FREE
ISSN 1045-3520
Photo by Gilles Germain
Volume 21
Issue 1, 2004
The Powder Blue Tang,
Acanthurus leucosternon,
Not Easily Kept
Bob Fenner
Amongst the more difficult marine fishes to
keep is the Powder Blue Tang. Yes, though it is
amongst the most commonly offered species of
Surgeonfishes you see at retail fish stores, this
Indian Ocean beauty rarely lives for more than a
few days to weeks in captivity.
It is likely a host of contributing factors that
make Acanthurus leucosternon such an easy-dying
species for aquarists. The fish takes a beating being
held and shipped from such long distances through
the chain of custody to the “end user”. It is also
one of the species of fish that have a large (dozens
to hundreds of square meters) territory in the wild
and doesn’t take well to the “small clear boxes”
which are our tanks. Lastly, this is clearly a
“grazing” species that samples algae and related
benthic infaunal organisms on a continuous basis
during the day, and frequently succumbs to a lack
of nutrition.
However, there are some “success stories”
with the Powder Blue and some solid points to
make that greatly increase one’s chance of keeping
it in an aquarium. Here I’d like to offer my
observations, accumulated first and second-hand
experience with what DOES work in maintaining
Acanthurus leucosternon alive and well.
Selection
Bad specimens of A. leucosternon are easy to
spot. Most have darkened blue body areas, perhaps
with a white “stress” bar, torn fins, and other
evidence of accrued shipping and handling damage.
Decent specimens are harder to assess. These all
have the quality of “brightness”, that is, clear eyes,
constant movement and an awareness of your
presence. “Spaced-out” specimens should be left in
the dealer’s tank.
Index of fitness is a fisheries term for the
“fullness” of the body of a fish. It’s quantified as the
circumference of an animal divided into its length.
Specimens with a higher value are obviously fatter
than ones with lower indices. You want to select
for a Powder Blue that is not too thin, particularly
in the upper body area (the flank, up and behind
the eyes). Skinny specimens rarely recover.
Young Amphiprion chrysogaster with a symbiotic crab (Neopetrolisthes maculata) in the anemone
The Breeding of the Clown Fish
Amphiprion chrysogaster (Cuvier, 1830) endemic to The Mascarene Islands
(Indian Ocean).
Patrick DURVILLE1,2, Jean-Noel FABRE1, Gilles GERMAIN1
and Thierry MULOCHAU1
(1) Aquarium de La Réunion, Centre de découverte du
milieu marin réunionnais, Port de plaisance de Saint-Gilles,
97434 Saint-Gilles les Bains, La Réunion, France.
(2) Laboratoire d’Ecologie Marine (ECOMAR), Université
de La Réunion, Avenue René Cassin, 97715 Saint-Denis
Messag. Cedex 9, La Réunion, France.
[email protected]
[email protected]
Introduction
The complete study of the biological cycle of
many species of clown fish has been mostly
acquired in the last 20 years, especially regarding
the subject of aquaculture (Jacquin 1975 ; Bertschy,
1979 ; Breitenstein, 1980). The clown fish species
most studied is Amphiprion ocellaris (Alayse,1982).
The technique used for this fish has been used for a
long time to establish the protocol or guidelines
for the breeding of other clown fish such as A.
allardi (Terver, 1975), A. chrysopterus (Allen, 1975),
A. clarkii (Scaya, 1982) or A. percula, A. melanopus
Continued on page 3
and Premnas biaculeatus (Job et al., 1997). While the
large-scale culturing of clown fish has not always
been successful, technically the breeding of the
clown fish is a real success considering the difficulty
in obtaining good survival of coral fishes which
usually go through one or many larval stages, start
out at a very small size, and are extremely sensitive
to external factors.
As far as we know no study has been carried
out on the breeding and the biological cycle of the
clown fish (Amphiprion chrysogaster). Only Moe
(1992) mentions this species in the list of coral fish
that could be bred. Originating from The
Mascarene Islands (Réunion, Maurice and
Rodrigues), A. chrysogaster is the only fish of the
Amphiprion species in the Réunion waters. This is
the reason why, given the chance by the Aquarium
de la Réunion to work with a few fish, and because
of the existing breeding protocols, it seemed
interesting to attempt the breeding of the clown
fish (A. chrysogaster) to find out more about this
species.
Continued on page 2
©2004 Aquarium Systems, Inc., Mentor, OH - Printed in U.S.A.
Table 2 : Comparison of the biological characteristics relating to the reproduction of several species of
clown fish.
The Breeding of the Clown Fish
Continued from page 1
Materials And Methods
The broodstock were bred with their
symbiotic anemone (Stichodactyla haddoni) in a
2,000 l flow-through aquarium. The water
temperature of 27°C is relatively stable all year
long. The fish were fed twice daily to satiation with
a variety of foods enriched with lipids. A vitamin A
complex was added to this formula to help with
the function of reproduction (Guillaume et al.,
1999). The fish were monitored daily to determine
the exact date of fertilization and deduce the
moment of hatching. As soon as hatching was
imminent the larvae were captured using a siphon
system and immediately moved to a 100 l black
cylindrical tank with a conical bottom, which was
also an open flow system with a water flow rate of
10 l/hr, and kept in complete darkness for 24
hours. The feeding of the larvae started as soon as
the second day with a mixture of rotifers
(Brachchiomus plicatilis) and unicellular algae
(Platymonas sp.). Starting on the fifth day some
Artemia nauplii (Artemia salinas) were presented
(Table 1). Special lighting of 120 lux (measured on
the surface of the water) was used 13 hours a day.
Further, the water was lightly circulated with a very
gentle air flow.
Results
The time of the first sexual maturity under
artificial conditions of these fish born in captivity
Table 1: Feed Type and Density for Amphiprion
chrysogaster larval over time since hatch (Days).
Days 2-4
Days 5-12
After Day 12
20,000
0
0
Rotifers (individuals/ml)
5
5
0
Artemia nauplii
(individuals/ml)
0
0.5
1
A. ocellaris
A. ocellaris
A. clarkii
Present Study
Alayse (1982)
Hoff (1996)
Hoff (1996)
9 to 15
12 to 18
8
6
Time to first
maturity (months)
20
Time to hatch (days)
8
7
Number of eggs per spawn
400 ± 50
Several hundred
Size of eggs (mm)
2.9 ± 0.1
2 to 2.4
Frequency of spawn (days)
16 to 24
10 to 12
15 1
2
Size of larvae at day 0 (mm)
3.9 ± 0.1
3
2.36
6.68
Age at metamorphosis (days)
12 to 33
9 to 40
Size at metamorphosis (mm)
18 to 22
9
Survival rate during culture (%)
16
42
Growth rate from
0 to 30 days (mm/day)
0.5
0.4
was after 20 months. Usually at the end of the day
the female deposits her eggs on the substrate at
the foot of the anemone forming a intermittent
circle. The male immediately fertilizes the eggs one
after the other. This reproduction phase lasts
about one hour. The incubation of the eggs lasts 8
days. The egg color changes from bright orange to
dark brown and becomes silvery the day of the
hatching (the eyes of the larvae are clearly visible).
The color change starts one half hour after being in
the dark and lasts from 1 to 2 hours. During the
12-month study, from September 2001 to
September 2002, the pair of specimens gave birth
19 times at intervals of 16 to 24 days between each
hatchings. Considering that the first hatchings
consisted of only about 100 eggs which are usually
aborted, the quantity of eggs was pretty consistent
at about 400 +/- 50 eggs. The egg size was 2.9 plus
or minus 0.1 mm at the end when the embryo is
developed. The larvae at birth measures from 3.9
+/- 0.1mm. The metamorphosis takes between 12
and 33 days depending on each larva. At 18 to 22
mm in length the juveniles develop their
characteristic white stripes.
Photo by Patrick Durville
Algae (cell/l)
A. chrysogaster
Adult Amphiprion chrysogaster in the wild with symbiotic anemones
77
42
During this study the mortality rate ranged
from 40 to 80% during the first 5 days after birth.
The mortality rate during the metamorphosis
varied from 0 to 50%. The juveniles are considered
saved and little by little can be fed inert commercial
fish food. As far as this study is concerned, the best
survival rate experienced was 16%.
Discussion – Conclusion
Globally, the information acquired during this
study showed that there is very little difference
between A. chrysogaster and other clown fish
species normally bred in captivity (Table 2). The
end results, specifically the survival rate of less
than 16% leads us to believe that the conditions
were less than optimal (the aspiration larvae
recuperation technique used in this study could be
replaced by something less traumatic which would
probably initially raise the survival rate). Or
perhaps we are dealing with a more fragile species
than A. ocellaris or A. clarkii which have shown a
much higher survival rate.
The breeding of coral fishes in the last few
years reveals potential economic benefits due to
the development of the tropical marine
aquaculture and of the important market that it
represents. Dufour (1998) shows that many
millions of fish are ‘caught’ worldwide and that the
export of 100,000 ornamental fish would bring
approximately 200,000 U.S. dollars in business.
Even if at the moment this type of marginal
breeding represents a small quantity, it could
eventually prove very profitable. There are still few
domesticated coral fish species like Amphiprion
ocellaris, Hippocampus kuda or Pterapogon kauderni,
where we have some control over the cycle and
depend only on the specimens bred in captivity.
Much breeding still relies on the capture in the
coastal waters of young fish (larvae or juveniles)
who are then moved to special containers where
they can grow. Most of the exported species come
from being caught on the reefs and generally the
methods used to capture them is destructive.
Consequently, it is very important to keep in mind
that in an attempt to preserve coral reefs, we must
promote studies on the ‘complete’ breeding cycle,
especially of the most popular or in-demand
Continued on page 3
The Breeding of the Clown Fish
Continued from page 2
The Powder Blue Tang, Acanthurus
leucosternon, Not Easily Kept
Photo by Patrick Durville
Continued from page 1
Amphiprion adult
species, such as the clown fish. The goal is to
eventually, through this process be able to cover all
needs by proposing a quality product that would
replace the way it is done now.
Acknowledgements:
This study was made possible by ARDA
(Association Reunionnaise pour le Developpement
de l’Aquaculture and of the Aquarium de la
Reunion) (Center for the Discovery of the
Reunion Marine Life).
References
Alayse J.P., 1984. Utilisation dans l’élevage de Amphiprion ocellaris
(Cuvier) de technique destinées à l’aquaculture de poissons marins
tempérés. Oceanis, 10 : 505-519.
Allen G. R., 1975. The anemonefishes, their classification and
biology (second edition). Tropical fish hobbyist publication,
Neptune City. U.S.A : 352 p.
Bertschy A., 1979. Essais de reproduction en aquarium d’Amphiprion
ocellaris (Cuvier). Rev. Fr. Aquariol, 3 : 91-94.
Breitenstein R., 1980. Essai d’élevage d’Amphiprion ocellaris.
Aquarama, 53 : 38-41 et 82-84.
Dufour, V., 1998. Etude du marché des poissons d’aquarium et de
leur exploitation dans les pays insulaires. Ressources marines et
Commercialisation. Bull. CPS, 2 : 6-11.
Guillaume J., Kaushik S., Bergot P. et R. Métallier, 1999. Nutrition
et alimentation des poissons et des crustacés. INRA Ed. 469 p.
Hoff F.H., 1996. Conditioning, spawning and rearing of fish with
emphasis on marine clown-fish. Aquaculture Consultants Inc. 212 p.
Some “flashing” or scratching is to be expected
of all specimens, but this should not be excessive.
Nor should respiration be labored or too frequent.
About sixty gill movements per minute are what
you are looking for.
Newly arrived specimens are better to sort
amongst other than longer-on-hand ones. Like
most marine livestock, and particularly Acanthuroids,
Powder Blues are “starved out” for a few days
ahead of shipping to reduce in-transit pollution in
their shipping bags. Unfortunately, this starvation
can be persistent once the animals are received
and shipped through wholesalers, jobbers to your
LFS or retailing supplier. Buy or special order
“fresh” A. leucosternon and promptly take them
home, quarantine and place them.
Quarantine
Powder Blues are one of the notorious “ich
magnet” species of Surgeonfishes, and should
definitely be quarantined for at least a two-week
period of time before being introduced to the
main/display tank. Even then, they will be amongst
the first to show signs of pathogenic or
environmental disease should something be amiss.
If you’d like, do consider adding a prophylactic
freshwater dip/bath (of a few minutes duration) to
the acclimation to quarantine process. It’s advisable
to add Methylene Blue to the pH-adjusted
freshwater to both increase its capacity for oxygen
holding as well as calming the dipped specimen.
Aquariums: Size, Type and Time
This is a wide-ranging, fast-swimming vigorous
fish that needs plenty of room. The smallest tank I
recommend for their keeping is one hundred
gallons. At full potential size of about a foot in
length, this would only be six times the length of
the fish… not too much to ask for.
Water Quality
Organics should not be allowed to accumulate
in this fish’s tank. Amongst reef fishes that “show”
signs of nitrate et. al. concentration, Powder Blues
rate up near the top. Oversized filtration,
circulation, aeration and skimming, along with the
use of quality salt-mix (e.g. Instant Ocean, Reef
Crystals) and regular water changes are necessary.
Nitrates should not exceed any more than 10 ppm;
pH should not be allowed to drop below 8.2.
Temperature can play a pivotal role in Powder
Blue health. They are happiest in warm water,
something in the low 80 degrees F. If your’s shows
signs of disinterest in feeding, consider elevating the
tank temperature.
Foods/Feeding
Nutrition or should I state, a lack of nutrition
is likely the principal cause of loss of this species in
captivity. Too often specimens arrive too starved
to recover and/or are placed in circumstances
where they cannot sustain themselves. It may seem
counterintuitive but there is reason to believe that
supplying a “fully nutritional” staple food is of at
Continued on page 4
Photo by Robert Fenner
Jacquin P., 1975. Essai de reproduction d’Amphiprion percula.
Aquarama, 31 : 43-90.
Acanthurus species do best in reef aquariums,
or at least ones with plenty of healthy live rock.
Powder Blues will not survive in a sterile “fish only”
setting. About tank shape; less “show” and more
“standard” tank dimensions are preferable. Lots of
rock to graze on and lateral space to zoom about
is of more use than the room to swim up and
down.
The age of the system is important on two
principal counts, maybe three. More aged systems
are best because they will be more stable
chemically and physically, as well as likely having
more filamentous algae to graze on. By waiting for
six or more months before introducing your
Powder Blue, you are likely placing it as your last
fish, the proper order of introduction.
Job S., Arvedlund M. et M. Marnane, 1997. Culture of coral reef
fishes. Austasia Aquaculture, 11 (3) : 56-59.
Moe A. M. jr., 1992. The marine aquarium handbook. Beginner to
breeder. Green Turtle (Ed.), Florida, USA. 318 p.
Scaya J. C., 1982. Essais et réussite de reproduction du poisson
clown Amphiprion clarkii. Aquarama, 68 : 46-48 et 71-73.
Terver D., 1975. Données sur l’élevage et la reproduction en
aquarium d’Amphiprion allardi (Pomacentridae). In : Contribution à
la biologie et aux techniques des élevage en aquarium. Thèse d’Etat,
Université de Nancy I : 310-321.
Future Events and Conferences
Aquality – The 1st International Symposium of
Water Quality and Treatment in Aquaria and
Zoological Parks. April 1-6, 2004. Lisbon,
Portugal. More information at
www.oceanario.pt
IMAC 2004. June 4-6, 2004. Chicago, IL.
More information at www.theimac.org
MACNA XVI. Sept. 10-12, 2004. Boston,
MA. More information at www.masna.org
A school of Acanthurus leucosternon grazing on the reef
Photo by Robert Fenner
The Powder Blue Tang, Acanthurus
leucosternon, Not Easily Kept
Continued from page 3
least as much benefit as being conscientious about
having greenery available at all times. I have seen
very healthy Acanthurus leucosternon that have been
fed only on commercial pellet feed, for instance.
Tankmates
Photo by Robert Fenner
Similar appearing fishes, and ones utilizing
about the same ecological niches should not be
placed with Powder Blues. Other Tangs will often
be challenged, sometimes to the extreme, and
other algal grazing fishes may not fare any better.
As they can be overtly territorial, it is best to place
your Acanthurus leucosternon as the last fish in the
system. On the issue of how many, one is the
magic number for all but the more huge (thousands
of gallons) systems. Though they’re sometimes
encountered in the wild in shoaling schools of
hundreds of specimens, most often there is
incessant fighting with more than one in an
aquarium.
In Conclusion
Powder Blue Tangs have had a dismal survival
history as aquarium specimens. Their easy loss is
attributable to inherent poor adaptability to
captivity, as well as the rigors of collection, holding
and shipping from afar. Folks who would successfully keep this fish can undertake several
ameliorative measures. Careful selection, provision
of adequate habitat and feeding most notably. Folks
who would keep Acanthurus leucosternon are advised
to pay attention to the above points or seek out
more suitable aquarium fishes for display.
Bibliography/Further Reading
Debelius, Helmut. 1993. Indian Ocean Tropical Fish
Guide. Aquaprint Verlags, Germany.
Fong, Jack. 2000. The Powder Blue Tang- hardy or
delicate? FAMA 3/00.
Kuiter, Rudi & Helmut Debelius. 2001.
Surgeonfishes, Rabbitfishes and their Relatives. A
Comprehensive Guide to Acanthuroidei. TMC
Publishing, Chorleywood, UK.
McKenna, Scott. 1987. Keeping the powder-blue
surgeonfish. TFH 36(3):22-25,27.
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Adult Acanthurus leucosternon in the wild
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ISSN 1045-3520
Photo by Alf Jacob Nilsen
Volume 21
Issue 2, 2004
Lionfish in the Western
Atlantic
Dr. Robert J. Goldstein
[email protected]
Lionfish (Pterois volitans) have been reported in
shallow warm waters of the East Coast of the
United States from Florida to New York and are
now recognized as established in the Western
North Atlantic. Todd Gardner (speaking for himself,
Paula Whitfield, Stephen Vives, Matt Gilligan, Walter
Courtenay, Carleton Ray, and Jon Haire) presented
an update of reports and evaluations at the Marine
Ornamentals ’04 meeting in Honolulu, HI
(March 1-4, 2004).
The presentation had previously been published
by these authors in a series of NOAA reports, press
releases, and an in-house biological evaluation.
Gardner later summarized the reports to date as 6
lionfish at 3 locations in 2000, 34 lionfish at 12
locations in 2001, and 139 lionfish at 41 locations in
2002. Reports are still being compiled, but it’s clear
that a reproducing population is now expanding
along the East Coast. The majority of reports have
centered around dive sites off North Carolina, from
which the fish seem to be spreading north and
south.
All persons agree that an invasion has occurred
and is successful. Beyond that agreement, the parties
part company.
The first area of disagreement is the source of
the lionfish. Gardner, reflecting the consensus of the
other scientists on his team and of Richard Pyle of
Honolulu, attributed the introduction to aquarium
releases. No data were provided in support of this
assertion, other than reference to a publication
reporting an aquarium release by Dr. Walter
Courtenay many years ago.
I telephoned Dr. Courtenay in Florida to inquire
about this report. Dr. Courtenay had no direct
knowledge of an aquarium release, but had been told
of one by another person who also had not
witnessed it, but assumed that it had occurred. Thus,
that early (first) report of an aquarium release was
anecdotal and not followed by an investigation. Yet
all publications report this early Courtenay paper as
the authority that lionfish were an aquarium release.
His conclusion had been echoed just last year in
North Carolina when a reporter asked Dr. Frank
Schwartz of the UNC-NC Marine Laboratory in
Morehead City (a popular dive locale) where the
newly reported lionfish might have come from, and
he responded that he had heard it was an aquarium
release in Florida resulting from a large outdoor tank
being destroyed during a storm.
Pterois volitans on the Great Barrier Reef
I telephoned Dr. Schwartz at the time to follow
up on that report, but he said he had heard it at a
meeting but could not recall who had provided that
information. I then telephoned the biologists with
the Florida Department of Natural Resources, since
any release of that nature would have been reported
to the state. Conversations with several offices all
resulted in no knowledge of any release and the
universal assessment that had it happened, they
would know about it.
Gardner, Whitfield (a NOAA biologist stationed
in N.C.), and many others have speculated that,
because of some other reports of Pacific fishes on
south Florida reefs, the likelihood of aquarium
releases gains strength. The unsubstantiated
suggestion of a large outdoor tank being destroyed
during Hurricane Andrew and releasing a host of
lionfishes seems to be the basis of the later
speculation, yet there is no evidence that (a) it ever
Continued on page 2
©2004 Aquarium Systems, Inc., Mentor, OH - Printed in U.S.A.
Photo by Alf Jacob Nilsen
Lionfish in the Western Atlantic
Continued from page 1
happened, (b) even a hundred lionfish would be a
sufficient number of introduced fishes to establish a
breeding population in the western North Atlantic,
and (c) any other fishes were released and
established as result of Andrew.
Gardner suggested that aquarists dump fish that
grow too large, pointing to the occurrence of some
Pacific angels (one species) and tangs in south
Florida. Pyle in Honolulu also suggested that exotics
could be introduced when aquarium fishes get too
large and are released by their owners.
As to intentional releases, it is inconceivable that
aquarists would release hundred dollar fishes that
could be sold back to a pet store or provided to a
public aquarium. As to accidental releases, the
question must be raised that, if storm damaged
outdoor tanks (or electrical failures) somehow led
to the release of large expensive fishes, then why is
south Florida also not inundated with far more
common (in marine aquariums) fishes such as
domino and banded damsels, clown fishes, wrasses,
all kinds of Pacific gobies, and other inexpensive
fishes? In fact, the only reports from south Florida
include an expensive Pacific angelfish, yellow tangs
(from Hawaii probably) and Moorish Idols (also
from Hawaii).
A second area of disagreement is whether this
release could have been effected by transport of
eggs or larvae through ballast water. I contacted
an authority on ballast water releases, Dr. Stephan
Gollasch of Hamburg, Germany. Dr. Gollasch
replied he believed it unlikely that lionfish could
have been transported through ballast water
because the pump intake filter has a mesh size of 1
cm, and the pump impellers themselves would kill
anything transported through the pumps. Dr.
Gollasch also concluded that an aquarium release
was a likely cause.
Further investigation revealed that many fishes
have been transported by ballast water, most
notably lately the perch called ruffe and a large goby
in the Great Lakes. These fishes were not deterred
by impellers or 1 cm mesh, so the argument that
scorpionfish could not survive is not supported.
A Sea Grant report on ballast water
introductions indicates that invertebrates can survive
through multiple generations within the ballast tanks,
which are partially filled and emptied periodically as a
ship makes its way around the world’s seas with
Future Events and Conferences
IMAC 2004. June 4-6, 2004. Chicago, IL. More
information at www.theimac.org
MACNA XVI. Sept. 10-12, 2004. Boston, MA.
More information at www.masna.org
6th Annual International Aquarium Congress.
Dec. 5-10, 2004 Monterey, CA USA.
More information at www.iac.2004.org
Internationales Meerwasser- Symposium.
Mar. 11-13, 2005 Luenen, Westfalen, Germany.
More information:
www.meerwassersymposium.de
Pterois volitans is native to the Indo-Pacific from Australia up to Korea.
varying amounts of lading. This constant introduction
of food into the ballast tanks provides sufficient
nutrition for many invertebrates, and there is no
reason why the same process would not work to
assure survival of benthic spawning gobies from
Europe to America. That an egg-scattering percid
like the ruffe also was transported indicates that this
is not the sole manner in which a fish could be
transported.
A Japanese report on the reduction of ballast
water introductions recommended displacing the air
over the ballast water with nitrogen. This
inexpensive solution eliminates the oxygen reserve
in the atmosphere and has the added benefit of
reducing oxygenic corrosion in the ship. Purging the
ballast tanks with nitrogen resulted in a 10 percent
decrease in rusting. At the same time, the
survivorship of larval crabs was reduced by 90
percent and that of polychaete worms by about 70
percent. The method was more cost effective than
other forms of hypoxia and the use of biocides.
Finally, what would it take to introduce lionfish
through ballast water?
A general principal in biology is that it takes a
large founder population to establish an invasion.
The idea of a few dozen grown fish surviving, finding
each other, and breeding in the Atlantic ocean
boggles the mind. Bigger numbers are far more
reasonable, and that could only be provided by many
thousands of eggs or larvae at one time, or multiple
times in short order.
There are two ways that could occur. A ship
(or more than one) could take on ballast water in a
location and at a time that lionfish are spawning, so
that the water is filled with seasonally high numbers
of eggs. Second, the eggs could be clustered so a
ship takes on not an egg at a time, but a cluster of
thousands at a time. And that is what could happen
with lionfish, which (like all members of the
Scorpaenidae) produces eggs in large jellylike masses.
If the water at the time of loading was filled with
jellylike masses of eggs, the likelihood of a massive
cargo of eggs in ballast water becomes reasonable.
Add to these attributes that lionfish range into (and
spawn) in shallow water, including water shallow
enough to support a tanker, freighter, or warship.
It’s interesting that the first reports of lionfish
came from North Carolina, and they appear to be
spreading from (and within) that central locus.
North Carolina has large ports at Wilmington and
Morehead City, with constant and large amounts of
commercial and military ship traffic. With the large
number of dive sites off Morehead City, N.C., the
question remains whether the fish are really
abundant here, or merely more often seen by the
frequent and large number of divers.
A third area of disagreement is on the threat
posed by lionfish in the North Atlantic. Much has
been written about the poisonous spines, difficulty of
finding antivenin, and the lack of predators.
In fact, only stonefish among the Scorpaenidae
are potentially lethal and produce a toxin that should
be treated with an antivenin. Lionfish stings are
excruciatingly painful, but not deadly. The
recommended treatment is immersion of the
wounded limb in very hot water for at least 30
minutes. The toxic is a heat-labile protein that is
inactivated by hot water, so no antivenin is
necessary.
Is that the end of the story, and are we left to
wonder? When I spoke with Dr. Courtenay and
expressed skepticism about aquarium releases and
my inclination to favor a ballast water origin, he
offered another consideration. He stated that one
well-known Florida biologist had evidence that some
introductions might have been caused by dive guides
as attractants to their local reefs. He stated that
(blank) had evidence of plantings by dive operators
that this biologists wanted to talk to Courtenay
about, but Courtenay had never gotten around to it.
Intentional introductions by dive shop
operators? I recalled Gardner mentioning that some
dive shop operators would not show investigating
NOAA biologists where the scorpionfish were
located, apparently fearing the biologists would
remove these important attractions.
I emailed and telephoned the biologist named by
Dr. Courtenay in an effort to secure an interview.
To date, my inquiries have gone unanswered.
So we could have ballast water introductions.
And we could also have dive operators purchasing
marine fishes for specific release to enhance their
dive sites. But as to a pet industry or amateur
aquarist release? I think NOAA is all wet.
Marine Ich,
Cryptocaryoniasis
[email protected]
Of the two most common “scourges” of marine
reef fish diseases, the most prevalent is saltwater ich
or white-spot disease or “Crypt” while the other is
the dinoflagellate Amyloodinium or “velvet”. As far
as biological causes of captive mortality go, “Crypt”
is the hands-down winner. All too regrettable, as
this protozoan can be eliminated by simple pHadjusted freshwater bath protocols along the course
of the supply chain from collection to hobbyists’ and
institutions’ tanks.
F
I
S
H
K
E
E
P
I
N
G
Easy as 1 - - 2 - - 3 - - 4.
Amongst the most myth-ridden subjects of
marine aquarium keeping, “marine ich” must be near
the top. Some folks (in print no less) have stated that
the cause of this disease is bacterial, viral or directly
environmental! The causative organism of marine
ich is a ciliated protozoan (single-celled animal)
known to science as Cryptocaryon irritans.
Direct observation of the responsible microorganism is possible with any medium power
microscope; the adult size being up to about 0.5 mm
in diameter. Remove some body slime from an
infested fish by skimming a microscope slide along its
side from the direction of head to tail, and smear
this onto the surface of another slide. You might
improve contrast by staining the slide specimen with
a drop of methylene blue. Adult ich appears as a
roundish blob with a larger four-lobed
macronucleus. The outside of the cell is covered by
numerous small “hairs” (cilia).
Life Cycle:
Cryptocaryon irritans is a parasite with a direct life
cycle, i.e., requiring no intermediate host like an
invertebrate to complete its life cycle. The time per
generation is temperature dependent; ranging from a
few days for tropical to a week or more in cold
water tanks. If one considers the possibility of
“resting stages”, marine ich can wait weeks to
months before seeking out fish hosts.
The cycle starts with a stage feeding (called
trophonts) on its fish host. They embedded below
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Photo by Robert Fenner
the epithelium (upper living skin layers) of host
fishes, under copious amounts of mucus, not
affected by chemical treatments.
Next is the Protomont stage when ich leaves
the fish, drops to the bottom and forms a
resting/developmental cyst (tomont) stage persisting
for 3-30 days. For about a day at 78° F
reproduction occurs by binary fission; that is, by
each cell dividing into two, possibly producing two
hundred individuals (then called theronts). These
encysted stage individuals are not affected by
chemical treatments.
Next, after 3-7 days, as tomites or theronts
they break out of the cyst (typically at night, when
reef fishes are often “sitting on the bottom”) and
swim into the water in search of a host fish. Ich must
find a fish host within several hours to a day or two
at elevated temperatures or die. If the parasite is
lucky (and its host fish not so) it will find a host and
burrow into its skin or gills. This “free-living”
Continued on page 4
A Naso tang exhibiting the typical signs of a Crypt infection
swimming stage is the opportune moment for
chemical treatment.
Treatments:
You’d think that being such common a
potential killer there would be a simple standard
operating procedure for its treatment. Guess again.
The state of development of the hobby and huge
turnover of hobbyists (more than 100% per year)
dictate that the non-science aspects (faith,
intuition...) hold sway in allowing nonsense
“remedies” to persist. Investigate your options
thoroughly.
Prevention:
You’ll be ready to pre-pay for that “pound of
cure” for sure once you’ve had an encounter with
Crypt. But I hope you will instead avoid having to
treat your fishes at all for this external parasite by
following simple quarantine practice. Some fishgroups, like Surgeons and Rabbitfishes, are “ich
magnets” being much more susceptible to
infestations. However, virtually all marine fishes,
including sharks and moray eels, can become hosts
given virulent exposure and/or impugned
environmental circumstances.
This being stated, the single best way for you to
not have to deal with marine ich (or most all
biological diseases of livestock) is to employ a fewweek (2-3) isolation/quarantine regimen. This
period of time will give your new fish (and non-fish)
livestock a chance to “rest up”, and show signs (if
any) of disease development. Some folks advocate
pre-emptive chemical treatment for saltwater ich, I
don’t. Better to do your best to acclimate new
livestock, keep them separate and administer
treatments only if definite signs of parasites are
evidenced.
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
SeaScope® was created to present short, informative
articles of interest to marine aquarists. Topics may
include water chemistry, nutrition, mariculture, system
design, ecology, behavior, and fish health. Article
contributions are welcomed. They should deal with
pertinent topics and are subject to editorial reviews
that in our opinion are necessary. Payments will be
made at existing rates and will cover all author's rights
to the material submitted.
SeaScope® is published quarterly for free distribution
through local aquarium dealers. Dealers not receiving
copies of SeaScope® for distribution to their
customers should call Aquarium Systems, Inc. to be
added to the mailing list. Telephone: 1-800-822-1100.
The SeaScope® newsletter is now available on-line at
www.marineland.com under the News tab. Go to the
“What’s New” section and choose SeaScope®
newsletter for the most recent issue.
Address comments, questions, and suggestions to
Dr. Timothy A. Hovanec, Editor.
Marineland, 6100 Condor Dr., Moorpark, CA 93021
or E-Mail: [email protected]
Aquarium Systems is a Marineland Company
Shrimp such as Lysmata amboinensis can help control
Crypt.
Environmental Influences:
All diseases are to a degree environmentally
mediated. That is, the physical, chemical and social
make-up, foods/feeding and a myriad of other factors
directly and indirectly dispose an organism to
disease. Many systems teeter on being just about
parasite free, though possessing latent infestations of
parasites. With slight changes in water quality,
nutrition or social interaction, this balance can be
tipped either way.
After Observing Infestation:
Many products have been advanced as being
efficacious in treating for Crypt, some in
combination with others. In general the more
effective treatments are more potentially toxic and
their mis-use is likely a source of mortality than the
actual parasites they’re being used to eliminate. Be
aware that there are a few commercial “reef safe”
remedies (pepper-sauce, garlic...) on the market that
are unreliable to put it mildly. Rather than saving fish
lives these persistent “cures” kill-off hobbyists by the
droves. Avoid them by getting on the internet and
converse with fellow hobbyists regarding what
works and doesn’t.
you’re using hyposalinity as a treatment mode.
And there are exceptions and variations to
consider using hyposalinity. Cartilaginous fishes
(sharks, rays) cannot be treated in this fashion...
and such osmotic changes need to be made
gradually (over days).
B) Ionic copper solutions, chelated and not. Copper
is an old-time, but proven method, of eliminating
Cryptocaryon. Solutions come in two varieties,
bound up with a “carrier” molecule (chelated)
and “free” (as in copper sulfate solutions). Both
types have their benefits and shortcomings.
Chelated copper “lasts longer” in marine water,
cutting down the frequency of administration,
whereas free copper is more available, readily
effective. Note that you need to use a test kit for
either type of copper used and that there are
different test kits. Whichever format of copper is
utilized it should be tested for and, if necessary,
administered twice daily. Testing with adjustment
of the copper levels assures that a “physiological
dose”, sufficient concentration (0.15-0.25 ppm
over 7-10 days) of cupric ion is present to kill the
tomite/theront stages.
C) Metronidazole (aka Flagyl), Quinacrine
Hydrochloride, Quinine Sulfate. These
treatments are not effective consistently.
D) Formalin or formalin/malachite or
formalin/copper mixtures. Can be useful for initial
infestations, treating large numbers of specimens,
but the biocide formalin is dangerously toxic in
the hands of the uninitiated. If used, shy on the
low concentration, utilize extra
aeration/circulation and closely watch your fishes
and biological filtration.
In Closing:
Pandemics of saltwater ich have waxed and
waned during the entire history of the captive
marine hobby. It is likely that these infestations
account for a large percentage of hobbyist attrition.
This is regrettable and avoidable by simple
quarantine procedures and adherence to a reliable
treatment protocol. Isolation of fish livestock,
hyposalinity and elevated temperature,
administration of copper medication with testing will
cure all but the most entrenched cases.
Related Articles on WWM:
http://www.wetwebmedia.com/dips_baths.htm, Net
et al. dips to prevent spreading communicable
diseases
http://www.wetwebmedia.com/quaranti.htm,
Quarantine procedures
Photo by Robert Fenner
Continued from page 3
Photo by Robert Fenner
Marine Ich, Cryptocaryoniasis
Temperature effects:
As with freshwater ich, it’s advised to raise your
system’s temperature to speed up the life cycle of
Crypt while you’re treating for it. If your livestock
can handle it, increase your water temperature to
the mid 80’s°F along with whatever other treatment
regimen you employ.
A) Hyposalinity, lowered specific gravity. Some
people advocates a specific gravity as low as
1.009. This can work if your fishes are not too
challenged already or the pathogen too virulent,
however it will not effect a permanent system
cure. Know that most common measures of
specific gravity are temperature specific and that
most non-fish livestock will not tolerate the
lower limit (14-16 ppt salinity) necessary to kill
off the parasites. Therefore, your fishes will have
to be separated from your non-fish livestock if
Naso lituratus with a rampant infestation of Crypt
FREE
ISSN 1045-3520
Volume 21
Issue 3, 2004
A Chemical Analysis of
Select Trace Elements
in Synthetic Sea Salts
and Natural Seawater
Dr. Timothy A. Hovanec and Jennifer L. Coshland
Introduction
Chemical elements in seawater are commonly
grouped into three general categories: major, minor
and trace. Pilson (1998) defines the major elements, of
which there are eleven, as those that occur in
concentrations greater than 1 ppm (1 mg/kg),
admittedly an arbitrary value (Table 1). The distinction
between minor and trace elements is even more
arbitrary and different authors will use different
concentrations for the dividing line. Morel and Price
(2003) define trace as <0.1 µM while Kennish (1994)
states that the average concentration of 22 trace
elements ranged between 0.05 and 50 µmol/kg.Table 2
lists some common trace elements, their mean
concentration in the ocean.
An important difference between major and
minor or trace elements is that higher concentrations
for many minor or trace elements may be toxic to
much life in the ocean at various trophic levels and/or
life stages. This can be especially important when
maintaining aquatic life in closed aquatic systems such
as aquaria. Paradoxically, however, many of these
“toxic” trace elements are also required nutrients.
Another phenomena which must be considered
when discussing trace elements in seawater is the
interaction of some elements with particles in the
water column. For instance, trace elements such Al,
Co, Pb and Mn have strong interaction with particles,
which results in short residence times in the water
column as the particles sink into deeper water which
makes them less toxic. (Kremling et. al. 1999).
Unfortunately, no research exists on the
potentially positive or negative effects of low amounts
of various trace elements in aquaria. Indeed, for many
years several manufacturers of synthetic sea salts, in
order to provide a complete formula, added or
separately provided trace elements to their basic
formula (Anonymous 1985, 1990). In recent years,
however, this practice has nearly stopped as it was
realized that many trace elements are naturally present
in low quantities in the major chemical compounds,
such as sodium chloride, magnesium chloride and
sodium sulfate, used to make synthetic sea salts.
However, concern still exists among hobbyists as
to whether the use of synthetic sea salts versus natural
seawater for marine aquaria results in the continued
deleterious introduction of high levels of trace
elements to the aquarium. In this study, we analyzed
the concentration of several trace elements in
synthetic sea salts developed for marine aquaria and
compared the results to natural seawater from the
coast of California to determine if there were
significant trace element differences between these
two sources of seawater for aquaria.
Synthetic sea salt
Materials and Methods
A natural seawater sample was collected from the
surf zone of the Pacific Ocean at Malibu State Beach,
CA in a pre-cleaned, acid washed bottle. The sample
was stored in a cooler and transported to the
laboratory. Salinity was determined with a refractometer.
All the synthetic sea salts for this study were
purchased from commercial sources except Instant
Ocean and Reef Crystals which were obtained from
stock at Marineland. Enough of each salt was weighed
out to obtain a salinity of 33 ppt to match the salinity
of the natural seawater sample. Samples were diluted
with deionized water. All samples were coded so that
the brand would not be apparent to the analysts.
Samples, including deionized water, were transported
to West Coast Analytical Services, Inc., Santa Fe Spring,
CA in a cooler with ice for analysis.
Samples were analyzed for eleven elements (Al,
Sb, Be, Cd, Co, Pb, Mn, Mo, Ag, Tl and Zn) via
Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (ICPMS) without further treatment. Another four elements
(Cr, Cu, Ni and V) were analyzed by ICP-MS/DRC
(Dynamic Reaction Cell). All the samples except OSS
were analyzed at the same time. OSS was analyzed at a
later date due to its unavailability until that time. During
both sample runs, quality control samples were run in
parallel on the deionized water used to make-up the
synthetic seawater and on fortified laboratory blanks.
Results
Table 3 presents the results of the analysis of
fifteen trace elements for eight brands of synthetic sea
salts (SSS): Instant Ocean (IO), BioSea Marine Mix
(BSMM), Crystal Seas Marine Mix Bioassay (CSMMB),
Coralife (CL), Tropic Marin (TM), Reef Crystals (RC),
Red Sea (RS) and Oceanic Sea Salt (OSS). Also
presented in Table 3 are the data for a natural seawater
product for use in marine aquaria, Catalina Water
Company (CWC), and natural seawater (NSW-M).
The detection limit (DL) for each element and mean
published values for the concentration of the elements
in seawater are also presented (Table 3).
©2004 Aquarium Systems, Inc., Mentor, OH - Printed in U.S.A.
Examining the results by each element shows that
for three elements (Be, Co, and Cu) no sample had
concentrations above the detection limit (DL).
Another two elements (Ag and Tl) were found only in
OSS at values close to (Ag) or just under the DL (Tl).
Therefore, these five elements are not considered
further, leaving ten elements for discussion.
Aluminum (Al) was detected in only two samples:
NSW-M at a concentration of 20 ppb and one SSS,
CSMMB with a level of 10 ppb (Fig. 1). Four samples
were found to contain levels of zinc (Zn) above the
detection limit. CWC had a zinc concentration of 21
ppb which was 4 to 7 times greater than the three SSS
(TM, RS and CL) found to contain Zn (Table 3) (Fig. 1).
Detectable amounts of lead (Pb) were found in all
treatments except NSW-M, IO and RC (Fig. 1). CWC
had the highest level of Pb at 39 ppb. CSMMB and OSS
were next highest at 1.7 to 1.8 ppb Pb, respectively
(Fig. 1). The remaining SSS had Pb values ranging from
0.37 to 0.82 ppb (Fig. 1).
Chromium (Cr) was detected in six of the eight
SSS samples ranging from a high of 27 ppb in BSMM to
0.29 ppb in IO (Fig. 1).
All the SSS, except CL, were found to contain
antimony but many were at levels near or below
NSW-M (0.36 ppb). BSMM had the highest value at 3.5
ppb followed by CSMMB (1.4 ppb) (Fig. 2). Cadmium
was found only in TM (0.31 ppb) and BSMM (0.24 ppb).
Four SSS samples were also found to contain
measurable levels of vanadium though the amounts
were less than that for NSW-M which at 2 ppb equaled
the published average value for seawater (Table 2).
The remaining elements (Mn, Mo and Ni) were
detected in all the samples tested expect Mo was not
detected in CWC (Fig. 3). For these three elements,
the general pattern is the same. BSMM had levels of
each element that were 4 to 32 times higher than the
next highest sample. For two of the elements (Mn and
Ni) CSMMB was that next highest sample; for Mo the
second highest SSS was TM. Of all the trace elements
assayed, Mo is the one highest in natural seawater at
an average of 10 ppb. The values for NSW-M (13.4
Continued on page 2
Chemical Analysis of Trace Elements...
Table 2.
The Mean Concentration and Type of Distribution
of Some Common Trace Elements in Seawater (ppm)
Continued from page 1
Table 1.
The Eleven Major Elements or Constituents
in Seawater (g/kg)
Sodium (Na+)*
10.781
Magnesium (Mg++)* 1.284
Calcium (Ca++)
0.4119
Potassium (K+)*
0.399
Strontium (Sr+)
0.00794
Chloride (Cl-)*
Sulfate (SO4- -)*
Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Bromide (Br-)*
Boric Acid (H3BO3)
Fluoride (F-)*
19.353
2.712
0.126
0.0673
0.0257
0.00130
*For these chemicals there is no evidence that their concentration
varies within any of the major ocean water masses (Pilson 1998).
Aluminum (Al)
Antimony (Sb)
Beryllium (Be)
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper(Cu)
Lead (Pb)
0.000270
0.000146
0.0000002
0.000079
0.000208
0.000001
0.000254
0.000002
mid-depth minima
?
nutrient, scavenged
nutrient
nutrient
depleted at surface
nutrient, scavenged
high in surface waters
Manganese (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Silver (Ag)
Thallium (Tl)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)
0.000027
0.010
0.000470
0.0000027
0.000012
0.002
0.000392
depleted at depth
conservative
nutrient
nutrient, complexed
conservative
slight surface depletion
nutrient
*adapted from Pilson 1998
ppb) and CWC (11.4 ppb) were close to the average
seawater value. All the SSS tested, except BSMM,
contained less than 10 ppb Mo. BSMM had a MO
concentration of 87 ppb Mo. TM was closest to the
NSW average with a Mo value of 9 ppb.
Determined values for Mn in the SSS ranged from
a low of 7.5 ppb in TM to a high of 135 ppb in BBMM
with the remaining SSS having values between 22 and
35 ppb. NSW-M was found to contain 8 ppb Mn while
Mn was undetectable in CWC.
Nickel was the only trace element, besides Mn and
Mo, that was detected in every sample. Nickel was
lowest in the OSS sample (0.37 ppb) which is lower
than the average of NSW (0.47 ppb) followed by CWC
and NSW-M. BSMM had the highest amount of Ni at
108 ppb. CL and CSMMB were the next highest SSS at
3.3-3.4 ppb. The rest of the SSS had Ni values ranging
from 1.1 to 2.2 ppb.
When considering the results from the standpoint
of the total amount of trace elements determined, the
samples fall roughly into two groups with values below
that of the natural seawater sample and then three
samples with values higher or much higher than natural
seawater (Fig. 4, Table 3). The first group, consisting
of TM, IO and RC, had total measured values ranging
from 25 to 32.4 ppb and were the lowest tested. The
second group, with values ranging from 39 to 44 ppb,
included OSS, RS and CL and was close to the value
determined for NSW-M of 44.68 ppb. Two SSS and
CWC had total trace elements values greater than
NSW-M. CSMMB had a total value of 58.21 while
BSMM concentration was 361.31 ppb. CWC fell in
ppb
ppb
ppb
ppb
ppb
ppb
ppb
between these levels with a total value of 73.78 ppb.
an order of magnitude higher than the next lowest SSS.
However, looking at the total amount of the trace CSMMB had the greatest amount of Al of all SSS tested
elements in a sample does not present a complete and also had significantly higher concentrations of five
picture of analysis. While Tropic Marin (TM) had the other elements (Sb, Cr, Pb, Mn and Ni) compared to
lowest total trace element value, it did have substantial the other SSS besides BSMM.
amounts of certain elements. Eight of the fifteen trace
elements tested were detectable in TM. TM had the Discussion
The results of this study demonstrate that the vast
highest amount of cadmium (0.31 ppb) which was only
detected in one other sample (BSMM - 0.24 ppb). TM majority of synthetic sea salts for use in marine aquaria
was also one of the few sample with detectable do not have concentrations of the trace elements
amounts of zinc with a value of 4.1 ppb. This zinc value examined that are substantially greater than that of the
was surpassed only by Red Sea (RS - 5 ppb) and natural seawater available to the marine hobbyist.
Catalina Water Company (CWC - 21 ppb). The low Furthermore, for some trace elements natural
overall total value for TM is due to the fact that it had seawater had a greater value than some of the
lowest Mn value of all the SSS tested, having only synthetic sea salts. Moreover, Catalina Water
roughly a third of the Mn as most of the other SSS Company, which is a natural seawater product, had a
lead value that was one to two orders of magnitude
(Table 3).
In contrast to Tropic Marin, only five of the fifteen higher than other samples. It is clear that most
measured elements were detected in Instant Ocean synthetic sea salts do not add substantial amounts of
(IO) which had the second lowest total amount of trace levels to aquaria when compared to the natural
trace elements. No element was found in greatest seawater available to the majority of hobbyists.
However, whether this is beneficial or detrimental
concentration in IO, and IO had the lowest amount of
Mo for all samples. Furthermore, nearly 93% of the to the aquarium environment is not known. As
total amount of measured trace elements in IO came previously mentioned, there are no scientific studies
from just two elements: Mn at 78% and Mo with 14.6%. applicable to marine aquaria which allow one to say
The third SSS in the group with the lowest with a high degree of confidence that a certain amount
amounts of measured trace elements was Reef of a particular trace element is absolutely necessary in
Crystals with a value of 32.39 ppb (Table 3). Made by the marine aquarium or that a constant low level of a
the same company that manufactures IO, but designed certain element may cause a poisoning of the aquarium.
to contain certain trace elements and minerals for
Continued on page 3
reef tanks, it is not surprising that RC is close 4.0
25
Antimony (Sb)
to, but slightly higher than IO, in terms of 3.5
20
Aluminum (Al)
3.0
trace
metal
concentration.
Again,
like
IO,
RC
15
2.5
did not contain the highest amount of any 2.0
10
DL 8.0
trace
element
for
the
SSS
tested
and
slightly
1.5
5
over 77% of the total trace elements was due 1.0
0
NSW 0.27
to one element (Mn) with another 13% due 0.5
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
NSW 0.146
to Mo.
0.0
DL 0.1
30
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
The
second
group
of
SSS,
Oceanic
Sea
25
Chromium (Cr)
20
Salt (OSS), Red Seas (RS) and Coralife (CL),
2
0.4
while having a total amount of the trace
Cadmium (Cd)
elements measured lower than NSW had
0.3
varying amounts of additional elements when
NSW 0.208
DL0.2
0
0.2
compared to the first group of SSS. For
DL 0.2
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
instance, both RS and CL were two of three
0.1
40
SSS with measurable levels of zinc and RS has
NSW 0.079
35
Lead (Pb)
the highest zinc level of all SSS tested (Table
30
0.0
5
3). OSS had one of the highest amounts of
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
chromium (1.65 ppb) and lead (1.7 ppb) for all
SSS and was the only seasalt with detectable 2.5
DL 0.3
Vanadium (V)
0
levels of silver and thallium. However, OSS did 2.0
NSW 0.002
NSW 2.0
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
have the lowest amount of Ni for all samples
1.5
tested.
25
Zinc (Zn)
20
The two remaining SSS tested, CSMMB 1.0
15
and BSMM, had slightly higher and
5
considerably higher total amounts of 0.5
DL0.2
DL 2.0
measured trace elements, respectively. BSMM 0.0
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
NSW 0.392
0
had a total of 361.31 ppb of trace elements
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
and had the greatest amount of five of the
Fig. 2. Trace element values of antimony, cadmium and vanadium in eight synthetic sea salts, one natural
Fig. 1. Trace element values of aluminum, chromium, lead and zinc in eight synthetic sea salts, one natural
water product and natural seawater. Dashed line on each plot show value for natural seawater. Dotted line
twelve elements detected in all samples (Sb, sea
sea water product and natural seawater. Dashed line on each plot show value for natural seawater. Dotted line
represent the detection limit for the analysis of that element.
represent the detection limit for the analysis of that element. Note broken axis for chromium, lead and zinc.
Cr, Mn, Mo, and Ni). For many of these five
elements, the amounts found in BSMM were
Chemical Analysis of Trace Elements...
Continued from page 2
Table 3.
Determined values for 15 trace elements in seawater and several commercially available synthetic sea salts in ppb
Element
Aluminum (Al)
Antimony (Sb)
Beryllium (Be)
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Manganese (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Silver (Ag)
Thallium (Tl)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)
Total Amt. (ppb)
Tropic
Marin
(TM)
Instant
Ocean
(IO)
Reef
Crystals
(RC)
Oceanic
(OSS)
Red Sea
(RS)
Coralife
(CL)
Natural
Seawater
(NSW-M)
Crystal Seas
Marine Mix
Bioassay
(CSMMB)
Catalina
Water
(CWC)
BioSea
Marine
Mix
(BSMM)
ND
0.24
ND
0.31
ND
ND
ND
0.82
7.50
9.0
2.0
ND
ND
0.87
4.10
ND
0.61
ND
ND
0.29
ND
ND
ND
22.0
4.10
1.10
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.62
ND
ND
0.46
ND
ND
ND
25.0
4.20
1.80
ND
ND
0.31
ND
ND
0.18
ND
ND
0.65
ND
ND
1.70
28.50
7.10
0.37
0.35
0.14
0.21
ND
ND
0.18
ND
ND
0.51
ND
ND
0.37
29.0
5.10
2.20
ND
ND
ND
5.0
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.57
30.0
7.20
3.30
ND
ND
ND
2.90
20.0
0.36
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
8.0
13.40
0.92
ND
ND
2.00
ND
10.0
1.40
ND
ND
1.00
ND
ND
1.81
35.0
4.40
3.40
ND
ND
1.20
ND
ND
0.28
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
39.0
ND
11.40
0.90
ND
ND
1.20
21.0
ND
3.50
ND
0.24
27.0
ND
ND
0.57
135.0
87.0
108.0
ND
ND
ND
ND
24.84
28.10
32.39
39.20
42.36
43.97
44.68
58.21
73.78
361.31
Detection
Limit*
8.0
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
3.0
0.3
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
2.0
Natural
Seawater**
0.270
0.146
0.000
0.079
0.208
0.001
0.254
0.0020
0.027
10.000
0.470
0.0027
0.0120
2.000
0.392
13.8638
*Detection Limit refers to the lowest possible detection limit within the seawater matrix and analytical procedures of the analyses
**Values for Natural Seawater are from Pilson (1998)
ND - not detected, below detection limit
ppb
ppb
ppb
may first seem and further illustrates the problem with element values in synthetic sea salts authors would
This is one area in need of much research.
Conversely, while the results of toxicity studies relying on published general values for NSW. Pilson want to compare values in the salts with those of
done on fish and some corals allow one to predict that (1998) relates how atmospherically transported dust, natural seawater. However, that view assumes that
high concentrations of some trace elements would be rich in clays containing aluminum, may be the cause of hobbyists have access to natural seawater with trace
detrimental to the aquarium environment, the results the surface enrichment of aluminum. This could element values that match the values in the book or
of this study show that most synthetic sea salts do not certainly be the case with the natural seawater sample paper the author is referring to. The results of this
contain such dangerously high levels of trace elements in this study which was collect just beyond the surf study show that this is a false assumption. Natural
zone off Malibu State Beach, CA.
seawater that is available to the hobbyist comes from
for this to be a concern to the aquarist.
The high values of lead and zinc in the natural near shore sources and it should not be surprising that
It must be realized that the data herein are only
for one sample of each product at one time and seawater from Catalina Seawater Company is most water quality in these oceanic zones differs greatly
subsequent analysis may produce different values. This likely due to fuel fumes associated with the ship from that of more remote oceanic areas.
A question in the back of the minds of researchers
could be especially acute for any natural seawater collecting the seawater and the truck used to transport
product because of biotic and abiotic environment the collected seawater. High surface concentrations of is - how good are the data? For this study that means
factors such as rain, algae blooms, ship traffic off the lead in seawater have been linked to atmospherically how correct is the analysis? There are several ways to
near coast, etc. In fact, trace elements in synthetic sea transported lead mainly from the exhausts of check the validity of the data. A seawater reference
standard with known values was run along with the
salts would probably vary less over time because automobiles and trucks (Pilson 1998).
It is perhaps natural that in discussing trace samples of this test. The determined values for the
manufacturers of these products have more control
reference standard were in close agreement with the
over the raw materials used to make the product
known values which tells one that the analytical
compared to the total lack of control over the
150
methods (ICP-MS and ICP-MS/DRC) were
natural oceanic environment.
125
Manganese (Mn)
sufficiently accurate for this examination. Further
Many of the determined trace element
100
50
support for the validity of the test analytical
values for the natural seawater samples in this
methods can be found by looking at some of the
study were much higher than published values
values for select trace elements for natural
(Table 3). However, published values are by
25
seawater. For example, one of elements tested,
necessity generalizations. Actual values will vary
molybdenum is conservative and has a mean value
due to locale and local factors that have to be
in the ocean of 10 ppb, with a range of 9.2 to 10.5
taken into consideration. For example, Pilson
0
DL 1.0
NSW 0.027
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
(Table 2) (Pilson 1998). The determined values for
(1998) noted that lead is high in surface waters
natural seawater in this study, 11.4 to 13.4 ppb,
most likely due to anthropomorphic reasons.
90
are in close agreement with these data adding
There are many other potential reasons why the
80
Molybdenum (Mo)
70
validity to the analytical procedure.
determined values in NSW may be much higher
60
20
In fact, this study may be the first to analyze
than average published values for NSW. First,
natural seawater samples alongside samples of
the actual concentration of any trace element in
synthetic sea salts. Earlier studies on trace element
NSW will vary considerably spatially and
10
NSW 10.0
concentrations in SSS did not include natural
temporally. Furthermore, water samples taken in
seawater samples for reasons unknown. Atkinson
coastal areas and near major metropolitan areas
and Bingham (1997) analyzed a number of
0
would be expected to have elevated
DL 0.5
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
commercial sea salts but did not actually include a
concentrations of many elements due to run-off,
seawater sample. Instead they listed values for
winds from the coastland, exposure to polluted
110
various elements and ions in seawater.
air, upwelling, shipping traffic in the ocean
100
Nickel
(Ni)
90
Atkinson and Bingham (1997) included a
channels off the coast, and associated factors.
10
number of sea salts in their analysis that were also
Plus, primary productivity can be very high in
included in the present study (IO, TM, RC, RS, and
coastal areas which can affect the concentration
CL). In general, their determined values for most
of many trace elements as organisms consume
5
trace elements were much higher than the values
and recycle nutrients, including trace elements, in
found in this study. The most likely explanation for
the course of their natural life cycles.
NSW 0.47
0
these differences is that the analytical method used
Consider that the natural seawater sample
DL 0.3
NSW-M CWC
IO
BSMM CSMMB CL
TM
RC
RS
OSS
by Atkinson and Bingham (1997) to determine
(NSW-M) in this study was determined to have
trace element concentration in the sea salts was
the highest amount of Al of all samples with a
Fig. 3. Trace element values of manganese, molybdenum and nickel in eight synthetic sea salts, one
sea water product and natural seawater. Dashed line on each plot show value for natural seawater.
value of 20 ppb. This value is not as strange as it natural
Dotted line represent the detection limit for the analysis of that element. Note broken axis for each element.
Continued on page 4
80
TRACE ELEMENT VALUES IN SEA SALTS AND NATURAL SEAWATER
400
Continued from page 3
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
SeaScope® was created to present short, informative
articles of interest to marine aquarists. Topics may
include water chemistry, nutrition, mariculture, system
design, ecology, behavior, and fish health. Article
contributions are welcomed. They should deal with
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that in our opinion are necessary. Payments will be
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Address comments, questions, and suggestions to
Dr. Timothy A. Hovanec, Editor.
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or E-Mail: [email protected]
Aquarium Systems is a Marineland Company
70
60
Manganese (Mn)
Antimony (Sb)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Cadmium (Cd)
Nickel (Ni)
Chromium (Cr)
Vanadium (V)
Lead (Pb)
Zinc (Zn)
73.78
361.31
350
300
58.21
50
250
43.97
42.36
ppb
not sufficiently precise and was subject to
interferences which caused false high readings.
Atkinson and Bingham (1997) used Inductively
Coupled Plasma emission spectroscopy (ICP) for their
analysis. The current study used either ICP-MS or
ICP-MS/DRC for the trace element analysis. These
methods are more precise than ICP and can yield
much better data. ICP-MS/DRC is used specifically to
remove interferences associated with the masses of
various elements during ICP-MS that can cause false
high reading for certain elements such as chromium,
copper, nickel and vanadium. Shimek (2002a)
reported the analysis of a sample of Instant Ocean
made with reverse osmosis/deionized (RO/DI) water
for trace elements using ICP scan. His results were
more like those of this study; cadmium, chromium,
lead, and manganese were below the test detection
limits. However, he also failed to include a natural
seawater sample for comparison and the ‘average’
natural seawater presented were incorrect (Shimek
2002b).
The chemical analysis of trace elements is not a
straightforward task.
A trace element at a
concentration of 1 µg/kg (1 ppb) in seawater is in a
matrix of elements and compounds that total nearly
35,000,000 µg (Pilson 1998). Contamination during
sampling, interference between elements, swamping
of the signal for one element by another element in
much greater concentration plus many other factors
combine to make the analysis difficult.
In addition to the technical difficulties, the fact
that many of the trace elements have a biological role
such that their concentration will vary throughout the
water column depending upon plankton uptake and
recycling leaves one to conclude that for many nonconservative elements valves will range considerably.
The concern over trace element concentrations
in synthetic sea salts is due to the fact that some trace
elements, also known as heavy metals, are toxic to
marine organisms. However, heavy metal toxicity is a
complex phenomenon, especially so in marine
environments. The straightforward question of what
is the toxic concentration of a specific metal is not
easily answered. Furthermore, a dozen or so metals
with an atomic mass over 50, including Mn, Fe, Co, Ni,
Aluminum (Al)
44.68
ppb
Chemical Analysis of Trace Elements...
39.20
40
200
32.39
30
150
28.10
24.84
20
100
10
50
0
0
Tropic
Marin
Instant
Ocean
Reef Oceanic Red Sea
Crystals Sea Salt
Natural Crystal Catalina
Seawater Seas Water Co.
Marine Mix
Bioassay
Brand
Coralife
NSW or Sea Salt
BioSea
Marine
Mix
Fig. 4. The total concentration of fifteen trace elements in several brands of synthetic sea salts, a natural seawater
product and natural seawater from the coast of California along with a break-out of the ten elements found in highest
concentration. Note that BioSea Marine Mix is displayed on a different scale since it contained such a greater amount of
several elements.
Cu Zn and Cd, have known biologically roles (Morel
and Price 2003). In fact, the surface depletion of most
trace metals is due to uptake by plankton (Morel and
Price 2003). This leads to the situation where the
concentration of many trace metals is orders of
magnitude greater in the plankton compared to the
water in which the plankton live. Trace metals can also
be transferred and concentrated in the body of
organisms at different trophic levels in the marine food
web (Twining and Fisher 2004).
Three other major factors that confound efforts
to determine actual toxicity levels of many heavy
metals are solubility, speciation and chelation. The
analytically determined value of any heavy metal may
not equate to the actual amount of the metal available,
either for nutritional purposes or toxic effects, in the
seawater environment. Pilson (1998) states that it is
known that some metals, such as Fe, Co, Cu and Zn,
are quite strongly complexed with organic matter in
seawater and provides a detailed example, using Cu, of
how toxicity is affected by this interaction. Briefly,
studies have shown that the toxicity of copper is due
to the concentration or activity of the free copper ion
in solution. However, it has been calculated that about
90% of the copper ion in seawater (at 15°C and normal
pH) is complexed mostly with carbonate and some
hydroxyl ions. Taking into account the activity
coefficient of the copper ion, Pilson calculates that only
2% of the actual Cu concentration is in the free (toxic)
form.
Morel and Price (2003) state that for metals such
as Fe, Co, Cu, Zn and Cd the bulk of the dissolved
concentration in seawater is present in the nonreactive
(nontoxic) form at the ocean surface. The working
theory is that this is due to the metals being bound to
some strong unknown ligands (or binding molecule)
with a small fraction of the metals being colloidal.
These putative ligands, or chelators, some of which
have been shown to be from biogenic sources are
presumed to detoxify the metals and possibly assist
with metal transport and sequestration (Morel and
Price 2003).
In summary, trace element testing and toxicity are
complex and many factors must be considered besides
just a hard to determine analytical value. However, this
study demonstrated several important conclusions in
regards to comparing synthetic sea salts to natural
seawater that should be of major importance to
marine aquarists:
1) most synthetic sea salts do not have high levels of
many trace elements,
2) natural seawater is not automatically a safe
alternative to synthetic sea salts when it comes to
comparing amounts of trace elements in the two
solutions,
3) past comparisons of synthetic sea salts to natural
seawater are flawed because they compared
synthetic sea salts to a hypothetical natural seawater
that is not available to the majority of marine
hobbyists, and
4) synthetic sea salts are quite acceptable for long-term
use in marine aquaria when considered from the
viewpoint of not adding detrimental concentrations
of trace elements to the system.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank Elena Toy, Jennifer Westerlund and Jason
Niemans for their assistance with this study.
References
Anonymous. 1985. Synthetic Sea Salts: Trace Elements, But So
Much More. SeaScope Vol 2 Spring 1985 page 1.
Anonymous. 1990. Trace elements and Sea Salt Mixes. SeaScope
Vol 7 Summer 1990 page 1.
Atkinson, M.J. and C. Bingham. 1997. Elemental composition of
commercial seasalts. J. Aquari. & Aqua. Sci. 8:39-43.
Kennish, M.J. 1994. Practical Handbook of Marine Science, 2nd Ed.
CRC Press Boca Raton. 566p.
Kremling, K., M.O. Andreae, L. Br¸gmann, C.M.G. van den Berg, A.
Prange, M. Schirmacher, F. Koroleff and J. Kuss. 1999.
Determination of Trace Elements p. 253-364. In: Methods of
Seawater Analysis 3rd ed. K. Graddhoff, K. Kremling and M. Ehrhardt
eds. Wiley-VCH Weinheim, Germany.
Morel, F. M. M. and N. M. Price. 2003. The Biogeochemical Cycles
of Trace Metals in the Oceans. Science 300(5621):944-947.
Pilson, M.E.Q. 1998. An Introduction to the Chemistry of the Sea.
Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, N.J. 431p.
Shimek, R.L. 2002a. It’s (In) The Water. Reefkeeping Online.
www.reefkeeping.com Feb. 2002.
Shimek, R.L. 2002b. It is Still In The Water. Reefkeeping Online.
www.reefkeeping.com Mar. 2002.
Twining, B. S. and N. S. Fisher. 2004. Trophic transfer of trace
metals from protozoa to mesozooplankton. Limnology and
Oceanography 49(1):28-39.
FREE
ISSN 1045-3520
Photo by Blane Perun
Volume 21
Issue 4, 2004
Habitattitude™ – Get It
What is Habitattitude™? It is a major national initiative
to increase public awareness of the potential problems with
aquatic invasive species. The initiative was developed by the
national Aquatic Nuisance Species (ANS) Task Force and its
partner organizations in collaboration with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, the Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council (PIJAC),
the National Sea Grant College Program, and many state fish and
wildlife agencies. The goals of the campaign are to raise awareness
of the issue amongst aquarium owners and water gardeners, get
the support of these two groups for responsible behaviors and
educate members of these groups on ways to prevent the
introduction of potentially invasive species.
Why is Habitattitude™ Important? Invasive species
have the potential to become major environmental and/or
economic problems. In general invasive species are organisms that
are released in an area in which they are not native to. Thus in
almost all cases an invasive species is also a non-native species.
However, the alternative is not true: not all non-native species are
also invasive species. Many times the source of the initial
introduction of the invasive species is not known but for aquatic
species the aquarium and water garden hobbies are often, and
many times unfairly, blamed. Habitattitude™ was developed to be
a tool and campaign to teach consumers on how to adopt a
conservation mindset and learn about the issue and alternative
ways to releasing unwanted aquatic plants and animals.
What you can do. For individuals and consumers the
campaign has detailed resources at a web site whose address is
www.habitattitude.net. In general Habitattitude™ encourages you
to prevent the introduction of non-native species by not disposing
of unwanted aquatic species in the nearest body of water. Instead,
steps one should take include contacting a retailer to see if they
would take the specimen, contacting a local aquarium or water
garden society to see if they would take the organism, or giving
the species to another aquarist, pond owner or water gardener.
If you are a member of a local aquarium, koi or water
gardening club you can bring Habitattitude™ to the attention of
fellow members and set-up an organized way to accept donations
of aquatic species no longer wanted by other community
members. Perhaps consider contacting a local store and setting-up
a program to take unwanted fish and plants that the store owner
could not otherwise accept.
For stores owners, a goal of Habitattitude™ is to provide
each store with a set of education materials including posters, shelf
talkers and other materials branded with the Habitattitude™ logo
(Fig. 1). Manufacturers of aquarium and pond supplies along with
other groups in these industries will also be working with the
member organizations of Habitattitude™ to help spread the
campaign message.
Habitattitude™- Get it and become
part of the solution
The Hot Pink mushroom Ricordia yuma.
Propagation of the
Ricordia yuma
By Blane Perun from WWW.Farms-of-TheSea.Com
Spending nearly four months of constant search
and negotiation trying to obtain a Hot Pink Ricordia
yuma; I knew if I was lucky enough at some point to
find one I would have to do something other than
just take the piece to market. In my spare time I had
searched around and asked a few people in the
industry if they had experience with the species in
captivity and had they witnessed any natural
reproduction. I’m sure there are people out there
but my search had not turned up anyone. My only
game plan at this point was to apply what I had
learned in propagation of other mushrooms to the
Yuma.
Luck turned in my favor one day and I was able
to track down two pieces from a wholesaler in
which I had recently opened an account. For any
storeowners out there, sometimes the beginning of
the relationship is when you get your best and most
rare specimens, so don’t be afraid to ask. I was a bit
surprised at the wholesale price, but searching
around on the web seeing what these specimens
went for retail, I eventually saw the big picture.
I promised myself at whatever the final price; I
would attempt propagation of the Yuma knowing full
©2004 Aquarium Systems, Inc., Mentor, OH - Printed in U.S.A.
well I could lose the investment in twenty-four
hours. If there was a loss at the very least I would
have documented the methods I took so the next
bereaved soul could benefit from the knowledge I
acquired. With such a diminished natural resource
the desire to keep a specimen like this really does
not leave many options other than aquaculture.
Presently the collection pool seems to be nearly
drained so possibly anyone reading this article that
may have been keeping one or multiple polyps in
captivity may wish to emulate these propagation
techniques in hopes of keeping the species available
on the collectors market.
Necessity often is the drive behind invention
and risk; it certainly was in this case. The easier
option of releasing the item at retail had absolutely
no appeal to me whatsoever. I have had tremendous
success in propagating the Ricordia florida and to a
lesser extent (demand-based) Rhodactis. I, like most
of us out there tinkering with propagation, began
with the Discosoma, which seems to be nearly
indestructible.
Based on previous experience with Discosoma,
watching natural multiplication though lateral fission,
I noticed that a very small piece of mushroom, if
attached, could mature into a nice-sized specimen in
due time. However the same principle had not
always been true for me when it came to Rhodactis.
Continued on page 2
Photo by Blane Perun
Propagation of the Ricordia yuma
Continued from page 1
Photo by Blane Perun
The underside of the R. yuma after the cut.
Photo by Blane Perun
layer on the disk, this one was very thick in
comparison. In fact, it was a little difficult to cut
through fast and clean without a tearing motion.
The two cut pieces healing
Another photo of R .yuma after the cut.
Another surprise, mega guts. We have all seen
Mushrooms expel them from time to time, but I did
not expect so much. Looking at the photo you can
see the strength of the walls and the rigidity of the
intestine cavity. Most mushrooms after being cut
have the appearance of jelly. With half of the foot
gone, this guy still stands perfectly and the wall
strength was not expected. On the same token I
was beginning to realize that I had no experience
with anything like this and had hoped the principles I
applied to other Mushrooms would work here.
I had contemplated, with the amount of
internals and the strength of that wall, the specimen
could not close in on itself with the ease Ricordia
florida does, or other Yumas for that matter. I was
very glad I moved to these hang-on breeders so I
would be able to keep close tabs on the healing
process. That day I had checked on the piece at least
five or six times, and was pretty surprised everything
looked good. I had noticed, however, in contrast to
the other Ricordias, Yumas certainly slimed up
around the rear on the incision, particularly near the
intestines. I took care to gently squirt off the group
two to three times a day with a small pipette. This
was a tedious but necessary process I believe. A lack
of care in this area may have led to infection. I had
Continued on page 3
Photo by Blane Perun
Photo by Blane Perun
From my experience they seemed more sensitive
after propagation, requiring more care and less light
intensity until they heal. Oddly enough I have cut a
quarter sized Ricordia florida into about 16 pieces and
saw them mature to small eraser sized polyps in just
a short time.
Certainly one rule that had applied to any
mushroom I had worked with was that a single slice
down the middle seemed to be the least intrusive
and had the quickest rebound time. After much
contemplation my objective was to cut the specimen
in half, and let it heal then cut each piece in half once
more. The variables here for me were the healing
time and whether the polyp would heal at all.
At the beginning I figured I could try propagating
some other Yumas I had here to see if I noticed
anything unusual about them or how they reacted
to the incision and most importantly how they
healed. The first step for me then and now was to
provide the propagated specimen with some fresh
clean substrate; in this case I use Florida Crushed
Coral. I pour a bit into a Solo container, just
enough to weight it down in the water. I used the
high container because from past experience the
frags would come out of the shorter ones due to
water movement.
In the case of this first Yuma, which I had grown
for months now, I would have to separate the base
from the plug that it had been growing on. Don’t be
intimidated convincing the foot to loosen. It ís not
that difficult, even if its been attached for years. The
trick is don’t tear at the disk or foot itself, but
slightly pry it off. Actually if you look around the
perimeter of the foot you should notice a section
that has just enough room to slip in a blunt-edged
tool. Take note I said blunt edge, you don’t want to
lacerate the foot, the coral will need to expend all its
energy on healing the cut to be made.
Next put the specimen on a plastic cutting
board. Avoid using wood it can harbor bacteria.
Make sure you wet the board with saltwater from
your tank, I find that this aids in some extent in
avoiding a lot of sliming. You then want to secure
the specimen between two fingers, each on the left
and right side of the mouth. Then slowly compress
the disk and you should see water expel from the
mouth if there is any left. This step could also be
done in the tank, but I have a tendency to let them
slip through my fingers.
Now the cut: don’t hesitate and make sure
your tool is clean and sharp! Before I cut I typically
check the condition of the foot, and try to ensure
the cut provides an equal amount of foot for each
half. In my case I am using a pair of new, very sharp
scissors and am propagating this specimen into four
equal-sized pieces.
After waiting about a week I noticed the Yumas
healing nicely and had not run into any complications
during the process. All in all it felt like working with a
large bumpy Discosoma. I figured now would be as
good as a time as any to emulate this process one
more time with the intended.
Starting out in much the same manor, identifying
where I want to make the cut by a close inspection
of the base. All of the sudden “bam”, cutting through
this was entirely different than any Ricordia I have
ever propagated. The disk had the consistency of a
vinyl-based plastic and was very thick. As where
other Mushrooms seems to have a very thin elastic
Front and back views as the healing process continues.
Close up of the underside of the healing R. yuma.
Photo by Blane Perun
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
Now there are two almost 100% healed Hot Pink R. yuma mushrooms.
Propagation of the Ricordia yuma
Continued from page 2
taken several photos a day and have included the
most dramatic ones in this article so you can witness
the healing process.
Most impressive was the speed of the foot
contorting itself to close in and form a complete
cylinder once again. This is where the mushroom
first directed its energy. Once the foot closed its
wound, the disk began tightening horizontally and
constricting vertically to begin taking on the
appearance on a arc instead of a flat disk. Almost
immediately the half circle looked more like a small
pie with a piece or two removed. I was surprised
that the energy had not been directed towards
closing off the intestines with the foot, it seems they
would make good food for a small fish on the reef.
It appeared that much of the activity happened
early on, then things really began to slow down. This
is where the process seemed to differ from other
specimens I worked with (Rhodacits and Ricordia
alike). I believe it is due to the fact that the disk is so
rigid that the healing process is a combination of
growth and closing of a wound. Where in the case
of Discosoma, the mushroom seems to make
noticeable forward progress each day and in
contrast the animal is uniformly soft and flexible.
Once the polyp was about 75% closed I noticed the
foot expanding from the bottom to meet the top of
the disk and seal off the vulnerable intestine area. As
I mentioned I was surprised that I had not seen the
foot closing in from all sides to engulf this area. This
could have something to do with the wall rigidity or
not, but it may point to the reason all of the initial
energy seemed to be directed toward the foot.
At this point the specimen was 90% closed; the
outer walls had fused with the disk closing off the
internals, the foot had engulfed the intestinal region
for protection, with the exception a portion of it
was left exposed at the top of the disk. My guess is
since there was not a functioning mouth apparatus;
this mushroom is forced to expose a section of the
intestines for absorption feeding until a mouth could
be formed. This is not something I had witnessed or
at least paid much attention to with Ricordia florida,
Discosoma or Rhodactis mainly because the process
takes place quicker and there is less time for
observations.
About two months after this last photo I
repeated the process cutting each of these polyps
into two. The healing time and pattern was similar,
but I think in retrospect it was very taxing on the
coral too and very unnatural. The process was very
interesting and I had learned a lot from my
observations. In the end there were four Hot Pink
Ricordia yuma where there had only been one! You
can find my propagated specimens at
www.farms-of-thesea.com and you can read about
my trials and tribulations at www.thesea.org
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Photo by Dr. Peter Wirtz
Fire!
By Dr. Peter Wirtz
Photo by Dr. Peter Wirtz
The Fire worm Hermodice carunculata reaches
a length of 30 cm and can grow to the thickness of
a finger. It lives on many different types of ocean
sediments, on both sides of the subtropical and
tropical Atlantic, and in the warmer parts of the
Mediterranean Sea.
The red organ on the top of the head, called a caruncle, probably serves for smelling.
Fire worm feeding on Tubastrea coral at the Cape
Verde Islands
entirely covered in a mass of fire worms.
Fire worms are robust animals easy to
transport and easy to keep in an aquarium. Of
course, they are completely unsuited for an
aquarium containing coral because they would eat
the coral. Most other invertebrates in the same
aquarium, from sea anemone to brittle star, would
sooner or later also fall prey to them. They do,
however, not pose a great threat to the aquarist:
they do not reproduce rapidly and any fire worm
accidentally introduced into the aquarium can easily
be removed with a forceps (remember: don’t touch
it with your fingers!).
On the other hand, fire worms are attractively
colored, day-active animals. Their behavior would
surely merit a closer look in an aquarium specially
set up for them.
Literature:
Sussman, M., Y. Loya, M. Fine, E. Rosenberg. 2003. The
marine fireworm Hermodice carunculata is a winter reservoir and
spring-summer vector for the coral bleaching pathogen Vibrio shiloi.
Environmental Microbiology 5: 250-255.
Photo by Dr. Peter Wirtz
Photo by Dr. Peter Wirtz
This is an impressive species for several
reasons. Each of the up to 125 segments bears two
tufts of white bristles. When the fire worm feels
threatened it can spread these bristles. Do not
touch a fire worm ! The bristles easily penetrate the
skin, where they break off and cause an intense
burning sensation that can last for weeks. Therefore
the name “fire worm”! You can try to remove
some of the bristles with scotch tape but beware
you will never be able to remove all of them.
even eat sea anemones! The Caribbean shrimp
Periclimenes yucatanicus is said to defend its host sea
anemone Condylactis gigantea against approaching fire
worms, thus re-paying the protection it receives
from the anemone. Fire worms also prey on coral,
such as Tubastrea and many other species, and on
hydrocoral such as Millepora. They can even
overwhelm animals larger than themselves, such as
for instance brittle stars. Sometimes, several fire
worms appear to “co-operate” in subduing prey. But
most likely the smell of the wounded prey attracts
additional fire worms that then also attempt to feed
on victim.
In contrast to most bristle worms, fire worms
are day-active animals. As they are anything else than
defenseless, they do not have to hide from fishes or
other predators. The mouth of fire worms does not
contain jaws but sharp ridges for scraping. For
feeding, the mouth is everted and placed over the
food. In addition to preying on invertebrates, fire
worms are scavengers. Any dead animal on the
bottom of the sea, from jelly fish to true fish, will
attract them from far away. Soon, the corpse is
When feeling threatened the fire worm spreads its
bristles.
As can be seen in the photos accompanying this
article, the color of the fire worm can vary from red
to greenish, with golden rings between the
segments. In addition to the two tufts of bristles,
each segment bears a pair of red, branched gills. The
large pleated and branched red appendage on the
head of the worm is called a caruncle. The function
of this structure is still not known with certainty but
it is most likely a chemosensory organ; that is it
probably serves for smelling.
Fire worms prey on many different
invertebrates and are among the few animals that
Any carrion on the bottom of the sea will soon be covered in fire worms