PRACTITIONER-FOCUSED RESEARCH
SCHOOL
COUNSELORS’
ROLES IN CREATING
AND IMPLEMENTING
SOCIAL STORIES
TO SERVE
STUDENTS WITH
AUTISM SPECTRUM
DISORDER
A
The percentage of students educationally
identified with autism spectrum disorder
(ASD) is on the rise and school counselors
are called to serve this population. Social
stories are recommended in the educational
literature to address the social and behavioral
challenges of students with ASD, but a need
exists to examine social stories within the
context of school counseling. In this article,
the authors provide a case study of a school
counselor-facilitated social story using
an action research framework in order to
illustrate the creation, implementation, and
impact of social stories.
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ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
ccording to the Center for Disease
Control (CDC; 2014a), the ratio
of children identified with autism
spectrum disorder (ASD) has steadily
increased over the past 10 years, from
1 in 150 students in 2000, to 1 in
68 students in 2010. Although the
rise in the identification of children
with ASD is often accredited to
increased awareness and recognition (Schieve et al., 2011), K-12
schools and their personnel
need to be equipped to meet the
needs of this population. School
counselors are called to serve
students with ASD as part of
implementing a comprehensive
school counseling program
for all students on their caseload
(American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2012, 2013; Auger,
2013; Gibbons & Goins, 2008; Layne,
2007). This includes both indirect
and direct services (Kaffenberger &
O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013), such as
social story creation and implementation. Social stories are a strategy often
used when working with children with
ASD to address the social, behavioral,
and communication deficits associated
with the disorder (Hutchins, 2012a);
however, social stories are covered
minimally in the school counseling
literature (e.g., Auger, 2013; Gibbons & Goins, 2008; Kaffenberger &
O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013). As a result,
school counselors may benefit by
learning about this widely used intervention. In this article, the authors describe a literature review on ASD and
social stories; a case study of a school
counselor-created and -implemented
social story; and a related discussion
and school counseling implications
Emily Goodman-Scott, PhD, LPC, NCC,
NCSC, ACS, is an assistant professor at
Old Dominion University in Norfolk, VA.
E-mail [email protected] Robert Carlisle,
PhD, NCC, is a counselor educator at
Lamar University beginning fall 2015.
sections. The goal of this article is
to illustrate a case study of a school
counselor-facilitated social story using
an action research lens, to increase
school counselors’ understanding and
likelihood of using this intervention
with students.
AUTISM SPECTRUM
DISORDER
Clinical Diagnosis
In the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth
edition, (DSM-V) ASD is defined as a
neurodevelopmental disorder leading
to impairments in verbal or nonverbal
social communication, social interaction, and restricted interests, activities,
or repetitive behavior that significantly impair social, occupational,
or other areas essential to function in
society (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). This overarching
ASD definition now encompasses the
previous disorders known as autistic
disorder, Asperger’s disorder, and
pervasive developmental disorders not
otherwise specified. To parallel the
DSM-V, the term ASD will be used
in this article to include the disorders
previously known as autistic disorder
and Asperger’s disorder.
Educational Identification
and Services
Students with ASD may receive
educational services and accommodations in the schools if found eligible.
Students with ASD can receive special
education services including an
Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
through the federal 2004 Individuals
with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA). To be eligible under
IDEA, students must meet the criteria
for one of the 13 categories of disabilities, one of which is autism (U.S.
Department of Education, 2014a). The
IDEA category of autism is defined
as a “developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction,
generally evident before age three, that
adversely affects a child’s educational
performance” (U.S. Department of
Education, 2014a, Regulation 300.8
C1). Roughly half of the children with
ASD received special education services under the category of autism (CDC,
2014a). Students with ASD who do
not meet the IDEA criteria may be
eligible for education accommodations known as a 504 Plan. Students
can receive 504 accommodations due
to “a physical or mental impairment
that substantially limits one or more
major life activities; or have a record
of such an impairment; or be regarded
as having such an impairment” (U.S.
Department of Education, 2014b, section 504).
Although males are five times more
likely to be diagnosed with ASD than
females, the rate of females diagnosed
with ASD increased in recent years at
more than double the rate (33.3%) of
their male counterparts (12.5%; CDC,
2014b). Researchers also reported a
significant and positive relationship
between SES and a preexisting diagnosis of ASD, suggesting that families
with a lower SES may not have equal
access to services (Durkin et al., 2010).
Social Challenges
The social deficits associated with ASD
have received a great deal of attention
in the literature (e.g., Auger, 2013;
Demurie, De Corel, & Roeyers, 2011;
SOCIAL STORIES ARE A STRATEGY OFTEN USED WHEN
WORKING WITH CHILDREN WITH ASD TO ADDRESS SOCIAL,
BEHAVIORAL, AND COMMUNICATION DEFICITS.
Although the federal definition
of autism shares many similarities
with the DSM-V definition of ASD
(Auger, 2013), the federal definition
clearly specifies that the disorder must
adversely affect a child’s educational
performance. School counselors have
a responsibility to “strive to assist all
students in achieving their full potential” (ASCA, 2013, p. 49). As a result,
school counselors would benefit from
being aware of the various diagnostic
criteria and educational eligibility
requirements for ASD.
Prevalence
The highest prevalence of children
identified with ASD has been observed
in White non-Hispanic children,
males, and children with a higher
socioeconomic status (CDC, 2014b).
However, ASD identification and access to resources may be influenced
by variables including race, socioeconomic status (SES), and gender. For
example, researchers suggested that racial disparities may exist in ASD identification, including under-identifying
Black and Hispanic students (Travers,
Krezmien, Mulcahy, & Tincani, 2014).
Eaves & Ho, 2004; Lemcke, Juul,
Parner, Lauritsen, & Thorsen, 2013;
MacDonald, Lord, & Ulrich, 2013;
Rotheram-Fuller, Kasari, Chamberlain,
& Locke, 2010; Sreckovic, Brunsting,
& Able, 2014). School-aged children
with ASD often experience difficulties
with reciprocal social communication, verbal interaction, and nonverbal
communication (Lemcke et al., 2013).
Furthermore, students with ASD tend
to struggle with unstructured time and
interact less with their peers during
time outside of the classroom (Lang
et al., 2011), and may be challenged
to take others’ perspectives (Demurie
et al., 2011). According to researchers, students with ASD had a lower
prevalence of friendships compared to
their typical counterparts (Rowley et
al., 2012), were more often rejected by
their peers and had fewer reciprocal
relationships (Rotheram-Fuller et al.,
2010), and were overly represented as
victims of bullying (Sreckovic et al.,
2014). Students with ASD face a host
of social challenges and need interventions to assist them in navigating these
difficulties. Scholars and practitioners
have described social stories as a
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TABLE 1
CAROL GRAY’S 10 CRITERIA FOR SOCIAL STORIES
Carol Gray’s 10 Criteria for Social Stories
popular and promising intervention
to address social skills in youth with
ASD, including their social, behavioral, and communication functioning
(Hutchins, 2012a).
School Counselors’
Role and Strategies
School counselors are called to meet
students’ academic, career, and social/
emotional needs through a comprehensive school counseling program,
such as the ASCA National Model;
this includes meeting the needs of students with ASD (ASCA, 2012, 2013,
2014). School counselors can employ
several strategies to serve students
with ASD, including engaging in consultation, advocacy, and counseling.
School counselors can consult with
relevant stakeholders (e.g., teachers,
parents, and school and community
mental health professionals; Baditoi
& Brott, 2011) and “advocate for
the appropriate accommodations and
accessibility for students with disabilities” (ASCA, 2010, Section D.2d).
Through consultation and advocacy,
school counselors ensure that students
have needed resources and facilitate
communication between stakeholders.
School counselors both understand
and assist with the special education
assessment and referral process as
members of the multidisciplinary team
(Trolley, Haas, & Patti, 2009). They
Share meaningful and descriptive information
Gather relevant information
Include a title, body, and conclusion
Format to enhance and clarify meaning
Use a patient and supportive vocabulary
Use “wh” questions to guide story development
Use seven types of sentences (see Table 2)
Do more describing than directing
Individualize the story to the student
Edit and implement
Note: content from Carol Gray (2010)
SOCIAL STORIES
A social story is a broad term used to
describe a visual, story-based approach
utilized to “facilitate a wide range of
social, behavioral, and communicative
functions in preschool and school-age
children and adolescents with ASD
who vary widely in their cognitive and
linguistic profiles” (Hutchins, 2012a,
pp. 313-314). A social story is written
by an author (e.g., school counselor,
teacher, parent, or other professional)
for and often in collaboration with
the audience/subject (e.g., the student). Social Stories™ were originally
developed by Carol Gray in 1993 and
A SOCIAL STORY SHOULD EXPLAIN A SITUATION OR
SOCIAL CONCEPT USING SIMPLE LANGUAGE AND
DESCRIBING OTHERS’ PERSPECTIVES AND FEELINGS.
also remain a vital component of students’ services after student eligibility
(Baditoi & Brott, 2011). For instance,
school counselors provide counseling
to students with disabilities in individual and group settings, both in mainstream and special education environments (ASCA, 2013). Social stories are
one intervention school counselors can
use during counseling when serving
students with ASD (Auger, 2013).
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can be distinguished from the broad
term social stories by the trademark
and capitalization (Hutchins, 2012a).
In addition to Gray, many other
authors have described social stories
(Hutchins, 2012b). Therefore, for the
purpose of this article, the authors will
use the term social story to include
both the trademarked Social Stories™
following Gray’s criteria and modified
social stories that conform to general
concepts of the intervention.
Several scholars have proposed
goals for social story use. Generally speaking, a social story should
explain a situation or social concept
using simple language and describing others’ perspectives and feelings
(Hutchins, 2012a; Kokina & Kern,
2010; Rhodes, 2014). Social stories
can address a range of situations,
from highly challenging and complex
to simple (Gray, 2010). According
to Gray (2010), social stories should
describe concepts (e.g., sharing with
peers), situations (e.g., eating in the
school cafeteria) and skills (e.g.,
conflict resolution) through the use of
10 criteria (Table 1), including seven
types of sentences (Table 2). Social
stories can include information regarding what happened, why something
happened, and appropriate responses
to the situation (Rhodes, 2014). The
National Autism Center (NAC; 2011)
recommended that social stories
include target behavior, the context in
which the behavior should occur, the
likely outcome of the target behavior,
and “wh” questions. Social stories
can also address changes in routines,
familiarize students with novel events,
and prepare students for social situations (Gibbons & Goins, 2008; Gray
& Garand, 1993). After reading a
social story, students should have an
increased understanding of events
and expected behaviors (Gray, 2010;
Hutchins, 2012b). Although students’
increased understanding may lead to
TABLE 2
7 TYPES OF SENTENCES FOR SOCIAL STORIES
Type of Sentence
Definition
Example
Descriptive
Factual, objective, assumption-and-debate free
The rain is wet.
Perspective Refer to students’ knowledge, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, opinion, motivation
Many people think playing
in the rain is fun.
Coaching
Gently guide the behavior of students or his/her team -
Describe more effective student responses. I will try to/I will work on...
I will try to wipe my shoes before
stepping inside.
n Team Identify what others will do to assist the student
Mom will give me an umbrella.
n Self
After reviewing the story with the students, the author asks for a sentence to help them remember the information
I can think of frosty the snowman
to remember my hat.
n Audience
Affirmative
Enhance meaning, express a commonly shared value/opinion with a given culture
Sometimes I cannot go outside
when it rains. This is ok. I could
catch a cold.
Partial
My coat will keep me ______.
Use fill-in-the-blank format to encourage the child to retrieve critical concepts
Note: Some figure components paraphrased and directly cited from Gray, 2010, pp. lv-lxi. Examples are original statements.
changes in their behaviors, behavioral
changes should be a byproduct of the
social story, rather than the sole purpose of the intervention.
Social stories are often individualized for each student and his or her
presenting concern (Auger, 2013;
Goodman-Scott & O’Rorke-Trigiani,
2013; Hutchins, 2012a; Rhodes, 2014).
Social stories are written in first person
from the perspective of the student
(Goodman-Scott & O’Rorke-Trigiani,
2013; Gray, 2010; Hutchins, 2012a)
and use positive language such as what
a student will do (e.g., I will try to
listen to my teacher during a tornado
drill; Gray, 2010). Authors often spend
substantial time creating social stories,
including planning, gathering information, and revising the story (Gray,
2010). When planning for a story, the
author gathers background information
from the student, teachers, parents, and
through observations to better understand the student’s perspective and experiences (Hutchins, 2012a). At times,
the student and author can write the
story together, using the student’s language and perspective (Goodman-Scott
& O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013). Social stories are considered a culturally responsive intervention due to using students’
language and incorporating their world
view into the story (Hutchins, 2012a).
SOCIAL STORIES CAN ALSO ADDRESS CHANGES IN
ROUTINES, FAMILIARIZE STUDENTS WITH NOVEL EVENTS,
AND PREPARE STUDENTS FOR SOCIAL SITUATIONS.
Social stories should be safe, truthful, absent of judgment, and foster
self-esteem in the student (Hutchins,
2012a). Also, students may take a
story literally; therefore, authors
should avoid universal statements such
as “always,” and instead use flexible
language such as “usually.” By using
flexible language, social stories can be
more easily revised later (Kokina &
Kern, 2010; Rhodes, 2014).
Once a social story is implemented,
students’ progress should be carefully monitored so revisions can be
made based upon student behavior or
changes to the situation (Kokina &
Kern, 2010). During implementation,
reinforcement is often provided for
correct target behavior and reading the
story (NAC, 2011). To assist with generalizing newly learned concepts and
skills, social stories can be shared with
other stakeholders (Hutchins, 2012b)
and used in both the classroom and
natural environment (NAC, 2011). Social story creation is often inexpensive,
as they can be developed using word
processing programs or pen and paper
(Goodman-Scott & O’Rorke-Trigiani,
2013; Hutchins, 2012a). Furthermore,
social stories can be used in individual,
small group, and large group settings
(Meadan, Ostrosky, Triplett, Michna,
& Fettig, 2010).
Visuals such as pictures and photographs are regularly used in social stories (Hutchins, 2012a; Tissot & Evans,
2010); a body of research supports the
use of visuals to improve social skills
(e.g., Hampshire & Hourcade, 2014;
Quill, 1997; Xin & Sutman, 2011).
Students with ASD often excel at processing concrete and visual information (Hampshire & Hourcade, 2014).
Thus, the use of simple images and
text in social stories can assist students
with ASD to break complex social
situations into smaller, more manageable concepts (Kokina & Kern, 2010).
Empirical Evidence
Social stories have been the subject of
numerous research studies. In reviewing single-subject studies, social stories
VOLUME 18, NUMBER 1 | ASCA
161
implemented for youth with ASD
have been associated with decreased
undesirable behaviors (Scattone,
Wilczynski, Edwards, & Rabian,
2002) such as talking out in the
classroom (Crozier & Tincani, 2005),
inappropriate lunchtime behaviors
(Toplis & Hadwin, 2006), frustration
while completing homework (Adams,
Gouvousis, VanLue, & Waldron,
2004), and aggression toward peers
during school transitions (Mancil,
Haydon, & Whitby, 2009). Also, the
implementation of social stories has
resulted in greater desired behaviors in
youth with ASD, such as an increase
in peer play and social interactions
(Barry & Burlew, 2004; Crozier &
Tincani, 2007; Delano & Snell, 2006;
Sansosti & Powell-Smith, 2006; Scattone, Tingstrom, & Wilczynski, 2006);
recognizing, understanding, and
generalizing emotions (Bernad-Ripoll,
2007); appropriately sitting and attending to the teacher during group
instruction (Chan et al., 2011); perspective taking (Hutchins & Prelock,
2008); and preparation for new events
(Ivey, Heflin, & Alberto, 2004). Last,
social story implementation in youth
with ASD has led to increased selfregulation, such as identifying one’s
emotions (Bernad-Ripoll, 2007) and
increasingly remaining calm (Hutchins
& Prelock, 2008).
conjunction with other social stories;
written using longer sentences; used
with the incorporation of illustrations;
based on Functional Behavior Assessments; and included comprehension
checks to confirm youths’ understanding of the material. Because social stories are a language-based intervention,
youth with higher verbal skills may
benefit most from this intervention
(Kokina & Kern, 2010). For example,
social stories were most effective when
used with average to high-functioning
youth with ASD, including youth with
higher communication and social skills
and low to moderate negative behaviors (Kokina & Kern, 2010).
Social stories also have been investigated with experimental designs.
Utilizing an experimental pretest
posttest design (N = 45), researchers examined the efficacy of social
story interventions for youths with
ASD. Researchers reported that after
relevant social story interventions, two
thirds of participants improved their
game-playing social skills, including
generalizing the social skills to other
games (Quirmbach, Lincoln, FeinbergGizzo, Ingersoll, & Andrews, 2009).
Findings remained stable one week
postintervention.
Although there is much support
for the use of social stories, criticism
exists. Some scholars suggested social
BEHAVIORAL CHANGES SHOULD BE A BYPRODUCT
OF THE SOCIAL STORY, RATHER THAN THE SOLE
PURPOSE OF THE INTERVENTION.
Kokina and Kern (2010) conducted
a metaanalysis of 18 studies that
utilized a single-subject design to
examine the efficacy of social stories
for participants with ASD. Researchers
reported that social stories were most
effective when the intervention was
used to reduce inappropriate behaviors; implemented in general education
settings; read by the targeted youth;
read immediately before the targeted
situation; utilized as a brief intervention (i.e., 0-10 sessions); used in
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stories can lack empirical evidence
and treatment controls and possess
confounding treatment variables
(Hutchins, 2012a; Kokina & Kern,
2010). For example, social stories are
often used in conjunction with other
interventions (Rhodes, 2014) and
implementation strategies may vary
(Kokina & Kern, 2010). Furthermore,
improved social skills may not be
maintained over time (e.g., Crozier
& Tincani, 2007). Studies often are
conducted with small samples, which
may lead to the inability to generalize
findings (Hanley-Hochdorfer, Bray,
Kehle, & Elinoff, 2010).
Despite criticisms, social stories remain a promising intervention. In fact,
researchers supported by the National
Autism Center’s National Standards
Project conducted a rigorous, crossdiscipline review of education and
behavioral treatment of youth with
ASD over a 50-year span, resulting
in recommending 11 evidence-based
treatment practices for this population
(NAC, 2009). One of these recommended interventions was story-based
interventions, the most well-known
being Carol Gray’s Social Stories™.
School Counseling and
Social Stories
According to Auger (2013), “school
counselors have the necessary training and experience required to assist
in the development and implement of
interventions targeting the social deficits that comprise the primary challenge for students with ASD” (p. 265).
As part of the delivery system of the
ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2012),
school counselors can create and
implement social stories to address the
social, communication, and behavioral challenges of students with ASD.
Auger (2013) provided an in-depth
research review of ASD geared toward
school counselors, briefly describing
social stories and associated school
counseling implications. Other counseling scholars have discussed school
counselors’ role in serving students
with ASD (Gibbons & Goins, 2008;
Kaffenberger & O’Rorke-Trigiani,
2013; Layne, 2007), two of which
included a limited description of social
stories (e.g., Gibbons & Goins, 2008;
Kaffenberger & O’Rorke-Trigiani,
2013). Although the school counseling
literature recommended social stories
as a potential intervention for students
with ASD, the descriptions of this
intervention are minimal.
As presented above, several scholars
have recommended social stories as
school-based interventions for youth
with ASD and school counselors are in
a prime position to create and imple-
ment this intervention with students.
However, there is a dearth of detailed
information on social stories within
school counseling and a need to further explore this intervention within
the context of a comprehensive school
counseling program.
As an elementary school counselor,
the first author regularly created and
implemented individualized social
stories both with students receiving
special education services for ASD
and typically developing students
with a range of other social/emotional needs. To demonstrate the
process of a school counselor-created
and -implemented social story within
a comprehensive school counseling
program, the authors used an action
research-framed case study to describe the first author’s previous work
counseling a third-grade student with
ASD, Gabriel.
CASE STUDY:
A SCHOOL
COUNSELOR’S
EXPERIENCE
IMPLEMENTING
SOCIAL STORIES
Action Research
“Action research provides a means
for teachers or educators in the
schools to improve their practices of
taking action and to do so by participating in research” (Creswell, 2012,
p. 577). Practical action research is
conducted by those in education (i.e.,
school counselors, teachers, etc.) with
the goal of improving their practice
and addressing problems through a
cyclical process of planning, acting,
observing, and reflecting (Creswell,
2002; 2012). In the planning phase,
practitioners determine the identified
problem, collect data to increase their
understanding, and create a strategy
(i.e., intervention) to address the
problem. In the acting phase, practi
tioners implement the strategy/intervention, then collect and analyze data
in the observing phase. Then, in the
reflecting phase, practitioners reflect
on the action research process, identify successes, recommend changes,
and describe new problems. As action
research is iterative, the next cycle
of planning often develops from the
reflection process, as practitioners
identify new problems to address for
future action research cycles.
During the middle of his thirdgrade year, Gabriel began having
emotional outbursts when arriving to
and departing from school and began
refusing to participate in many school
assignments. After communicating
with his parents, teachers learned that
Gabriel’s parents were divorcing and
living in separate homes. Divorce can
be emotionally challenging for many
children, and children with ASD may
be particularly sensitive to disrupted
SOCIAL STORIES ARE WRITTEN IN FIRST PERSON FROM
THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE STUDENT AND USE POSITIVE
LANGUAGE SUCH AS WHAT A STUDENT WILL DO.
Planning
Gabriel attended Apple Elementary,
a large public elementary school in a
southeastern state that served students
with ASD in both a self-contained
classroom (serving a small number
of students) and in general education classrooms. Gabriel was an only
child and a Latino third-grade student
found eligible for special education
under the IDEA autism criteria; he
received services both in a general
education classroom with typically developing peers and was pulled out for
individual and small group services.
Gabriel was verbal and participated in
the general education classroom with
support and modified assignments.
His initial involvement in the school
counseling program included classroom lessons and social skill counseling groups with the school counselor.
The first author was Gabriel’s school
counselor for approximately 3 years.
Before becoming a school counselor,
she was a special education autism
teacher for a local elementary school,
working with young children newly
identified with autism and developmental delays. As a school counselor,
the first author collaborated with and
offered to collaborate with several of
the special education teachers at Apple
Elementary regarding their students
with ASD.
family routines, due to the rigidity often associated with the disorder (APA,
2013) and challenges with transitions
(Lequia, Wilkerson, Kim, & Lyons,
2014). Although previously living in
one home together, Gabriel’s parents
had joint custody and he resided in
both parents’ residences; the parents
reported that he had increasingly
frequent outbursts at home. Gabriel’s
special education and general education teachers contacted his school
counselor, the first author, provided
this background information, and
requested that Gabriel participate in
individual counseling to help him cope
with the recent family changes that
were impacting his school engagement.
After talking to Gabriel’s teachers
and parents to gain additional background information and secure parental
permission, the school counselor made
plans to meet with Gabriel for individual counseling. As a student who had
moderate- to high-functioning communication skills, Gabriel was seen as
an ideal candidate for the brief (i.e., less
than 10 sessions) social story intervention (Kokina & Kern, 2010). The school
counselor met with Gabriel to increase
rapport, assess his desire to discuss his
parents’ divorce, gather background information, and make plans to write and
read the social story during their weekly
individual counseling.
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TABLE 3
GABRIEL’S SOCIAL STORY
Page
Content
NumberImage
This is Gabriel’s family book. Gabriel wrote this book with help from
Mrs. Scott. Gabriel will read this book with his mom and with his dad.
One book will stay at mom’s house. One book will stay at dad’s house.
Cover
None.
This is my family. The people in my family are: me, my mom, and my dad. 1
Me, my mom, and my dad use to live in one house.
Photograph of Gabriel
and his parents
My parents do not live together anymore. My parents are divorced. I live 2
in two houses. My parents live in two different houses.
Two photographs: mother’s
home and father’s home
This is a picture of my mom’s house. This is a picture of me and my 3
mom. I like to be with my mom.
Two photographs: mother’s
home and image of Gabriel
and his mother together.
This is a picture of my dad’s house. This is a picture of me and my dad. 4
I like to be with my dad.
Two photographs: father’s
home and image of Gabriel
and his father together.
My parents do not live together. My parents are divorced. My parents 5
are not married, but they both love me very much. I love my mom. I love my dad.
Two photographs: Gabriel
with his mother; Gabriel
with his father.
I like to come to my school, Apple Elementary. I like the adults at my 6
Photograph of his two
school, like Mrs. Jones, Mr. Bell, and Mrs. Scott.
teachers and school
counselor.
There are lots of things I like at school. I like activity A, activity B, 7
Images of named activities
and playing C with classmates.
obtained from Google
Images.
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SOCIAL STORIES HAS
RESULTED IN GREATER DESIRED BEHAVIORS IN YOUTH
WITH ASD, SUCH AS AN INCREASE IN PEER PLAY AND
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS.
Acting
During individual weekly counseling
sessions, the school counselor and Gabriel wrote a social story together using Microsoft Word and photographs
(Table 3). The school counselor asked
Gabriel questions about his family and
the recent changes, typing his explanation in the document using his words.
Next, they added to the story digital
pictures provided by Gabriel’s mother
of Gabriel’s family and two homes.
Gabriel chose to end the story with
a description and images of favored
school activities and staff, to remind
him of enjoyable aspects of school. Finally, the school counselor and Gabriel
edited the social story for content and
grammar. During the writing process,
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ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
the school counselor consulted with
Gabriel’s parents and teachers on the
content of the social story.
After completing the story, the
school counselor and Gabriel continued to meet for individual counseling
sessions to read the story together.
Simultaneously, with Gabriel’s permission, each of Gabriel’s parents and
his classroom and special education
teacher received copies of the social
story. These stakeholders were asked
to regularly read the social story with
Gabriel over several weeks, giving
Gabriel a consistent message in several
settings, from several important adults
in his life.
In addition to the social story, the
school counselor coached Gabriel’s
parents on creating a calendar for him
that listed his daily transportation,
after-school care, and nightly sleeping
location to increase the structure and
predictability of his schedule, which
had changed since the divorce. Expected routines may be comforting for
youth with ASD (Layne, 2007).
Observing and Reflecting
In alignment with action research,
Gabriel’s school counselor, teachers,
and parents monitored his behaviors
and affect during and after the social
story implementation and creation
process. After Gabriel and the school
counselor created and implemented
the social story and schedule, Gabriel’s outbursts and academic refusal steadily decreased, eventually
returning to his baseline, according
to anecdotal reports from his teachers and parents. The goal of Gabriel’s
individual counseling with the school
counselor was to (a) increase his
understanding of and thus coping
with his recent family changes, and (b)
decrease his emotional outbursts and
academic refusal. Stakeholders (teachers, parents, and school counselors)
believed that Gabriel’s goals were met,
evident by him more readily engaging
in academic activities and his successful transitions to and from school and
his two homes. Also, Gabriel appeared
to have a clearer understanding of his
new family dynamic and routines after
the social story implementation. As
a result, Gabriel’s regular individual
counseling sessions with his school
counselor became less frequent and
gradually stopped. To maintain the
action research process, the school
counselor continued to observe and
reflect on Gabriel’s process through
periodically communicating with
Gabriel, his teachers, and parents to
discuss his adjustment, academics, and
behaviors.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this case study was to
describe a school counselor-facilitated
social story process through an action research framework. As a result,
two themes emerged from this case
study. First, the social story implementation activities utilized by the
school counselor were aligned with
the recommended school counselor’s
role (ASCA, 2012). Second, the school
counselor followed many suggested
guidelines for social story creation and
implementation.
Alignment with the School
Counselor’s Role
In implementing Gabriel’s social
story, the school counselor engaged in
activities consistent with the suggested
school counselor’s role (ASCA, 2012).
Specifically, the school counselor’s use
of individual counseling was aligned
with several authors’ recommendations that school counselors provide
social skills-focused individual and
small group counseling to youth with
ASD (Auger, 2013; Gibbons & Goins,
2008; Layne, 2007), including the
use of social stories within counseling
(Auger, 2013). In light of students with
ASD often having greater needs than
their typically developing peers, Auger
(2013) recommended school counseling interventions for this population
be longer in duration.
understanding of his parents’ divorce
and new family structure (Gray, 2010;
Hutchins, 2012a). Thus, the school
counselor individualized the social
IN ADDITION TO THE SOCIAL STORY, THE SCHOOL
COUNSELOR COACHED GABRIEL’S PARENTS ON
CREATING A CALENDAR FOR HIM.
With regard to indirect student services, the school counselor consulted
and collaborated with Gabriel’s stakeholders regarding creating and implementing the social story (Auger, 2013;
Gibbons & Goins, 2008; Kaffenberger
and O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013). The
consistency and repetition involved
in using social stories across multiple
settings with several stakeholders can
increase students’ understanding and
ability to generalize concepts (Auger,
2013; Goodman-Scott & O’RorkeTrigiani, 2013; Hutchins, 2012a;
Kaffenberger & O’Rorke-Trigiani,
2013). The school counselor utilized
process and perception data before,
during, and after the intervention to
determine the need for and results
of the intervention. In hindsight, the
school counselor could have collected
and used outcome data, such as the
number of student outbursts and class
participation refusals. Overall, this
case study demonstrated that a school
counselor-implemented social story assisting in the academic and behavioral
functioning of a student with ASD is
consistent with the role of a school
counselor (ASCA, 2012).
Alignment with Social Story
Recommendations
With regard to the second theme, the
school counselor followed several
recommended criteria when creating
and implementing the social story with
Gabriel. First, Gabriel was an ideal
candidate for a social story due to his
moderate- to high-functioning communication skills (Kokina & Kern,
2010). The purpose of his social story
was to descriptively share information, thereby increasing Gabriel’s
story to meet Gabriel’s presenting
concern (Auger, 2013; Goodman-Scott
& O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013; Hutchins,
2012a; Rhodes, 2014). Gabriel’s
social story was written in the first
person (Goodman-Scott & O’RorkeTrigiani, 2013; Gray, 2010; Hutchins,
2012a) and included simple language
(Hutchins, 2012a; Kokina & Kern,
2010; Rhodes, 2014) and photographs, because several scholars have
recommended the use of visuals in
social stories (Gray, 2010; Hutchins,
2012a; Kokina & Kern, 2010). Figure
3 includes the content and described
images in Gabriel’s social story.
As suggested, Gabriel and his
school counselor created the story together (Goodman-Scott & O’RorkeTrigiani, 2013) and the story was
culturally relevant (Hutchins, 2012a),
as it was created from Gabriel’s
perspective, words, and his parental
input (Gray, 2010). Next, the social
story was based on the background
information the school counselor
collected from stakeholders before
the intervention (Goodman-Scott &
O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013; Hutchins,
2012a), and stakeholders also were
included in the social story implementation (Hutchins, 2012b), as Gabriel’s
parents and teachers received a copy
of the story and reported reading
the story with him. Last, scholars
recommended using social stories in
conjunction with other interventions
(Auger, 2013; Hanley-Hochdorfer et
al., 2010).In addition to the social
story, the school counselor collaborated with Gabriel’s parents on a family schedule to familiarize him with
new family routines (Gray & Garand,
1993). Thus, this case study demonVOLUME 18, NUMBER 1 | ASCA
165
strated the implementation of several
social story recommendations.
IMPLICATIONS
After reading this case study, school
counselors may have a greater understanding of school counselor-created
and -implemented social stories using
an action research framework and
can consider the appropriate use of
social stories within their comprehensive school counseling program. The
following implications result from this
study:
n Although no single intervention
works for all youth with ASD
(Layne, 2007), social stories may be
considered as one of many interventions (Auger, 2013; Hanley-Hochdorfer et al., 2010). Practitioners
can be mindful of both the professional recommendations for and
criticisms against this intervention,
as described in this article.
n According to Hall (2015), school
counselors may not receive adequate
pre-service preparation to work
with students with disabilities. As a
result, some school counselors may
consider seeking additional training
to serve this population (Kaffenberger & O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013).
n When considering implementation,
school counselors can remember
that, as a language-based intervention, social stories may be most
effective when read by the targeted
youth, include a comprehension
check, and when used with average
to high-functioning youth with ASD
(Kokina & Kern, 2010).
n School counselors can write social
stories for a variety of reasons: to
explain situations and concepts
(Gray, 2010; Hutchins, 2012a; Kokina & Kern, 2010; Rhodes, 2014),
to prepare for social situations
(Gibbons & Goins, 2008), and to
describe changes (Gray & Garand,
1993). The subject of social stories
may focus on a range of behaviors
including peer interactions (e.g.,
joining in a conversation), appropriate school behaviors (e.g., personal
166
ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
space), and self-regulation (e.g., asking for a break).
n School counselors should first implement social stories in individual
and small groups because students
may have greater success in smaller
settings before larger groups (Xin &
Sutman, 2011), such as large-group
counseling or classroom lessons.
n Stakeholder collaboration is crucial
in creating and implementing social
stories. When teachers and parents/
caretakers support and utilize social
stories, they are more likely to be
incorporated into students’ routines
(Rhodes, 2014). Further, school
counselors may learn additional
strategies for working with students
with ASD by developing collaborative partnerships with speech,
language, and special education
professionals (Kaffenberger &
O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013).
n School counselors are encouraged to
collect data on social story interventions such as process data (e.g., the
logistics of social story implementation), perception data (e.g., school
counselors’, students’, teachers’, and
parents’ perceptions of the intervention), and outcome data (e.g.,
the number of student outbursts,
discipline referrals, absences, tardies,
school refusals, social skill/work
habit grades, etc.).
n Social stories can be written with
Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, or Mayer-Johnson’s Boardmaker Software (district special
education departments may own the
latter).
n School counselors may include
images in their social stories; these
can be obtained through several
avenues: copyright-free images on
Google Images, Microsoft’s Clip
Art, Boardmaker, and photographs
(Goodman-Scott & O’Rorke-Trigiani, 2013).
n School counselors can buy pre-created social stories such as O’RorkeTrigiani, Goodman-Scott, &
Lindsey’s I CAN! series and social
stories by Carol Gray and Jed Baker.
All can be purchased online.
CONCLUSION
“Students with ASD, often misunderstood and underserved, deserve the
best that schools and school counselors can offer” (Auger, 2013, p.
266). Our students deserve the best
we can give them, and sometimes
that “best” requires us learning from
other disciplines. The educational
literature has identified social stories
as a promising intervention to meet
the social needs of students with ASD,
and this intervention can fit within the
context of running a comprehensive
school counseling program such as the
ASCA National Model. This article
is a positive first step in contributing
to the school counseling profession
by providing an example of a school
counselor-created and -implemented
social story. However, future research
on social stories within school counseling is needed, including outcome research on social story implementation
and creating and implementing social
stories with a wide variety of students.
Also, the field can benefit from future
research on school counselors’ perceptions and experiences regarding social
story creation and implementation.
The percentage of students identified with ASD has been on the rise.
School counselors are in a position to
be at the frontline of schools’ efforts,
working with students, teachers, and
parents to meet the unique needs of
students with ASD. To this end, social
stories can be a helpful intervention
in school counselors’ professional
toolbox. n
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