in violent commercial strug­
gles.
Success Of The British
In the 18th century, the English interests were able to win out over the
commercial enterprises of other European states, because of better
organization and the government's military commitment. In the mid-1700's,
Sir Robert Clive, commanding mercenaries employed by East India Compa­
ny, led a series of military expeditions in the Bengal region which ousted the
French from India. Clive was made Governor by Parliament. Superior sea­
power also enabled the British to move quickly to different areas on the
peninsula. Clive's diplomatic skills enabled the British to make alliances with
local Hindu princes who were not loyal to the Islamic Mughal rulers. Offers of
financial gain caused many natives to join the British forces as mercenaries.
The British royal government gradually replaced the East India Company
in dealing with India. In 1858, after the Sepoy Rebellion, a widespread
mutiny by Hindu and Moslem mercenaries, the royal government brought the
subcontinent into the British Empire.
Colonial
Possessions
19th - 20th Century
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Unit 2: S. & S.E. Asia - Dynamics of Change
.
65
B. British Colonial Rule
British authority was not based on dominance of a religion and was able to
unify the diverse elements of Indian society. The British minimized their role
in local affairs and used a "divide and conquer" strategy to control opposition
frOID" local princes. They also employed Indians, especially Hindus, in many
capacities. The Hindu acceptance of fate (karma) and loyalty (dharma), made
them easier to work with than Muslims.
Changes were gradually introduced under the British imperial­
ists more to consolidate their power than to improve conditions
among the Indian populations. As in Africa, transportation and
communication systems were modernized in order to exploit the
human and natural wealth of the colony. The needs of the "mother
country" usually superceded those of the colony.
Indians joined other people of the British Empire in traveling and studying
in England and other countries of Europe. The exposure they received to
western political ideas often laid the groundwork for independence move­
ments which came in the turmoil of the 20th century. Returning to India,
these individuals began to organize opposition to their mistreatment and
second-class status as citizens.
The British usually maintained that the people were uneducated and unfit
for self-government, while the people perceived themselves and their national
resources being exploited. During this period, several Asian leaders fomented
bloody riots and confrontations with colonial authorities, but the British were
too strong militarily, and the revolts were quickly crushed.
In 1906, out of reaction to the British division of Bengal province into
Muslim and Hindu sections, an All-India Muslim League was founded
under the Aga Kahn.
C. Evolution Of
Limited Self-Government
Indian nationalist leaders, many of whom were educated in western
schools were at first rebuffed by Britain when they sought democracy, but the
British did make a series of small concessions as opposition became more
organized.
The Morley-Minto Reforms (1908-09)
Named for the British Secretary of State and the Viceroy
(~\\
/
of India, these reforms were passed by the British Parlia­ Political Systems
ment to allow more natives to participate in the colony's
~
government.
These actions were in response to agitation by the National Congress
Party. The party was founded in 1885 to expand self-government. In the
early 20th century, the movement's goals changed to securing total indepen­
dence for India.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
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Global Studies - A Re.view Text
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Mohandus Gandhi (1869-1948)
The charismatic Gandhi became the central figure in the independence
movement. He was able to unite the needs of both the intellectuals and the
masses by dramatizing the desire of the National Congress Party to use inde­
pendence to alleviate poverty. He emphasized that the spiritual and moral
strength of Indians was superior to the materialism of Western society. He
advocated passive, non-violent resistance to British rule and championed
social justice, and equal rights for untouchables. He desired Indians to think
of themselves as citizens of a unified nation first, and as Hindus or Muslims
second.
A brutal suppression of a 1919 demon­
stration in Punjab (the Amritsar Massa­
cre) touched off riots and a more violent
British reaction. In 1920, Gandhi seized
the public's sense of outrage. "The Saintly
One" urged non-violent passive resis­
tance. Gandhi was imprisoned for his
role. Famous for his hunger strikes
- and organizing economic boycotts of
British cotton goods, he encouraged
Indians to spin and weave their own
cloth ("cottage industries").
The spinning wheel became a powerful symbol of protest. (Today, it is in­
corporated in the Indian flag.) In 1930, he led the Salt March. In a symbol­
ic protest against the British tax system, thousands joined him in gathering
salt from the sea.
The British Parliament responded with the Government of India Act in
1935. A federal constitution was established which gave the colony a measure
of autonomy (self-rule).
D. Effect Of WW II: British Withdrawal
Events of the 20th century, especially the two world wars weakened
European imperialism in most areas of the world. The Indian National
Congress stated it would not aid Britain's war effort unless India was granted
independence. In 1942, the third of Gandhi's campaigns was begun. He and
other leaders were jailed until 1944. In 1947, India was finally granted inde­
pendence with membership in the British Commonwealth. However, the
British also yielded to Muslim pressure and agreed to partition the
subcontinent into Hindu India and eastern and western sections of Muslim
Pakistan.
As independence drew closer, it was obvious that a united nation
would not satisfy Hindus and Muslims. Mohammed Ali Jinnah
(1876-1948) was the founder of a movement to create the Muslim
state of Pakistan. Protesting Hindu domination, he had resigned
from the All-India Congress to form the Muslim League. In the
1920's and 30's he and his followers agitated for the partition of India into
Hindu and Muslim sectors. In 1947, Jinnah became the first Governor­
General of Pakistan.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Unit 2: S. &S.E. Asia - Dynamics of Change
67
Myanmar (Burma) was another area controlled by Britain since the
1880's when it was acquired to block French imperial expansion westward
from the Indochina region. Burma (Myanmar) received independence in 1947
and elected not to join the British Commonwealth.
E. Southeast Asia And Colonial Experience
Most of Southeast Asia had come under European control by the end of the
19th century. There were many similarities with the Indian experience,
including the lack of political unity and rivalry between different cultures,
which made European conquest easier. The pattern of casual commercial
contact, missionary work, and increased political control was similar.
Several differences in the colonial pattern are important because the areas
did have very different experiences after achieving independence.
India And Southeast Asia Compared
India
Southeast Asia
Colonial Power
Great Britain
France. Britain.
United States,
Netherlands, Portugal,
Spain
Involvement In
World War II
Aided in Allied
efforts against Axis
Entire region conquered
by Japan
Commercial
Domination
British and Indian
merchant groups
Chinese dominated
mainland trade
World War II's end gave impetus to the independence movement
throughout Southeast Asia. The psychological effects of seeing the
Western colonizers defeated by an Asian power, and guerrilla
resistance fighting receiving little help from the colonial powers dur­
ing the war, gave strong momentum to independence movements.
~
Change
~
The Philippines had been promised independence in the early 1940's by the
United States. Independence was postponed by the attack on Pearl Harbor
and America's entry into the war. Independence was granted after little
agitation in 1946. A United States of Indonesia was created as the Dutch left
their colony in 1949.
On the mainland, a series of bloody wars broke out in the Indochina region
and continued until 1954, when the French colonial empire crumbled. Laos,
Cambodia, and North and South Vietnam were created as France left South­
east Asia.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
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III. Contemporary South
And Southeast Asian Nations
A. Partition Of Indian Sub-continent
Granting independence to India and Pakistan caused considerable
disruption on the subcontinent. People in both areas protested having to
leave their homes. The forced population exchange not only accentuated the
religious hostilities, but the poverty, famine, disease and displacement of the
people. As independence drew near, over 200,000 were killed in riots.
Gandhi himself was a victim of this violence. He was assassinated in Jan­
uary of 1948 by a Hindu fanatic incensed by the idea of religious equality.
Gandhi's death ended any hope for religious calm on the subcontinent.
I~
The partition did not solve all the territorial disputes between
the two rival nations. Two areas in the mountainous northwest are
problematic even today. Kashmir/Jammu are two Muslim states
~ claimed
by both countries. Currently they are part of India. When
Punjab was divided in 1947, an estimated five million Hindus and
Sikhs moved into the Indian sector. Tara Singh, a powerful Sikh leader, de­
manded special status for Punjab as a semi-autonomous Sikh homeland. The
Sikh military contribution during a 1960 war with Pakistan persuaded then
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to divide Punjab into three regions. The Sikhs
hold a majority in one of them.
Diversity
Nations Of S. & S.E. Asia
Pacific
Ocean
\) Philippines
~n
';) -v
Loas
D
Ski
Lanka
Indian
Ocean
CambOdij
Bay of
Bengal
Brunei
Malaysia
~
", , . .
s'ngn:re
V0
t;t ··431
pbr/
.'
.r/
~~= c;::JD~
"
~
. . . o~~
.
imor
-Indonesia
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Unit 2: S. & S.E. Asia -
ConlemporaryNalions
71
B. New Indian Government:
Used A British Framework
India is an example of a newly independent country adapting its previous
colonial form of government.
British And Indian Government Systems Compared
British System
New Indian System
Legislature:
bicameral.
hereditary House of Lords,
elected House of
Commons
bicameral.
Council of States (Rajya Saba);
Council of People (Lok Saba)
elected every 5 yrs.
Head Of State:
monarch (hereditary)
president(elected, 5 yr. term)
Executive:
prime minister & cabinet
selected by majority of
House of Commons
prime minister & cabinet
selected by majority of both
houses of legislature
Parties:
two major parties:
Conservatives & Labour
Party
two major parties:
Congress ParJ}-'and Lok Dol
C. Indian Constitution Of 1950
Like the government structure, the entire legal system of India reflects the
British colonial legacy. The 1950 Constitution reflects a federal republic with
a parliamentary form. It included many social and economic goals: free,
universal education up to 14 years of age; prohibitions against discrimination
because of race, religion, caste, sex, or place of birth; enfranchisement of
citizens over 21.
D. Problems Of Indian Independence
Many difficulties faced the leaders of the new nation. The popular slogan
"Unity in Diversity" became a guideline for the early leaders. It meant that
India wished to preserve individual freedom while maintaining a strong
federal union among its many different states and cultures. One difficulty
has been that the constitution recognizes 15 different languages, including
English. Making Hindi the main language has been a controver­
sial issue for many years. Cultural diversity often leads to conflict. ~
The reasons for clashes vary. Some revolve around religion, but Diversity
dress, language, and even eating habits can become controversial. \~I
t~
Jawaharlal Nehru, a disciple of Gandhi in the Congress Party, became
the first Prime Minister. Gandhi and Nehru were both committed to unifying
the Indian people. Gandhi had championed rights for the untouchables and
fought for religious toleration. He worked to elevate the role of women in
political affairs. Nehru tried to break down traditional Hindu discrimination
regarding womens' rights to own property, to obtain divorces, and for widows
to remarry.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Global Studies - A Review Texl
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©
N Be N
E. Social Change In Independent India
Solving India's social problems will unlock many doors to economic
progress. The traditional village life remains central to India's social struc­
ture. Loyalty to local tradition has made it difficult for the central govern­
ment to develop national unity. Since independence, the central government
has tried to institute land reform measures, hoping to break the local power
of large landholders and provide a more even distribution to citizens. The
landholders' power rests in 550,000 panchayats (village councils) made up of
tradition-bound elders.
The caste system also continues to be a problem. Despite efforts
to abolish castes at the national level, traditional villages still
maintain them. Local housing and selection of panchayat members
still reflect castes.
Population issues plague India and Pakistan. For decades, the subconti­
nent has supported a population increasing at one of the highest rates in the
world. The most crucial problem facing India is the ratio of diminishing food
supplies to the demands of the increasing population.
1fFf?,
Culture
yVJ
In 1952, India was the first country to adopt a nationwide
family planning program, and improved medical care has
increased life expectancy. Despite efforts to control the population,
however, there has been a steady increase. There are both tradi­
tional and religious reasons for this.
In labor-intensive agriculture, large families have been a necessity. Tech­
nological progress in farming has lagged and farm families continue to grow.
Family loyalty is still strong. Those children who migrate to India's cities are
expected to send contributions home. Hinduism teaches that having children
is virtuous and that a son is needed to light a parent's funeral pyre.
-~~
c..--V;Y
.~ I
The continued population growth (over 800 million)
has had widespread effects on the economy, on urban
development, and on the general quality of life in India.
The country does not have the natural or financial
resources to provide the necessary consumer goods
demanded by such a rapidly expanding population.
Unemployment is high. Annual per capita income in 1989 was only $308.
Land tenure programs have given more small farmers land, but small-scale
subsistence agriculture cannot supply the kinds of harvests India needs
annually. More than half the farms in India today are one acre or less. Rural
poverty has caused a massive migration to urban areas. Since 1960, cities
have grown at three times the rate of rural areas. Crowded slums, poor
sanitation, inadequate housing, disease, and crime abound.
City life has torn down some of the old caste traditions. Increased mobility
and modern communication systems tend to destabilize its rigidity. Radio,
television, newspapers, and cinema have a unifying effect. Economic freedom
for women has broken the necessity for arranged marriages.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Unit 2: S. & S.E. Asia - Contemporary Nations
73
Identity in South Asia is still based more on cultural groupings ~
than on national or political loyalty. For instance, the Sikhs have Identity
often been rebuffed in their demands for greater freedom in the ~
Punjab. Tensions increased in 1984, when former Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi ordered the army to storm the Gold Temple of Am­
ritsar, a symbol of Sikh independence. Sikh terrorists were using the temple
as a refuge. The action was viewed by India's 14 million Sikhs as a sacrilege.
In October of that year, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh
bodyguards. Riots against the Sikhs broke out all over India.
Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister after his mother's assassination in
1984. He restored order, but Sikh uprisings brought another clash at
Amritsar in 1988. Opponents forced Rajiv from office in 1989 on corruption
charges. In 1991, fanatics assassinated him while trying for reelection.
In the border state of Kashmir, Hindu leaders dominate a mainly Muslim
population. This caused a series of Indo-Pakistani Wars in 1948, 1965, and
1971. Another partition in 1972 did not settled the issue. In 1993, over 300
persons were killed in the violent riots in Bombay and Calcutta that followed
destruction of a mosque by Hindu radicals.
F.p~~~i~!?~o~~e~~J ~g;ee7~~e;~te~n~~LO~d
social
reform through the medium of Islam. It has been plagued with both internal
and international problems.
Muslims had not gained much experience in self-government in the coloni­
al period. The British had controlled the entire subcontinent through the
Hindu majority. The Muslims were poorly prepared to govern when Jinnah's
request for a separate Muslim nation was honored in 1947.
Governing the two sections of Pakistan, separated by over 1,000
miles of Indian territory, presented a major obstacle. The two sec­ ~\
~
tions were different geographically, economically, and had different Diversity
(
>
interpretations of some Islamic concepts. Prime Minister Ayub \~I
Kahn's ruling group in West Pakistan wished to modernize the
country and had liberal views of Islamic law.
In East Pakistan, Kahn's modernizations were resented by fundamentalist
Muslims who were in the majority. When Kahn left office in 1969, East
Pakistan began refusing to pay taxes to the central government. West
Pakistani troops were sent into the East, setting off civil war. East Pakistan
declared its independence as Bangladesh (the nation Bengal). Thousands
were killed and millions escaped to India. India entered the war and helped
Bangladesh win independence in 1972.
Political violence has disrupted Pakistan in recent times. In 1988, Presi­
dent Zia ul-Haq's plane mysteriously exploded, with the U.S. ambassador
aboard. Pakistan's first woman prime minister, Benazir Bhutto, took office
that year. Corruption scandals in her cabinet forced her resignation in 1990.
She returned to the office in 1993, but was again forced out by the opposition
in late 1996.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Source C
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Climate
A Wide Range of Climates
The Indian subcontinent stretches from the latitude of 8° north to 37° north. Although
this is a wide range of latitude, temperature does not vary very much throughout the coun­
try. (Why do you think this is so?) In the northern mountains we find snow; 2,000 miles to
the south, at the tip of the peninsula, there are palm trees and beaches of golden sand
near a tropical rain forest.
Seasons and Monsoons
In most of India, the year may be divided into three different seasons. One is hot, ano­
ther is cool, and the third is rainy. The cool season, from October to February, is winter,
when the winds blow from the north. However, the very cold winds from central Asia do
not reach India because they are blocked by the Himalayas. Along the coasts the tempera­
ture is higher because those lands are heated by warm ocean currents.
During the hot and dry season, from March through June, the land is brown and dusty,
the muddy waters of the Ganges are low, and the irrigation ditches are empty. The temper­
ature in many parts of India often rises above lOO°F, making it difficult to work very hard.
The upland and coastal areas are slightly cooler.
From July to September is the rainy season. India's rainfall is controlled by the seasonal
winds called monsoons. The southwest monsoon, beginning in late June, blows across
thousands of miles of ocean, and is soaked with moisture when it reaches India. Rain falls
when the monsoon is forced to rise over the Ghats and other highlands. The southwest
monsoon brings about 90 percent of all the rain that falls. There is. less rain from Septem­
ber until the beginning of January. Then the northeast monsoon takes over and blows
from the land toward the sea. Since it can pick up very little moisture, except as it blows
over the Bay of Bengal, it brings very little rain.
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The Effects of Climate and Topography
on Indian History
"To know India and her people one has to know the monsoon.'" When the monsoons
come late or fail to bring enough rain many people suffer. The rivers and wells cannot sup­
ply enough water for crops, and the people must go hungry. To the people of India, the
monsoons are a source of life.
MONSOON INDIA
RUSSIA
KEY
- - •
Other Cities
~
Summer Monsoon
~
Winter Monsoon
a
400
eoo miles
---~-----'-'_~
a
400
eoo kilometers
1-1
---"
....­ . - - ­
For centuries, the monsoon winds have played an important role in cultural diffusion.
As early as the Roman Empire, traders took advantage of the winds to sail the Indian
Ocean between India and the Middle East or Africa. They carried goods, such as glass,
swords, and textiles, as well as ideas, from one culture to another. Islam moved by way of
the trade routes from the Middle East to India and Southeast Asia. Indian mathematics, lit­
erature, and science moved along the same trade routes to the Middle East and Europe.
Vasco da Gama, the first European to travel from Europe to India around Africa, took
advantage of the summer monsoon in his voyage.
*Singh, Khuswant. I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale. New York: Grove Press, 1959.
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The Hindu Religion
"Hinduism is much more than a religion; it is a total way of life, including the customs,
beliefs, practices, institutions of the people in all parts of the subcontinent [India], devel­
oped in all periods of human settlement there.... Hinduism is not a single religion, but
many religions tolerating [willingness to allow beliefs or actions in which one does not nec­
essarily believe] one another in the shifting framework of caste [Hindu social class] .'"
An example of a Hindu temple built many centuries ago in Madras by the
seashore.
I
W. Norman Brown, from S. Fersh, India and South Asia. New York: Macmillan, Inc., p. 35.
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Main Ideas of Hinduism
Reincarnation
Three main ideas are important in understanding the Hindu religion and the caste system.
The first of these ideas is reincarnation. According to this belief, each person and every
other living thing has a soul. When a living thing dies, its soul moves into another human
being or animal. In other words, when death comes, the soul is reborn in a newly created life.
Kanna
The second idea is Kanna. Karma teaches that every action brings about certain results.
If a person behaves badly, the results will be bad. If a person behaves well, the results will
be good. There is no escaping the consequences of one's actions. If a person does what he
or she is supposed to do, his or her soul will be rewarded in the next rebirth by being rein­
carnated into a higher ranking human.
Thus, if an untouchable (see the next section) does a job well and does not complain,
the untouchable may be reborn into a higher caste. Some day, if the untouchable contin­
ues to behave well, he or she may reach the highest caste and become a Brahmin.
Dhanna
The third idea is Dhanna. Dharma is a set of rules that must be followed by all living
beings if they wish to work their way up the ladder of reincarnation. Each person's Dharma
is different. (How have these ideas created a sense of order for the Hindus of India?)
The Caste System
The caste system began in India more then 3,000 years ago. The Aryans, who conquered
India, took for themselves the kind of work that they thought was desirable. They became
the religious leaders, the rulers, the traders, and the landowner farmers. The other people
were forced to become servants for the Aryans, or to do work that was necessary but took
more effort, or was considered less. respectable, such as the tasks of the barber, carpenter,
tailor, potter, or street cleaner.
Lowest of all the jobs was sweeping the streets, handling dead people and animals, and
tending pigs that fed on village garbage. No one even liked to come near people who did
these jobs that other villagers considered to be unclean. This attitude probably sprang
from the idea that disease was carried from person to person, and that it was better to stay
away from anyone who touched dead or dirty things.
The Five Orders
of Castes
The caste system divides the Indian population into hereditary (passed from one gener­
ation to the next) social groups (Varnas). There are five general orders, or groups, of
castes. The three highest orders are Brahmin (priests), Kashatriya (soldiers), and Vaishya
(merchants). The fourth order is Sudras (laborers). The members of the fifth (lowest)
group of castes, those who do jobs that others consider unclean, are referred to as
"untouchables" or "outcasts." To many Hindus, untouchables rate so low as to be consid­
ered outside or beneath the caste system itself. They must live apart from the rest of the
people and are not permitted to use the village wells.
The Main Ideas of
the Caste System
A major idea of the caste system is that people are born unequal in both opportunity and
ability. Thus, while untouchables have few privileges, less is expected from them than from
a Brahmin.
The caste system also teaches that a person belongs to a specific caste from birth. His
life, marriage, and work are governed by specific caste rules. The son of a laborer becomes
a laborer; the son of a teacher becomes a teacher. And, of course, the son of a king usually
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became a ruler upon the death of his father. Girls are regarded as inferior to boys and are
married into families that do the same work as their fathers and brothers did. In this way, a
small kingdom or a village is almost certain, year after year, to have all of the kinds of work­
ers it needs.
In other words, the purpose of the caste system is to develop a plan by which villagers
can live and work together. Its main goal is to produce enough food and to provide
enough labor of all the necessary types so that each family has everything it needs.
Castes are often divided into clan or landowning groups called jatis. In the cities, jatis
are often in competition with each other for power and access to government funds. In the
villages, however, jatis are frequently interdependent and cooperative. Voting is a perfect
way to show how belonging to ajati works. With rare exceptions, members of ajati will vote
the same way, as will their servants and other workers.
Each caste has its own Dharma, which is carefully taught to the young by the elders.
Within the caste Dharma, each person begins to understand his or her own personal Dhar­
ma as well.
Relationship
Between Hinduism
and the
Caste System
Can you see how Hinduism and the caste system are related? The caste into which a person
is born is determined by the way that person performed his or her Dharma in a previous life.
According to the law of Karma, if one is an untouchable, one has no one to blame but one's
self. Instead of complaining, that person had better do a good job. If not, he or she will
sink to the level of an animal that crawls.
If a person behaves well through an unknown number of reincarnations, that person's
soul will reach Moksha, the final resting place. To enter Moksha is desirable because the
soul will then be free of all the pain that life brings, and it will be able to rest from its long,
sad travels on earth. (Why did many Hindus accept their roles as "untouchables" in the
past? Why might they be unhappy about that place in society today?)
The Literature of Ancient India
India has a tradition of learning that stretches far back into the past. Much of its culture
and writing grew out of Hindu teaching and practices. Many of the stories and traditions
were passed on from generation to generation by the village storyteller, usually an elderly
person. By hearing the stories over and over, and by seeing them staged at holiday festivals,
Indians remained close to their traditions.
Many centuries later, the great literature of the early Indians was written down to be
enjoyed not only by the village dweller but also by all the other peoples of the world.
The Vedas
We know something about the customs, institutions, and religious practices of the
Aryans from four collections of sacred writings called Vedas. The Vedas are very ancient; in
fact, they are the earliest collection of writings in India (1500 to 800 B.C.). The Vedas are a
collection of hymns, sacred prayers, and chants that are still recited at weddings and funer­
als today. The Vedas tell of nature worship. (There were gods of the sun, the wind, and the
rain.)
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Early History
The Indus Valley Civilizations
The earliest civilizations on the Indian subcontinent arose in the period between 3000
and 1500 B.C. These civilizations were located in the Indus Valley of the northwest in what
is now Pakistan. The most important cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, were among the
most skillfully designed cities in the ancient world. The people who settled there brought
with them bronze weapons and the idea of living in cities, both of which may have been
borrowed from Middle Eastern peoples.
Although 400 miles apart, these two cities were connected by a navigable (able to sail
on) river, the Indus. Discoveries by archaeologists and anthropologists have revealed that
the Harappan civilization spread over 1,000 miles.
In each city, a fort was built for protection. Buildings were made of brick. Streets were
wide, and houses were comfortable. There appears to have been plenty of water, and many
families had their own wells. Drainpipes were used to carry wastewater away from the city.
An efficient irrigation system for farming was built. This suggests that these early Indus
Valley civilizations had a well-organized system of government. The farmers grew wheat,
rice, peas, barley, and cotton. They may have been the first people to raise cotton, which
was used to make clothing. Farmers also raised cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens, and camels.
Craftsmen used copper and brass as well as gold and silver. Elephants were used for trans­
portation and heavy work.
Life centered around trade. The people sailed the Indus River and along the coasts of
the Arabian Sea to the Persian Gulf to trade with the faraway cities of Mesopotamia.
No written records of the Harappan culture have been discovered. Although a system of
pictorial writing was developed in the city of Mohenjo-Daro, no one has been able to
understand what was written. Harrapan merchants rolled carved soapstone seals across soft
clay to identify property or to sign contracts. These seals may suggest that other Indus Val­
ley people also developed a form of pictographic writing.
Swnrnaryof
Achievements of
the Indus Valley
Civilizations
1. They developed the idea of living in cities.
2. They developed the ability to shape cups and bowls on a potter's wheel and then
glazed, baked, and decorated the pottery.
3. They used wheeled carts pulled by bullocks (large cattle).
4. Artisans made wooden furniture that was often decorated with inlays of bone, shell,
and ivory.
5. Craftsmen made jewelry and other ornaments from gold, silver, copper, bronze,
and a reddish clay called terra cotta.
6. Smiths worked copper and bronze to make weapons such as spears and other imple­
ments such as fishhooks.
7. Harappan traders used a uniform system of weights and measures to ensure fair
trade practices.
8. A pictographic written language may have been developed.
9. Chess, a game for two players, originated in Harappa. Its aim was to capture an
enemy king by eliminating his army and allies.
10. Several ancient Indian settlements have been discovered along the northeast coast
of the Arabian Sea. These settlements probably began as trading posts for Indus Val­
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ley ships sailing to Persian Gulf ports or to Mesopotamia. The ships carried timber,
ivory, and crafted goods to those ports before 2000 B.C.
The Decline of the
Indus Valley
Civilizations
1. The city of Mohenjo-Daro ("the place of the dead") seems to have been slowly over
run by mud from a nearby lake. This was probably caused by the earth's shifting sur­
face. The idea that mud covered the city is based on the discovery that houses were
repeatedly rebuilt on higher and higher platforms as mud levels rose.
2. Evidence has been found that the mineral salts in the underground water had a
destructive effect on the baked bricks of Mohenjo-Daro.
3. A change in the salt content of the underground water could have made agricultur­
al production impossible.
4. There is evidence of major earthquakes and flooding in the period around 1700 B.C.
A major earthquake may have blocked the Indus River and caused flooding of
Mohenjo-Daro and other cities in the Sind Plain.
5. Beginning round 1500 B.C., Aryan people (see the following section) from the Iran­
ian plateau invaded the Indus Valley. A series of massive attacks by these invaders
finally destroyed what was left of the Indus River civilizations in the Sind Valley and
at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
The Aryans Invade India
The Aryans were taller and lighter-skinned than the earlier Indus Valley peoples. The
Aryans built no cities, and had no art, architecture, or written language. They were
nomadic herders who measured their wealth in livestock. Even their word for "war" meant,
in Sanskrit, "a desire for more cows."
When the Aryans left their homes in central Asia in search of better land to graze their
sheep, the fertile valley of the Indus attracted them. The Aryans conquered the Dravidians
(the original people ofIndia). As they advanced eastward in to the Ganges River plain, the
Dravidians fled southward.
The Aryan tribes decided to settle in India. Although they destroyed the Harappan civi­
lization and culture, they were greatly influenced by it. They became farmers, finding it
pleasant to live in India after the hardships they had suffered on the dry plains of what is
now southern Russia. In poetry and song they expressed their thanksgiving. In their new
surroundings they retained the memories of their conquests, their ideas about human
beings and life, and the rituals and ceremonies in the Vedas.
Blending of
Harappan and
Arvan Cultures
The blending of the Harappan and Aryan cultures was the basis for the development of
Indian civilization. Between 1500 and 500 B.C. the Aryans developed the main characteristics
of what came to be the Hindu way of life. During this thousand-year period many Aryan
tribes moved into northern India. Gradually, small kingdoms began to appear. Each king­
dom was ruled by a prince called a rajah. Although the Aryans brought new ideas into
India, they also became, in some ways, like the people who already lived there.
On the other hand, Aryan language, literature, ideas about government, laws and social
classes, as well as religious traditions, became a vital part of Indian life. The Aryan heritage
had far-reaching effects on the historical, cultural, and social development of India.
Among the contributions of the Aryans was the Indo-European language called San­
skrit. The religious literature you have already read about-the Vedas-was passed down
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from generation to generation orally in Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit words are similar to Eng­
lish words having the same meanings.
Sanskrit Words
matr
bhrata
svaslr
duhita
sunu
English Words
mother
brother
sister
daughter
son
Sanskrit, you will recall, is still spoken and written by upper-class Indians.
Aryan Society
Aryan society was divided into three social classes: noble warriors, priests, and the com­
mon people, who took care of the cattle. The Dravidians, who were conquered by the
Aryans, became a fourth class, which was not considered equal to the first three.
A member of the warrior class was chosen to be the rajah or chief. He and a chosen
group of nobles were in charge of Aryan affairs. This class system, unlike the Hindu caste
system, was flexible since people could intermarry and move from class to class.
Male and female roles were clearly defined. Men were fighters and herders. Women
raised crops, wove cloth, ground grain, and took care of the children. Although women
were not permitted to help decide tribal policy, they did have the right to choose their hus­
bands and had a voice in household matters.
Changes in
Aryan Society
Over a period of 1,000 years, many changes in Aryan society took place. Rules and tradi­
tions began to control the behavior of each social class. Class structure became stricter and
movement from one social class to another ended. fu you have read, a strict caste system
developed with Brahmins (priests) at the top. A Kashatriya class of warrior-nobles came
next, followed by a Vaishya class made up of the common people (the merchants, traders,
artisans, farmers, and herders). The fourth and lowest class was the Sudras, the descen­
dants of the conquered Dravidians, who were not even considered Aryans. They were
slaves, servants, unskilled workers, and tenant farmers.
As the Aryans settled down, they established small kingdoms. In each one, the rajah
soon became a hereditary king, not simply a leader chosen from the warrior class. The
Aryans established kingdoms from the Indus Valley eastward to the shores of the Bay of
Bengal. They made northern India their home and spread Aryan culture southward onto
the Deccan Plateau in central India.
The Aryan conquest had forced many Dravidians onto the Deccan Plateau and into the
extreme south of the Indian Peninsula. In the southern part of India the Dravidians devel­
oped languages, customs, and traditions very different from those of the Aryans in the
north. As a result, geography and historical developments created two very different
Indias. These differences between North India and South India still exist today.
The Persians Invade India
The Persians invaded India in the 6th century B.C. They conquered the Indus River val­
ley and parts of modern West Punjab. Trade developed between India and Persia, and
some Indian soldiers fought alongside the Persians when Persia invaded Greece in the 5th
century B.C. The written Sanskrit language used by most educated Indians is related to writ­
ten Persian, and there are many Persian words in Sanskrit.
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The Greeks Invade India
In 326 B.C., a Greek king, Alexander the Great, who was determined to conquer the
world, appeared in India on the banks of the Indus. His men, far from home, tired, and
afraid of the unknown that lay before them, refused to go on.
The Greek conquest of India was brief. Greek culture had little impact on India, except
for its influence on Indian art. Early Buddhist art used no human image of Buddha. After
the Greek invasion of India, however, sculptors influenced by Greek and Roman art creat­
ed the first Buddha in human form. This Greco/Roman-style Buddha was the model for
later works by Indian, Chinese, and Japanese artists.
The Maurya Empire
An important result of the Greek invasion was its influence on a young Indian leader,
Chandragupta Maurya. When Alexander conquered India, he destroyed the small king­
doms and republics in the northwest. In 322 B.C., Chandragupta took possession of the
throne of Magadha in northeastern India. This area, rich in timber and animals, served as
a base for Chandragupta's expansion to the northwest when Alexander left. Magadha
became wealthy and was the most powerful kingdom on the Ganges plain. It formed the
center of the Mauryan Empire, which spread into the Indus Valley and the Punjab.
The great accomplishment of the Mauryas was the establishment of good and stable gov­
ernment. Chandragupta set up a postal system, developed roads, and built an extensive
irrigation system. Business and trade flourished, and an army of 700,000 soldiers main­
tained order.
The Wise Rule of Asoka
Great as Chandragupta was, his grandson Asoka was even greater. Asoka, who ruled
from about 273 to 232 B.C., is thought by many to have been the greatest king India ever
had, and one of the greatest rulers who has ever lived. He is remembered and respected
most because, although a powerful and mighty warrior, he did not use force to rule or to
extend his kingdom. As a ruler, he followed the principles of Buddhism, and he command­
ed his officials to be just and considerate.
Under Asoka, the Maurya Empire spread south through the Deccan Plateau to the lands
of the Tamils in the extreme south, and west to the Gondhara region near the Persian bor­
der and to the Hindu Kush Mountains.
The Rise and Fall of Buddhism
As the Hindu religion developed over the years, many Indians did not approve of the
changes that had taken place within it. They felt that the religion had too many cere­
monies that did little to increase the goodness of the people. These ceremonies served
only to increase the powers of the Brahmins (priests). Moreover, many of the Sudras class
and the untouchables were unhappy with the misery and poverty and their lives.
Origin of Buddhism
One who disapproved strongly was Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 B.C.), a prince of a
kingdom near the Himalayas in North India. According to one legend, when he was nearly
30 years old, Gautama was given four signs. As he walked in the palace grounds, he saw
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three men: one very old, one ill and in pain, and one dead. Gautama was very troubled by
these signs of age, pain, and death. Then he saw a fourth man-a wandering holy man­
and at that moment he realized that this was the way of life he had to follow. Other stories
say Gautama discovered the misery and poverty of his people when he made secret trips
throughout his kingdom.
Whatever the reason, Gautama left the palace, his easy life, and his wife and son to
search for the answer to the question that was troubling him: Why do people have to suffer
from pain and sorrow? At first, Gautama tried traditional Hindu ways to find the answer to
the question. He studied with Hindu teachers and lived alone in the forest as a hermit. He
fasted and denied himself all comforts so that his mind would be free to find the answer.
Then one day, as he meditated (engaged in deep thought) under a sacred fig tree, ideas
miraculously began to come to him. Mter 49 days of meditating, the answer to the ques­
tion became clear. He had become the Buddha-"the Enlightened One"-and Buddhism
was born.
The Four Noble
Truths and the
Eightfold Path
Rules for
Right Living
Buddhism
under Asoka
Reasons for the Fall
of Buddhism
The basis of Gautama's belief was the "Four Noble Truths of Stopping Sorrow":
1. Sorrow and suffering are part of all life.
2. People suffer because they desire things they cannot have.
3. The way to escape suffering is to end desire, to stop wanting, and to reach a stage of
not wanting.
4. To end desire, one should follow the "middle way-the paths that avoid the
extremes of too much pleasure and desire as well as too much refusal to have plea­
sure and desire." There is an Eightfold Path to the middle way:
Right understanding
Right means of earning a living
Right purpose
Right effort
Right speech
Right awareness
Right conduct
Right meditation
These teachings challenged basic Hindu beliefs. Buddhism places more importance on
how one lives than on one's caste or class. Among Buddhists today, there is no caste system.
Buddhists believe that there are four Rules for Right Living:
1. Hatred is never ended by hatred; hatred is ended by love.
2. People should overcome anger by love.
3. People should overcome evil by goodness.
4. Everyone trembles at punishment; everyone loves life.
The people of India were ready to accept a new religion and a new set of ideals. The rule
of the Brahmins (priests of the Veda) was harsh and unfair. Many Indians were unhappy,
and opposition grew. Buddhist priests told the people that to gain knowledge and to be
just, ethical, and compassionate was the best way to live. They spoke against the caste sys­
tem and the complicated rites that the Brahmins followed.
Asoka sent people all over India to spread Buddhist ideas. Indians by the millions
accepted the teachings of Buddha. Mter the death of Asoka, however, there were many
changes in Buddhism. The religion survived and grew stronger in many parts of Asia, but
in India it almost disappeared. Today, there are only about 1 million Buddhists in India.
The fall of Buddhism had many causes. Hinduism was broad and tolerant, and it accepted
many of the teachings of the Buddha. Also, Buddhists in India were quite willing to com­
promise with the beliefs and customs of Hinduism. In fact, Indian Buddhism eventually
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became so much like Hinduism that it was regarded as a part of Hinduism. The final blow
to Buddhism in India was delivered by the Muslims. Pushing into India from the 8th centu­
ry on, they destroyed the great Buddhist monasteries, burned the libraries, and killed the
monks. Most of the monks who survived left India, and Buddhism was never again impor­
tant there.
Jainism
Another attempt to reform the Hindu religion was the result of the work of Mahavira
("Great Hero") who lived at about the same time as Gautama, the Buddha. Mahavira
believed in many of the same things as Buddha. However, he felt that strict discipline and
self-denial were the only ways to purify the soul.
Jains, as his followers call themselves, do not have gods and do not pray. They do not
believe in violence. Ahimsa, or nonviolence, is their central belief. They do not fight back
if attacked. They do not eat meat or do farm work because they believe that farming the
soil kills plant and animal life.
Jainism never became a very important religion in India or elsewhere. (Can you think of
reasons why this was so?) However, the important concept of ahimsa was adopted by the
Buddhists, and in the 20th century Ahimsa became the cornerstone of the Congress Party's
struggle for independence under Mohandas K. Gandhi.
The Dravidian Tamils
Soon after the death of Asoka, the Maurya Empire of North India began to fall apart.
For the next 600 years invaders swept over the Indian Plains. In time, the invaders were
either driven out or became Hindus. Meanwhile, the Deccan Plateau and South India were
entering the mainstream of Indian history. People of these regions made important contri­
butions to Hinduism.
The southern area was called the Tamil country, after the main Dravidian language in
use there. The people of the Tamil country began to combine the Hindu traditions of the
Aryans with their own Dravidian folklore to produce some of India's finest poetry, epics,
and music.
The Dravidians who had been pursued to the south during the Aryan invasion, were dif­
ferent from the Aryans in appearance and language. The Dravidian languages, which are
still spoken in South India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon), are not Indo-European; in fact, they
are unlike any other languages in the world. Today, the main Dravidian language is Tamil.
The Importance of Trade
The Dravidian Tamils were sailors who traded and conquered. Trade was an important
part of life in India in the last 600 years B.C. Important trade routes were developed to link
India with western Asia and the Mediterranean world. In the Deccan and South India,
trade increased as traders from China and Arabia visited Indian ports. Sea trade flour­
ished, and peninsular India, long overshadowed by the states of the north, began to gain in
influence and power.
By about the 1st century A.D. there was a profitable trade from Tamil ports in South
India to China, Egypt, and parts of the Roman Empire. The Tamils carried cargoes of
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spices, jewels, perfumes, textiles, and animals for trade in the Asian and Roman world. In
return, they received gold from Rome and silk textiles and porcelain from China.
India's contacts with Southeast Asia developed as a direct result of its trade with the
West. Southeast Asian lands were largely unsettled and undeveloped. However, they pro­
duced spices, which were much in demand in the West. Indian traders sailed to various
parts of Southeast Asia, and many settled there. The Indians brought their customs and
their religions, Buddhism and Hinduism, to Southeast Asia.
The Gupta Empire
In North India, the period of invasions came to an end when the Gupta family, led by
another Chandragupta, united the kingdoms of the north. The Guptas ruled for over 200
years (A.D. 320-550), a period of stable government and great accomplishment. Indian
scholars, writers, and artists distinguished themselves by producing masterpieces of art, lit­
erature, and architecture.
Gupta Accomplishments
Mathematics
In the field of mathematics, the Indians were the actual developers of scx:alled Arabic
numerals. Arab sailors, merchants, and traders learned of this Indian system of numbers
and carried it to the Middle East and then to Europe. The idea of zero, the idea of infinity,
and a decimal system were also developed by Indian mathematicians. The value of 1t was
determined to be 3.1416.
Medicine
In medicine, Gupta India was far advanced. Indian physicians had learned to diagnose
and treat many ailments. Surgery was quite sophisticated; surgeons set broken bones, per­
formed Caesarean sections, and used plastic surgery to repair mutilations. In addition,
Indian doctors were aware of an important fact not understood by Western physicians until
modern times-that cleanliness can prevent infection.
Literature
Kalidasa was the greatest of the poets and playwrights of the period. In fact, some of his
plays are still performed in India and in other countries. His drama Sakuntala, a love story
about a king and his beautiful bride, is available in English. The early Hindu storytellers
delighted in fairy tales, folklore, and animated fables. In Gupta times, many of these tales
were gathered into a collection that passed eventually, by way of the Arabs, into European
literature. In this way, many modern European writers are indebted to the Hindus for the
forms or plots of their tales.
Art and Architecture
The Guptas spent large sums of money on the building of temples. Painters and sculp­
tors were well rewarded for their work. Gupta palaces were richly decorated and were
always showplaces. Nearly all the art and architecture was of a religious nature.
The peak of Gupta art and architecture was reached in the Deccan. The magnificent
cave temples at Ajanta and Ellora took nearly 1,000 years to build. All were cut out of solid
rock, and the outside walls were decorated with sculptured figures, columns, and fresco
paintings. South India has some of the finest freestanding temples in the world.
Influence of the Guptas
The Guptas left a great heritage:
1. Sanskrit was the language of the Guptas. The influence of Sanskrit culture gave
'India a cultural unity.
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2. Hinduism became the main religion of the Guptas. (As already mentioned, Bud­
dhism, which had become important under Asoka, died out in India.) Hinduism
gave India a religious unity.
3. The Gupta rulers believed they ruled as the choice of the gods (divine right). They
believed they had absolute power to promote "the right way" (Dharma) as set up in
the sacred books of Hinduism. The ideas of absolute rule lasted in India well into
the 19th century.
4. The Guptas encouraged the setting up of village councils to rule local areas. The
council was made up of five elders and was called the panchayat (pancha means
"five"). Village life became the basis of the Indian economy and way of life. A head­
man, usually a wealthy peasant, was in charge and passed the position down to his
descendants. This system, including the panchayat, still exists in India today (see
page 382). Reliance on local government continued as the Indian people failed to
unite into a true national state through the succeeding centuries.
5. The Guptas set up a system of land taxes. Payments were based on a percentage of
the crops raised. Today, taxes in India are still collected as in Gupta times.
Destruction of the Gupta Empire
In the 6th century A.D. a series of nomadic tribes (Huns, Turks, and Mongols) invaded
India and slowly destroyed the Gupta Empire. By the end of the 7th century, the Gupta
Dynasty no longer existed. For the next five centuries there was no unity in India.
The Muslims in India
The Delhi Sultanate
From the 8th century on, the course of Indian history was influenced by the expansion
of Islam. The conflict between Islam and Hinduism led to tensions in Indian life. The fol­
lowers of the two religions were far apart on matters of belief and custom, and for cen­
turies these differences caused many problems between the two groups.
These religious tensions had their origin not long after the Gupta Empire fell apart,
when Muslims began to invade India. Their first expeditions were unsuccessful, but by 712,
they had taken over the state of Sind. The Muslim kingdoms bordering India gained
strength. Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammed Ghori led armies into India, and their suc­
cessors set up the Delhi Sultanate. For several centuries most of northern and much of
central India was controlled by the sultans. However, the sultans had a difficult time keep­
ing order and resisting attacks from outside India. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the most
notable attackers were the Mongols-Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and Babur.
The Mogul Empire
In the early 16th century, Babur brought an end to the Delhi Sultanate, and a new and
powerful Indian Empire was started. The new Muslim rulers set up the Mogul Empire.
Akbar the Great, Babur's grandson, who was an excellent organizer and administrator,
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established a firm basis for the empire. He included capable Hindus in the government
and won their loyalty and cooperation. Also, he eliminated the head, or poll tax, placed on
Hindus, thus gaining the cooperation of most of them. Although Akbar tried to combine
the best teachings of Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism in a new religion, the Divine Faith,
he failed in this effort.
Akbar's policies were followed by the next two rulers, but the last of the mighty Moguls,
Aurangzeb, reversed some policies, an action that led to the disintegration of the empire.
His biggest error was trying to enforce Islamic law and customs, thus driving the loyal Hin­
dus away. Aurangzeb quarreled with the Sikhs and the Rajputs. He wasted wealth and ener­
gy in trying to conquer the Marathis, but was never successful.
The Mogul Empire did not end with Aurangzeb's death in 1707. His descendants
remained on the throne in Delhi until 1857, but their kingdom shrank until it included
only the area around the capital.
Cultural Advances
The Mogul rulers took pride not only in their political and military achievements, but
also in cultural advances. Having great wealth, the Mogul kings were patrons of the arts.
The new Mogul school of art became known especially for its portraits, pictures of animals,
and use of color. The Moguls were also interested in the construction of beautiful build­
ings. The most famous building of this period is the Taj Mahal, designed by Emperor
ShahJahan as a tomb for his wife.
The Taj Mahal was built by the Mogul ruler Shah Jahan in the 17th century
as a tomb for his wife.
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Urdu Language
The Moguls encouraged the use of the Persian language for both writing and speaking.
Little by little, Persian was fused with Hindi, the language of North India. The result was
the creation of a new language, Urdu.
Fall of the Moguls
Rajputs
The Moguls were never in contol of all of India. The Rajputs, who are supposed to rep­
resent the Kashatriya, or warrior class, ruled most of northwest India. The Rajputs have
always been proud of their fighting ability. All Rajput men became warriors since, accord­
ing to one of their most important rules of conduct, they were never allowed to touch a
plow. This rule kept all Rajputs from the most common way to earn a peaceful living­
farming. The Rajpu ts successfully fought off the Moguls and deserve much of the credit for
preserving Hinduism in northwest India.
Sikhs
Another people of the northwest who caused trouble for the Moguls were the Sikhs.
The founder of the Sikh religion was Guru Nanak (1469-1539), who preached monothe­
ism, the worship of one supreme being (god). He took the idea of monotheism from the
Muslims of India. Although Nanak rejected the idol worship of Hinduism, he did not dis­
agree with the main Hindu beliefs of Karma and rebirth. Therefore, the Sikhs, as Nanak's
followers came to be called, remained "reformed Hindus."
Mter Nanak died, his work was carried on by gurus (teachers). Ram Das, the fourth
guru, undertook to build the city of Amritsar, which became the pilgrimage and religious
center of the Sikhs. It was here the Sikhs built the Golden Temple, their holiest shrine.
By the 17th century, the Sikhs were facing religious persecution from the Muslim rulers
of the Mogul Dynasty. To protect themselves, the Sikhs set up a military brotherhood known
as the Khalsa (pure). A member of the Khalsa changed his surname to "Singh" (lion).
For the next 300 years, however, the Sikh and Hindu communities lived together in
peace and cooperation.
Marathis
A third people who actively resisted the Moguls were the Marathis, who lived near the
western Ghats. Under their great leader Sivaji, the Marathis successfully waged guerrilla
warfare against the Moguls. They set up a strong state in central and western India.
Mter Aurangzeb's death in 1707 one Mogul province after another followed the
Maratha plan: they broke away and successfully established their own independence.
Persians and British
The ruler of Persia invaded India in 1739 and carried off the Mogul crown jewels and
the famous gold and jeweled Peacock Throne.
Finally, in 1857, the British put an end to the Mogul Dynasty at the time of the Sepoy
Rebellion (see page 400). The Moguls were the last independent Indian Dynasty.
The British in India
European Trading Companies
While Akbar ruled from 1556-1605, European ships began to call at Indian ports in
increasing numbers. Portugal was the first nation to claim land in India. Vasco da Gama
landed on the Malabar coast in 1498, and Portuguese settlements were established almost
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immediately on India's west coast near Bombay. The Portuguese were followed by the
Dutch, French, and British.
Trade was the main reason for the Europeans' voyages. From India, the Europeans
hoped to get cotton goods, spices, silk and indigo, a plant from which a blue dye is made.
The Europeans set up trading companies in rented seaport areas off the mainland of India
to handle their business. It was in this way, for example, that the British East India Compa­
ny founded the cities of Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay.
The Growth of British Control
During the period of Mogul rule, these European companies became more and more
involved in Indian affairs. This was especially true of the French and British East India
Companies, whose involvement led to wars against each other in India. The rivalry
between the French and the British in India was part of a larger clash of interests in
Europe and America.
Led by Robert Clive, the British East India Company was victorious. At the Battle of
Plassey, in 1757, Clive defeated the ruler of the state of Bengal. This victory. coming after
an earlier British defeat of French troops in South India, gave the British control of much
oflndia. The rajahs were unable to unite, and were thus defeated, one byone.
In the late 1700s, the British Parliament (supreme legislative body) decided that the
British East India Company was not doing its job properly. The British government
increased its own role in India, and began social, land, and tax reforms. Some of these
reforms did not receive the approval of the Indian people.
The Sepoy Rebellion
Background
The event that is most written about in Indian history is the uprising against British rule
in 1857. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, Indian dissatisfaction with the rule
of the British East India Company and with the reforms of the British Parliament grew.
1. In 1784, the India Act was passed by the British Parliament. This law limited the
British East India Company to trading activities, the British government took charge
of military and government actions. However, the company still had great power
since it was allowed to keep its army and to raise money from the taxes it collected.
2. Lord Cornwallis, the first governor-general of India appointed by Parliament, made
reforms in taxation and landholding. Under Cornwallis, local leaders were strictly
controlled, and a civil service of government workers based on ability, not on class,
was set up. Most higher level jobs, however, went to the British; only jobs on middle
and lower levels were given to deserving Indians.
3. Education reforms were put into effect. The British model became the rule, with
the result that traditional Indian education and customs were often ignored or
destroyed.
4. Other British reforms also often meant the destruction of Indian practices if they
violated British custom or law.
5. In 1829 the British raj (government) abolished suttee. Suttee was a traditional Indi­
an practice in which a widow (often drugged at the time) was forced to commit sui­
cide on her husband's funeral pyre. The Indians were outraged by this destruction
, of a "sacred tradition," even though it was a brutal practice that deprived the
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6.
7.
8.
9.
woman of her rights. (In 1856, the British raj passed a !aw that allowed widows to
remarry.)
The Muslims of the dying Mogul Empire resented their loss of power in govern­
ment and the replacement of Persian with English as the language of government.
Local opposition in the villages also increased as the British East India Company
began to interfere with Indian life and customs. Settlement of disputes passed from
the village council (panchayat) to British officials and their Indian representatives.
Their decisions often followed British custom and law, not local tradition. In addi­
tion, village taxes were raised to help implement these changes. Although new
roads and ponds were built with part of the tax money, much of it went into the
pockets of people outside the village.
Most disturbing was the custom of the British of setting themselves apart from the
Indians as a new ruling class. The Indians resented the British attitude of superiority.
In 1855, Parliament passed an act requiring sepoys (Indian soldiers in British ser­
vice) to serve in other areas of Asia. According to Hindu tradition, Kashatriya war­
riors could lose their caste position if they left the country.
Outbreak of the
Rebellion
In May 1857, the British introduced the new Enfield rifle into the Indian anny. To load
the rifle, the sepoys had to bite off the tops of the greased cartridges. Rumor spread that
the bullets were smeared with a mixture of beef and pork grease. Hindus hold cows sacred,
and the Koran (Muslim holy book) forbids Muslims to eat pork.
Even though the bullets were removed from service, the episode became a symbol for
all the Indian grievances against the British. The sepoys refused to load the rifles. Some
sepoys were dismissed from the army; others were sent to jail. In response, the sepoys
mutinied (rose in rebellion) against their officers.
On a Sunday morning in May 1857, three sepoy divisions near Delhi, the center of Eng­
lish power in North India, freed their fellow soldiers who had been jailed and moved
toward the city. The rebellion spread rapidly across India. The sepoys captured many
important cities, including Delhi Cawnpore (Kanpur) and Lucknow. The rebels pro­
claimed that a new Mogul Empire was to be set up.
By the summer of 1858, stronger and better equipped British forces, aided by loyal Indi­
an troops (mainly Sikhs), defeated the rebels. Many innocent people both British and Indi­
an, were massacred and both sides committed atrocities.
Aftennath of the
Rebellion
The 1857 rebellion was a turning point in Indian history. The British called it the Indian
Mutiny or the Great Mutiny of 1857. Many Indians, however, called it the First Indian War
of Independence. To them it was the beginning of a militant Indian nationalism that
sought to overthrow the power of the British raj. Later, Indian nationalists claimed that
Indian nationalism could be traced to the events of the Sepoy Rebellion and its aftennath.
Bitterness and resentment lingered for many years on both sides. The immediate results
of the Great Mutiny were changes in British government policies toward India. The British
East India Company was abolished, and India was ruled by a viceroy appointed by the
British government. In 1876, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, making the
people of India subjects of the Queen and India part of the British Empire. Also the British
government promised that it would no longer interfere with Indian religious beliefs or tra­
ditions unless they directly violated existing law.
The British began a policy of improving transportation and communication. Between
1850 and 1870, networks of roads and railroads were built. By 1870, India had the best
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transportation infrastructure (basic framework) in Asia. The British also set up an efficient
telegraph and postal system.
These improvements made Indians more aware of each other and of the rest of the
world. Unintentionally the British were helping the Indian people to unite and to develop
a strong national feeling.
Development of Indian
National Feeling
Mter the Sepoy Rebellion, a new type of leader emerged in India to oppose the British.
This leader was often educated in British universities, was familiar with the British tradition
of political rights, and wanted to share in the governing of his own land. The India
National Congress, founded in 1885, was set up to help achieve this goal. Most members
did not call for independence, but for a share in a ruling India. Within the group, howev­
er, there were many different opinions about how to gain this goal. A small but vocal
minority, led by Bal Tilak, called for any means to drive out the British, even revolution.
The Congress was also opposed by Muslims, who were suspicious of the motives of the
Hindu-led Congress Party. In 1906, the Muslim League was set up under the leadership of
Sayyid Ahmad Khan to protect Muslims from Hindu domination.
During and after World War I, the Indian nationalist movement began to change from a
passive, patient movement to an aggressive, demanding one. The nationalists were disap­
pointed by British rejection of their wartime request for more rights. As a whole, the Indi­
an people were angered by the Rowlatt Acts, which restricted the rights of Indians, and by
the Amritsar Massacre, in which unarmed Indians were killed by British troops. The British
attempted to calm the Indians with the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, giving Indians a
larger share in their government, but the clamor for self-government never died.
It is important to remember, however, that, although the Indian people were united in
their desire for independence, religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims continued
to cause dissension and conflict.
American Influence on the Indian
Independence Movement
, A ;triking example of the close relationship between the American and Indian indepen­
dence movements is to be found in the following excerpts from the U.S. Declaration of
Independence and the pledge taken by members of the Indian National Congress on
"Independence Day" Qanuary 26,1950):
AMERICAN DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are crated equal; that they are endowed fly their
Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi­
ness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from
the consent of the governed; that whenever any form ofgovernment becomes destructive of these ends, it
is the right of the people to alter it or abolish it.
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NATIONAL CONGRESS PLEDGE
We believe that it is an unalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have free­
dom and enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportu­
nities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses
them, the people have a further right to alter it or to abolish it.
Mohandas K. Gandhi andJawaharlal Nehru
The upsurge of nationalist feeling brought the Indians a new and great leader-Mohan­
das K. Gandhi. He made the nationalist movement a struggle against British rule. His goal
for India was swaraj, self-rule free of all foreign control. To achieve this, Gandhi believed
in ahimsa, the Indian idea of nonviolence. His program called for nonviolent noncoopera­
tion against the British. Gandhi is remembered in India both for his success in awakening
the people to the need for self-government and for his humanitarian efforts.
The late 1920s and the 1930s were troubled years in India. A new group of leaders,
includingJawaharial Nehru, began to ask for independence. In 1935, the British Parliament
passed the Government of India Act, which set up a partnership between India and the
British government. However, this law was only partially successful in quieting the unrest.
Mohandas K. Gandhi (right) and his pupil and ally Iawaharlal Nehru.
Independence and Partition
The outbreak of war in Europe in 1939 brought about the final split between the British
and the Indian Congress Party. Gandhi, Nehru, and their followers refused to support the
British war effort unless their demands for independence were met. Also, the Muslim League,
cooperating with the British, was committed to the setting up of a separate Muslim state.
At the end ofWorid War II, the British government left its Indian Empire, having decid­
ed to partition the Indian subcontinent into two nations, Pakistan and India. On August
15, 1947, amid and followed by violence involving millions of deaths (including in 1948
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the assassination of Gandhi) and great disorder, two new nations, one Hindu and the
other Muslim, came into being. This division resulted from the failure of Hindu and Mus­
lim leaders of India to solve their religious differences.
Views on the Partition into India and Pakistan
Both before and after the partition in 1947, various writers expressed their views on the
Hindu-Muslim tensions that resulted in the division of India.
The differences which separate Hindu and Muslim are essentially religious
causes explain most of the communal disturbances of which we have record
Purely religious
It may indeed be
claimed with justice that [Hindus and Muslims] have been drawn together, not severed lTy their centu­
ry and a half under a common administration, which has given them the same laws, ... the same pro­
gressive civiliz.ation and the bond of a common speech.
Hugh MacPherson, Political India (1932), pp. 109-116.
This idea of a Muslim nation is the figment of a few imaginations only, and, but for the publicity
given it lTy the press, few people would have heard of it. And, even if many people believe in it, it
would still vanish at the touch ofreality.
JawaharlalNehru, The Discovery ofIndia (1946), pp. 237-238.
More than anything else, there has been no sense of a common history; instead there are two views
of such historical happenings as are capable of creating any emotion.... The attitude of the Muslim
community toward the idea ofPakistan was, therefore, the logical consequence ofits history.
IH. Qy,reshi, The Muslim Community of the Indo-Pakistan Community (1962), pp. 301-304.
It is necessary first to realize that the Muslim community exists and that it is essentially different in
texture and outlook from the Hindu community.
Percival Speal, The Partition ofIndia (1966), p. xiii.
The Hindu-Muslim antagonism in its modern form has nothing to do with race, and very little to
do with the tenets of religion.... The real basis is economic and social.
G. T. Garratt, The Partition ofIndia (1966), p. xiii.
The true cause [of Hindu-Muslim tension] is the struggle for political power and for the opportuni­
ties which political power confers.
Simon Commission, The Partition ofIndia (1966), xiii.
Lasting Effects of British Rule
Great Britain ruled India for almost 200 years. During that long period the British intro­
duced many institutions and ideas that continue to have a great effect on India today.
1. The British set up an educational system in India that stressed Western culture, histo­
ry, attitudes, and beliefs. Through this system, India's leaders of today learned
about Western ideals of freedom and liberty.
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2. The British gave India a common language. As we have l~amed, India is a nation of
many local languages so that it was difficult for even educated Indians to communi­
cate with one another. The lack of a common language was the most serious block
to national unity. Although this problem still exists, the use of English as a common
language has provided a partial solution.
3. The British example of parliamentary government resulted in the setting up of a repre­
sentative government in India. Like Great Britain, India has a cabinet and a legisla­
ture (Parliament), elected by the people. The members of the cabinet must be
members of Parliament.
Instead of a queen or king, as in Great Britain, India has a president who is the
head of the state. The president of India, like the British queen, has little power. As
in Great Britain, the prime minister is the real head of the government and the
head of the political party that holds a majority in the lower house of Parliament. In
1991, P.V. Rao became prime minister. The New Congress Party is the largest party
in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament.
4. The British brought to India the concept of rule lTy law, which replaced the idea that
the king is the only giver and interpreter of law. The constitution of India has many,
provisions that guarantee the freedom and rights of the individual.
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The Split Between East and West Pakistan
Differences between
East and West
In addition to the geographic differences, there were cultural and historical differences
between the two parts of Pakistan. The people of West Pakistan spoke Urdu, a Persian lan­
guage. Also, they were better educated and had a higher standard of living as a result of
British development, which followed Muslim development in the area. Both groups regard­
ed West Pakistan as the gateway to India and therefore put more resources into the region.
East Pakistanis spoke Bengali, an Indian language. Their customs and traditions fol­
lowed the Hindu religion more closely, although a majority of the Bengalis were Muslim.
Floods regularly destroyed homes and farmland in East Pakistan, and famine was a com­
mon occurrence. A low standard ofliving was the result.
For 20 years, West Pakistan dominated the union. Unstable governments did little to
improve the lives of the people of either section. In 1958, General Ayub Khan seized
power. He became a dictator, ousted corrupt officials, redistributed land, and began indus­
trial development. However, civil rights such as free speech and free press were forbidden.
By 1969, Ayub Khan, faced with riots and demands for more freedom, resigned.
Elections of 1970
Ayub Khan's rule by force had kept the people of East Pakistan quiet. When elections
were held in 1970, however, the East Pakistanis (Bengalis), with a larger population than
the western area, won enough votes to control Pakistan's National Assembly. This meant
that the leader of the East Pakistan Bengali Party, Sheik Mujibur Rahman, would become
prime minister of Pakistan.
The military leaders of Pakistan refused to accept the election results. Rahman and the
other Bengali leaders were arrested, and thousands of East Pakistanis were slaughtered by
the army. Civil war broke out, and millions of refugees fled to India. (For a more detailed
account, see page 425.)
East Pakistan
Becomes
Bangladesh
In March 1971, East Pakistan declared its independence as the new nation of Bangla­
desh ("the Bengal Nation"). With the aid oflndia, independence became a reality later that
year.
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ENRICHMENT
READING
WITH PRIMARY
SOURCE
DOCUMENTS
MAKES FOR BETTER DISCUSSION AND DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF MATERIAL –
WILL ALSO HELP WITH AP PLACEMENT FOR GRADE 11 ANDS 12
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The Four Noble Truths
of Buddhism
Buddhism, the religion of many millions throughout the world,
traces its origin to a handsome, wealthy young prince of a north­
ern Indian tribe who left his family and home to live apart from
the world and search for truth. Touched by human misery and
suffering, Siddhartha Gautama (c. 560-c. 480 B.C.) longed to
find a way to release men from pain. After rejecting extreme se­
clusion and self-deprivation as a possible solution, enlightenment
came to him one day while he was contemplating under a tree.
Thereafter he was called Buddha - the Enlightened One - or
more exactly, "the One who is awake."
Buddha believed that it was his mission to enlighten the
world. For about fifty years he preached his message throughout
India, gaining followers and disciples wherever he went. His
teachings were a reaction to Hinduism. They provided a means
whereby every individual, without ritual, without a priesthood,
and without supernatural aid, could attain the blissful state of
Nirvana in which desire is totally extinguished and perfect peace
attained.
"The Four Noble Truths" was the first sermon preached
by Buddha after his enlightenment. Before an audience of five,
he set forth the causes of evil and suffering, as well as the means
to cope with them.
What are these Four Noble Truths? They are the Noble Truth
of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering, the Noble
Truth of the Extinction of Suffering, and the Noble Truth of the Path
that leads to the Extinction of Suffering. . . .
What now is the Noble Truth of Suffering?
Birth is suffering; decay is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow, lam­
entation, pain, grief, and despair are suffering; not to get what one de­
sires is suffering. . . .
And what is decay? The decay of beings . . . getting aged, frail,
ton
Source: Dwight Goddard, editor, A Buddhist Bible, New York: E. P. Dut­
Co., Inc., 1938, pp. 22-24, 29-33. Reprinted by permission of the publishers.
&
gray, and wrinkled; the failing of their vital force, the wearing out of the
senses - this is called decay.
And what is death? The parting and vanishing of beings; ... their
destruction, disappearance, death, the completion of their life period,
... the discarding of the body - this is called death.
And what is sorrow? The sorrow arising through this or that loss
or misfortune which one encounters, the worrying oneself, the state of
being alarmed, inward sorrow, inward woe - this is called sorrow.
And what is lamentation? Whatsoever, through this or that loss or
misfortune which befalls one, is wail and lament, wailing and lament­
ing ... - this is called lamentation.
And what is pain? The bodily pain and unpleasantness, the painful
and unpleasant feeling produced by bodily contact - this is called pain.
And what is grief? Mental pain and unpleasantness. . . .
And what is despair? Distress and despair arising through this or
that loss or misfortune . . . - this is called despair. . . .
What now is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering? It is that
craving which gives rise to fresh rebirth and, bound up with plea­
sure, . . . now here, now there, finds ever fresh delight. . . .
But where does this craving arise and take root? Wherever in the
world there is the delightful and pleasurable, there this craving arises
and takes root. Eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind are delightful
and pleasurable, there this craving arises and takes root.
Forms, sounds, smells, tastes, ... and ideas are delightful and
pleasurable; there this craving arises and takes root.
H namely, when perceiving a visible form, a sound, odor, taste,
bodily contact, or an idea in the mind, the object is pleasant, one is
attracted, and if unpleasant, one is repelled.
Thus, whatever kind of feeling one experiences - pleasant, un­
pleasant, or indifferent - one approves of and cherishes the feeling and
clings to it; . . . but lust for feelings means clinging to existence, ...
and on clinging to existence depensls the . . . process of becom­
ing; ... on the process of becoming depends [future] birth; ... and
dependent on birth are decay and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain,
grief, and despair. Thus arises this whole mass of suffering.
This is called the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering. . . .
What now is called the Noble Truth of the Extinction of Suffer­
ing? It is the complete fading away and extinction of this craving, its for­
saking and giving up, the liberation and detachment from it.
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But where may this craving vanish, where may it be extinguished?
Wherever in the world there are delightful and pleasurable things, there
this craving may vanish, there it may be extinguished.
Be it in the past, present, or future: whosoever of the monks or
priests regard the delightful and pleasurable things in the world as im­
permanent, . . . as a disease and sorrow, it is he who overcomes the
craving.
For, through the total fading away and extinction of craving, ...
decay and death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, grief, and despair are
extinguished. Thus comes about the extinction of this whole mass of
suffering.
To give oneself up to indulgence - ... the base, common, vulgar,
unholy, unprofitable; and also to give oneself up to self-mortification­
the painful, unholy, unprofitable: both these tWo extremes the Perfect
One [Buddha] has avoided and found out the Middle Path which makes
one both to see and to know, which leads to peace, to discernment, to
enlightenment, to Nibbana [Nirvana].
It is the Noble Eightfold Path, the way that leads to the extinction
of suffering, namely:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Right
Right
Right
Right
Right
Right
Right
Right
Understanding
Mindedness
Speech
Action
Living
Effort
Attentiveness
Concentration
This is the Middle Path which the' Perfect One has found out,
which makes one both to see and to know, which leads to peace, to dis­
cernment, to enlightenment; to Nibbana.
Free from pain and torture is this path, free from groaning and
suffering: it is the perfect path.
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The Sepoy Rebellion
The great subcontinent of India was governed and admin­
istered by the British East India Company (although independ­
ent and semi-independent states continued to exist). From the
last quarter of the eighteenth century the British increasingly in­
terfered in Indian affairs, and though many improvements were
introduced, native discontent continued to grow.
The immediate cause of the Sepoy Rebellion in Bengal in
1857 was a strange but very effective rumor. New rifles had been
introduced in the Indian army, which was made up mainly of
Sepoys, or natives. In order to use the cartridges, the ends had
to be bitten off. Word got about among the Hindus that the
cartridges were greased with cow fat, and among the Moslems
that they were greased with pig fat. Since the cow was sacred to
the Hindus and the pig profane to the Moslems, the army broke
out in mutiny. Actually animal fat had been used in the car­
tridges, but this was just one of a series of acts that had dis­
turbed the Sepoys. The Rebellion, which spread beyond the
army, was a violent conservative reaction against the domina­
tion of Europeans and their threat to the Indian cultural her­
itage. Yet many Indians remained loyal to the British and
fought on their side.
The British East India Company .shouldered much of the
blame for India's troubles. In 1858, after order had been re­
stored, Parliament passed an act which put India directly under
the rule of the Crown. Queen Victoria proclaimed that the
British would provide fair and equal government. Thereafter,
the government of India increasingly became a partnership
(though never really an equal one) between the British and the
Indians.
A British Officer's Report
I persuaded the Sepoys to let me take the regimental color,
and I took it outside, but on calling for my groom I found he had
bolted with my horse. You ::nay imagine my horror at this. I went back
into the quarter guard and replaced the color, but on again coming out
a trooper dismounted and took a deliberate shot at me but, missing his
aim, I walked up to him and blew his brains out. Another man was
then taking aim at me, when he was bayoneted by a Sepoy of my com­
pany. The firing then became general and I was compelled to run the
gauntlet across the parade ground, and escaped unhurt miraculously,
three bullets having passed through my hat and one through the skirt
of my coat. The whole of the houses . . . were burned. Having gone
as far as my weak state of health would permit and being exhausted,
I took refuge in a garden under some bushes. About half an hour after,
a band of robbers, looking out for plunder, detected me, robbed me of
my rings, etc., and only left me my flannel waistcoat and socks. They
then tore off the sleeve of my shirt and with it attempted to strangle
me. . . . They left me for dead, as I had become senseless. About one
hour after, I carne to and managed to stagger on about a mile without
shoes, where I secreted myself in a hut until daybreak, when I re­
sumed my dreary journey, and after traveling about twelve miles, the
latter part of which was in the broiling sun, without anything on my
head, arrived at Aleepore.
Source: The Annual Register, 1857, London: F. &
284-85.
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J.
Rivington, 1858, pp. 251,
The Sepoys Attack Cawnpore
We had but one well, in the middle of the entrenchment, and
the enemy kept up their fire so incessantly both day and night that
it was as much as giving a man's life blood to go and draw a bucket of
water; ... but after the second day ... it ... became a matter of
necessity for every person to get his own water, which was usually done
during the night, when the enemy could not well direct their shots. . . .
The heat was very great and what with the fight, want of room,
want of proper food and care, several ladies and soldiers' wives, as also
children, died with great distress. Many officers and soldiers also were
sunstruck from exposure to the hot winds. The dead bodies of our peo­
ple had to be thrown into a well outside the entrenchment near the
new unfinished barracks, and this work was generally done at the close
of each day, as nobody could venture out during the day on account
of the shot and shell flying in all directions like a hail storm. . . . The
distress was so great that none could offer a word of consolation to his
friend or attempt to administer to the wants of each other. I have seen
the dead bodies of officers and tenderly brought up young ladies of rank
(colonels' and captains' daughters) put outside in the veranda in the
rain, to await the time when the fatigue party usually went round to
carry the dead to the well, as above, for there was scarcely room to
shelter the living; the buildings were so sadly riddled that every safe
corner available was considered a great object.
The enemy now commenced firing live shells well heated, with
the intent of setting fire to the tents of officers in the compound, as
also to the thatched barrack, which though hastily covered over with
tiles, was not proof against fire. The tents therefore had all to be struck,
as several had thus been burned, and at last, on the thirteenth of June,
the barrack also took fire; it was about 5 P,M., and that evening was one
of unspeakable distress and trial, for all the wounded and sick were
in it, also the families of the soldiers. . . . The breeze being very
strong, the flames spread out so quickly that it was hard matter to re­
move the women and children, who were all in great confusion, so
that the helpless wounded and sick could not be removed and were all
burned. . . .
Our barracks were so perfectly riddled as to afford little or no shel­
ter, yet the greater portion of the people preferred to remain in them
than to be exposed to the heat of the sun outside, although a' great
many made themselves ilOie~ under the walls oi the entrenchment. ...
In these, with their wives and children, they were secure at least from
the shots and shells of the enemy, though not so from the effects of
the heat, and the mortality from apoplexy was considerable. At night,
however, every person had to sleep out and take the watch in . . ,
turns, so that nearly the whole of the women and children also slept
under the walls of the entrenchments, near their respective relatives.
Here the live shells kept them in perpetual dread, for nearly all night
these shells were seen corning in the air and bursting in different places.
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Gandhi's "Fast Unto Death"
Indian nationalism found in Mohandas K. Gandhi a saintly and
magnetic leader. Gandhi, a lawyer by profession, was educated in
England. The Mahatma (or the Great Soul) as he was called,
rejected British civilization and sought to return India to a
pre-industrial state. His fight for the independence of India was
pursued with unusual and compelling weapons - passive re­
sistance and the boycott.
A new constitutional reform for India which the British
had proposed in 1932 provided that the Untouchables vote as
a separate group to elect their own representatives. This separa­
tion had in fact been advocated by their leader, Dr. Ambedkar,
so that the Untouchables would not be outnumbered by the
caste Hindus in voting. Gandhi was convinced that Hindu feel­
ings could be aroused to the plight of the Untouchables only if
they remained within the Hindu fold. In September 1932, while
he was in prison for civil disobedience, he vowed he would fast
unto death unless this voting provision was changed. Confer­
ences between the British and the leader of the Untouchables
were immediately arranged. The unsatisfactory clause was re­
moved and after five days Gandhi broke his fast. Gandhi's life
was saved, but Dr. Ambedkar believed that by surrendering to
Gandhi's wishes he had betrayed his own people.
The first selection describes the fast; the second, by Ja­
waharlal Nehru, discusses its eHect throughout the country.
The Fast
At II: 30 A.M. he had his last meal of lemon juice and honey
with hot water. The fateful hour approached. The little group prepared
themselves for the ordeal by singing a beautiful song. . . . The jail bell
at last struck twelve and with its last stroke was finally sealed a decision
as fixed as the polestar and as irrevocable as fate. Gandhi's "tussle with
God" had commenced. . . .
THE FAST. Source: Homer A. Jack, editor, The Gandhi Reader: A Source Book
of His Life and Writings, Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1956, pp.
282-86. Reprinted by permoission of the publishers.
Great anxiety was felt when Gandhi commenced his fast whether
he would be able to stand the physic~al/strain of it for any length of time.
For one thing, he was not the same man as he was when he undertook
his twenty-one days' fast at Delhi in 1924. He was eight years older now,
which means a great deal to one who is already over sixty. Moreover, it
was one thing to fast at Dilkash, near the Ridge, a free man, under
the loving custodianship of a Charlie Andrews and the expert care of
doctors ... who knew his constitution and personal habits intimately,
and quite another thing to fast in a segregated special yard in the Ye­
ravda Prison under the surveillance of the jail authorities, who perhaps
knew how to deal with a recalcitrant prisoner refusing to take food, but
certainly had no experience of long fasts or of fasting men of Gandhi's
type. In fairness to them it must be admitted that so far as personal
solicitude for Gandhi was concerned they, from the very highest, left
nothing to be desired. But they were handicapped by the red-tapism of
jail regulations. . . .
On the morning of the twenty-first he was removed to a special
segregated yard. There, under the thick shade of a low mango tree, on
a white iron cot on which [were] spread a jail mattress and a jail bed­
sheet, he remained for the greater part of the day. His two companions
... were there with him. Around the cot were placed a number of
chairs for visitors. Near the cot, on one side, was a stool on which was
to be found a . . . collection of odds and ends; books, papers, writing
material, bottles of water, soda-bicarb, and salt. From time to time he
would pour out some water from one of the bottles, in which he would
dissolve soda and salt and .sip it slowly according to need and inclina­
tion. . . .
Gandhi was as buoyant and cheerful as ever, and outwardly hardly
betrayed any signs of a man who is racing against time and is being
rushed with every second toward the abyss of the beyond. But to a
close observer it did not take long to discover how fully conscious he
was of the grim reality facing him. During his Delhi fast, for instance,
one could not help being struck by the way in which he economized his
strength. He had reduced it to a science. But now he simply did not
mind. It was a limited fast then. He knew the period that he had to
pull through. The present fast was going to be a "fast unto death." If he
survived it, it would not be so much because of the efficacy of the medi­
cal measures that might be adopted but because God willed it. It was
predominantly a spiritual wrestle in which the physical factor played
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The Effect
only a secondary part. Although the jail authorities had allowed him to
have his own nurses, one could notice that he was extremely reluctant
to avail himself of their services. What mattered a few more pangs or
less of physical suffering to a man who was thirsting only for the grace
abounding of the Almighty, and who in any case would soon be beyond
all pain? Nor could Gandhi forget even for a moment that he was still
a prisoner and that whatever facilities he was allowed were by way of a
privilege. And everybody who has come in close touch with Gandhi
knows how disinclined temperamentally he is to avail himself of any
special privileges of this kind. . . ". During his Delhi fast, he used to
take water with scientific precision hourly. On the present occasion he
did it only in a haphazard way. The physical exertion, as also the strain
caused by speaking, induced nausea at an early stage. As the fast pro­
ceeded and the body tissue burned away, his whole frame was racked
by excruciating aches - those terrible aches which at Delhi had to be
alleviated by frequent massage and shampoo and a variety of other
means. . . .
Warning signals were not, however, lacking to remind all con­
cerned that there was a limit beyond which flesh and blood could not
go. The physical exhaustion grew with every hour that passed. The
voice grew feebler. [It was] only when, now and then in the course of
animated discussions, his eyes shone and the face lit up that one felt
the presence of an indomitable will that had remained unaffected in
spite of the ravages on the body. . . .
On the twenty-fourth, Dr. Gilder and Dr. Patel of Bombay, after
examining Gandhi in consultation with the jail doctors, opined that the
margin of safety would soon be passed if unnecessary interviews and the
strain of negotiations that were being carried on with him were not
stopped. . . .
On the twenty-sixth the prognosis became alarming.
The moming and evening prayer appointments were kept as punc­
tiliously as ever, Gandhi always sitting up in his bed for prayer. . . .
From early in the morning, as soon as the jail opened, an endless round
of interviews, meetings with friends and visitors, and consultations with
the members of the conference that was deliberating outside would
commence and continue - with a brief lull at noon, when he would
have a bath . " . and steal a brief nap - till late in the night sometimes.
To this was added the pressure of attending to his daily mailbag. Let­
ters, telegrams, messages containing all sorts of suggestions, ... and
even personal requests came pouring in in increasing volume till they
threatened to swamp Gandhi's little secretariat in the Yeravda Prison.
Our peaceful and monotonous routine in jail was suddenly up­
set in the middle of September 1932 by a bombshell. News came that
Gandhi had decided to "fast unto death." . . . What a capacity he had
to give shocks to people. . . . For two days· I was in darkness with no
light to show the way out, my heart sinking when I thought of some re­
sults of Gandhi's action. . . . I thought with anguish that I might not
see him again. It was over a year ago that I had seen him last on board
ship on the way to England. Was that going to be my last sight of him?
And then I felt annoyed with him for choosing a side issue for his
final sacrifice. What would be the result on our freedom movement?
Would not the larger issues fade into the background, for the time be­
ing at least? . . .
So I thought and thought, while confusion reigned in my head,
with anger and hopelessness and love for him who was the cause of this
upheaval. I hardly knew what to do, and I was irritable and short­
tempered with everybody, most of all with myself.
And then a strange thing happened to me. I had quite an emotional
crisis, and at the end of it I felt calmer and the future seemed not so
dark. Bapu [Gandhi] had a curious knack of doing the right thing at the
psychological moment, and it might be that this action - impossible to
justify as it washom my point of view - would lead to great results, not
only in the narrow field in which it was confined but in the wider as­
pects of our national struggle. And even if Bapu died, our struggle for
freedom would go on. So whatever happened, one had to keep ready
and fit for it. Having made up my mind to face even Gandhi's death
without flinching, I felt calm and collected and ready to face the world
and all it might offer.
Then came news of the tremendous upheaval all over the country,
a magic wave of enthusiasm running through Hindu society, and un­
touchability appeared to be doomed. What a magician, I thought, was
this little man sitting in Yeravda Prison, and how well he knew how to
pull the strings that move people's hearts!
A telegram from him reached me. It was the first message I had
received from him since my conviction, and it did me good to hear from
him after that long interval. In this telegram he said:
During all these days of agony you have been before mind's eye. I
am most anxious to know your opinion. You know how I value your
opinion. Saw Indu [and] Sarup's children. Indu looked happy and in
possession of more flesh. Dojng very well. Wire reply. Love.
It was extraordinary, and yet it was characteristic of him that in
the agony of his fast and in the midst of his many preoccupations he
should refer to the visit of my daughter and my sister's children to him,
and even mention that Indira had put on flesh! (My sister was also in
prison then, and all these children were at school in Poona.) He never
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forgets the seemingly little things in life which really mean so much.
IIndia's Place in World Affairs
The independence of India, long demanded by Indians and
willingly granted by the British Labor government in 1947, was
accompanied by bloodshed as well as rejoicing. The fears of the
Moslem minority led to a partition of the subcontinent into
India and Pakistan. Violence broke out between Moslems and
Hindus, resulting in many deaths and the transfer of huge popu­
lations from One area to another. Although India and Pakistan
are now on better terms than they were in the past, suspicion
and hard feelings remain, and the outstanding differences be­
tween these countries are not yet settled.
The greatest experiment in democracy in an underdevel­
oped country is taking place in India, where a small educated
leadership is attempting to cope with almost insuperable eco­
nomic and social problems in a land with an enormous and rap­
idly expanding population. In foreign affairs, India, by adhering
to a policy of nonalignment, has attempted to play the role of a
moral force between East and West.
In the fall of 1962 India was jarred out of its complacency
when Communist China attacked its borders. The policy of
nonalignment was not without its advantages in this crisis.
Britain and the United States at Once gave support to India's
cause; and not long after, the Soviet Union indicated its dis­
pleasure with Communist China's action.
In the following speech made in 1949, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Prime Minister of the new republic, explains India's neutrality.
After Nehru's death £n May 1964, his successor, Lal Bahadur
Shastri, declared that Nehru's policy of nonalignment would
continue and that India could not afford to become associated
with any power bloc.
As I said, our general policy has been to try to cultivate friendly
relations with all countries, but that is something which anyone can
say. It is not a very helpful thought. It is almost outside, if I may say
so, of politics. It may be just a verbal statement or a moral urge. It is
hardly a political urge. Nevertheless, something can be said for it even
on the political plane. We cannot perhaps be friendly always with every
country. The alternative is to become very friendly with some and hostile
to others. That is the normal foreign policy of a country - very friendly
with close relations with some, with the consequence that you are hostile
with others. . . . And ultimately your hostility provokes other people's
hostility and that is the way of conflict and leads to no solution. Fortu­
nately, India has inherited no past hostility to any other country. Why
should we then start this train of hostility now with any country? Of
course, if circumstances compel us it cannot be helped, but it is far
better for us to try our utmost to keep clear of these hostile backgrounds.
Naturally, again, we are likely to be more friendly to some countries
than to others, because this may be to our mutual advantage. That is a
different matter, but even so, our friendship with other countries should
not, as far as possible, be such as brings us inevitably into conflict with
some other country. Now, some people may think that this is a policy
of hedging or just avoiding pitfalls, a middle-of-the-road policy. As I
conceive it, it is nothing of the kind. It is not a middle-of-the-road
policy. It is a positive, constructive policy deliberately aiming at some­
thing and deliberately trying to avoid hostility to other countries, to any
country as far as possible.
How can we achieve this? Obviously there are risks and dangers,
and the first duty of every country is to protect itself. Protecting oneself
unfortunately means relying on the armed forces and the like and so we
build up, where necessity arises, our defense apparatus. We cannot take
the risk of not doing so, although Mahatma Gandhi would have taken
that risk no doubt and I dare not say that he would have been wrong.
Indeed, if a country is strong enough to take that risk it will not only
survive, but it will become a great country. But we are small folk and
dare not take that risk. But in protecting oneself, we should do so in
such a way as not to antagonize others and also as not to appear to aim
at the freedom of others. That is important. Also, we should avoid in
speech or writing anything which worsens the relationship of nations.
Now, the urge to do or say things against countries, against their
policies, and sometimes against their statesmen is very great, because
other people are very offensive at times; they are very aggressive at
times. If they are aggressive, we have to protect ourselves against their
aggression. If there is fear of future aggression, we have to protect our­
selves against that. That I can understand, but there is a distinct dif­
ference between that and shouting loudly from the house tops all the
time attacking this country or that - even though that country may
deserve to be criticized or attacked. . . .
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May I say that I do not for an instant claim any superior vantage
point for India to advise or criticize the rest of the world. I think we
are merely trying not to get excited about these problems and anyhow,
there is no reason why we should not try. It follows, therefore, that
we should not align ourselves with what are called power blocs. We
can be of far more service without doing so, and I think there is just a
possibility - and I shall not put it higher than that - that at a mo­
ment of crisis our peaceful and friendly efforts might make a difference
and avert that crisis. If so, it is well worth trying. When I say that
we should not align ourselves with any power blocs, obviously it does
not mean that we should not be closer in our relations with some
countries than with others. . . .
There are two other issues in the world which, unless satisfactorily
solved, may well lead to conflict and a conflict on a big scale. One i's
. . . the issue of domination of one country over another. Where
there is continued domination, whether it is in Asia or Africa, there
will be no peace either there or in the people's minds elsewhere. . . . The second important factor is that of racial equality. That too,
in some parts of the world . . . has come very much to the forefront.
For example, take the question of Indians in South Africa. It is a mat­
ter which concerns us all. It is not merely a question of Indians or
South Africans, but it is a matter of vital significance to the world,
because that too symbolizes something in the world. If that is to con­
tinue in the world, then there is bound to be conflict and conflict on
a big scale, because it is a continuous challenge to the self-respect of
a vast number of people in the world, and they will not put up with it.
I am not touching upon the third matter, the basic matter that is,
economic policies - it is too big a subject - except that I would like
to say this in regard to it, that the only way to proceed in the world
today, as far as I can see, is for each country to realize that it must
not interfere with another country's economic policy. Ultimately the
policies that deliver the goods will succeed, those that do not will not
succeed. This policy of interfering aggressively with other countries'
policies inevitably leads to trouble. . . . May I just say one word before I close? Weare striving for One
World, and what with the development of communications and every­
thing, we come closer to one another. We know a great deal more
about one another than we used to. Nevertheless, I have a feeling
that our knowledge of one another is often extraordinarily superficial,
and we, living in our grooves, big or small, seem to imagine, each
country seems to imagine, that we are more or less the center of the
world ... that our way of living is the right way of living and other
people's way of living is either a bad way or a mad way, or just some
kind of backward way. Now I suppose it is a common human failing
to imagine that we are right and others are wrong. But of course, apart
from being right or wrong, it may be both are right and both are wrong;
anyhow, in so far as the people's manner of living is concerned, there
may be differences, not only as between Europe, America, Asia, and
Africa, but also internally in some of the continents. Now Europe
and America, because they have been dominant countries with a domi­
nant culture, have tended to think that ways of living other than theirs
are necessarily inferior. Whether they are inferior or not I do not know.
If they are inferior, probably their own people will change them. But
this method of approach of one country to another is a very limited
approach ~nd does not indicate much wisdom, because this world is
a very vaned place. . . . The world is a very diverse place, and I per­
sonally see no reason why we should regiment it along one line.
Source: Jawahar1a1 Nehru, Independence and After: A Collection of Speeches,
1946-49, New York: The John Day Company, Inc., 1950, pp. 254-60. Reprinted by
permission of the publishers.
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