Project description and research plan
The chemistry of CO2 activation and fixation
Professor Einar Uggerud, University of Oslo
Professor Knut Børve, University of Bergen
"We may perhaps produce chemical fuels
directly from sunlight, CO2, and water"
Richard A. Kerr and Robert F. Service
in One of the 125 grand challenges Science
magazine (2005).
Summary
Our objective is to describe the essential molecular factors, at the most fundamental level, that
govern how CO2 forms covalent bonds to hydrogen and carbon, mediated by electrons and
catalysed by specific metals. This knowledge is of high relevance to large-scale processes in which
carbon dioxide may be converted to commodity chemicals and polymers, and to biological CO2
fixation.
This will be achieved by employing state-of-the-art experimental techniques of accurately defined
gas phase reaction systems and key species, infrared action spectroscopy and advanced mass
spectrometric and ion storage techniques. In addition, large-scale quantum chemical modelling for
accurate simulation of spectral properties, reaction mechanisms and dynamics will be applied, thus
significantly enhancing the interpretation of the experimental findings. This unique combination of
experimental and computational methodology, alongside with the well-documented ability of the
PIs in producing original and high-quality research, warrants highly significant outcome from the
project, to be published in the best journals.
The three-year project will hire one postdoctoral fellow and two Ph.D. students, who will benefit
from the combined expertise of two research groups, and their local, national and international
network of top-level collaborators. Costs for experimental campaigns in Oslo, Berlin, Paris and
Stockholm are included.
1. Relevance relative to the call for proposals
The increasing atmospheric level of CO2 poses one of the most serious challenges to mankind, and
is of worldwide concern. Besides reducing the total combustion of hydrocarbons, there exist two
potentially viable strategies for counteracting the increasing CO2 levels. One is to capture CO2 from
effluent gases from fossil-fuel power plants and deposit the catchment into geological formations
(CO2 catchment). The other is to incorporate CO2 into chemical production as a feedstock for
2
synthetic fuels, commodity chemicals or polymers like polycarbonates (CO2 fixation).
In the
latter strategy, either a carbon-carbon bond or a carbon-hydrogen bond between CO2 and a second
substrate molecule has to be established in the reaction, and normally energy input is required,
typically by transfer of electrons, either to activate CO2 or the other substrate (reductive coupling).
When CO2 fixation is integrated with a solar cell (photovoltaics), this is often referred to as artificial
photosynthesis.
1,2
Progress in the utilization of carbon dioxide as a reactant in chemical industry, and better insight
into biological and artificial photosynthetic fixation of CO2, requires detailed knowledge of the
mechanism in terms of each of the elementary reaction steps and the molecular factors that govern
reactivity in each of these steps. In this respect, understanding the reaction mechanisms is central to
all research in this fast growing field. 3 4 There is an articulated understanding that the fundamental
understanding in this field is insufficient. 5
In C–C bond forming reactions, CO2 in its pristine form acts as an electrophile, meaning that the
second substrate molecule has been activated by electron transfer in the first place, forming a
carbon nucleophile (a carbanion synthon), as for example in the Grignard reaction,
CO2 + RMgX → RCO2H
(1).
Alternatively, the CO2 molecule can be activated by electron transfer, to promote reversal of its
electric character, turning it into a nucleophile (umpolung). It may then react with an electrophile (a
carbocation synthon or a proton) to form a C–C (or C–H) bond. To exemplify the two approaches to
CO2 reactivity, in electrolytic reduction of CO2 with water, to form formic acid, formaldehyde or
methanol, a hydride ion is transferred to CO2 to form a C–H bond. Alternatively, CO2 can be
activated by electron transfer, and a C–H bond is eventually formed by subsequent transfer of a
proton. For both C–C and C–H bond formation, we therefore realize a reaction dichotomy,
distinguished by whether electrons first are supplied to CO2 or to the other substrate. In any given
case it may be difficult to determine which of the two scenarios are in operation, since the
intermediates are often very short-lived.
Nature may serve as a model and source for inspiration. In photosynthesis H2O is converted to O2
and hydrogen, the latter in the form of the reduced species NADPH (the reduced form of
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NADP+). This occurs in the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts of green plants, algae and cyanobacteria that contain chlorophyll and the associated
photosystem units. The reduced species, NADPH, in turn is transferred to the stroma of the
chloroplast, where reaction with CO2 occurs. 6,7 The net reduction reaction, ignoring the
involvement of other species present, is
6CO2 + 12NADPH → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6NADP+
(2).
This reaction involves the magnesium centred Rubisco enzyme in a complex series of elementary
reactions that is often called the Calvin cycle or the dark reaction, eventually leading to the
carbohydrate product. It is generally considered that CO2 acts as an electrophile in the dark reaction
of photosynthesis. However, the complexity of the dark reaction makes it difficult to sort out the
detailed order of elementary steps, including ruling out mechanisms in which activated CO2 may act
as the nucleophile. This idea also opens up the possibility for inventing schemes for artificial
photosynthesis working according to the umpolung scheme.
Also in electrolytic CO2 reduction 8 the order of events may be unclear, taking formation of formic
acid as an example:
–
3
CO2 + 2H + 2e → HCOOH
(3).
Is the electron first transferred to the CO2 molecule, giving hydrated CO2–., which may act as a
carbon nucleophile, or is the electron first transferred to a proton in the vicinity of the cathode
giving rise to adsorbed hydrogen atoms, which in turn may react with pristine CO2? The actual
mechanism will depend on the nature of the electrode. Furthermore, depending on conditions and in
particular the catalytic selectivity of the electrode, adsorbed hydrogens may form H2 rather than
formic acid.
+
2. Aspects relating to the research project
Background and status of knowledge
(a) Metal CO2 activation. The properties and reactivity of
metal–CO2 complexes is intimately related to how the
metal is coordinated to CO2. In neutral complexes
containing a single metal atom monodentate coordination
M(η1-CO2) or bidentate coordination M(η2-CO2) are most
common, corresponding to structures (A) and (B) in the
upper box, respectively. Linear “end-on” coordination (C)
is also seen, but is less common. Work on isolated
electron-rich anionic metal–CO2 complexes is scarce, but
such complexes also prefer the coordination modes A and
B, retaining a bent CO2 moiety as a result of the partial
negative charge transfer into the π* orbital of CO2. In
contrast, cationic metal–CO2 complexes have so far
shown to exclusively coordinate “end-on” to the metal
of vibrational predissociation
(C) due to the electron deficiency resulting in electrostatic Comparison
spectra of ClMgCO2−•D2 to simulated IR
bonding between the positively charged metal atom and spectra for the (1) [ClMg(η 2-O2C)]– (III),
the partial negative charge on oxygen in CO2. In addition and (2) [ClMg(η2-CO2)]– isomers (IV).
to these, we have recently been able to synthesize and
characterize single metal anionic complexes with bidentate double oxygen Mg(η2-O2C)
coordination (D), comprising a novel kite-formed binding motif, which are best characterized as
being salts of dihydroxycarbene (HOCOH). 9,10 The magnesium is essentially Mg(II) in these
compounds, which are extremely reactive, and can only be isolated in the gas phase. The carbene
character is reflected in the ability of Mg(η2-O2C) to act as a carbon nucleophile by forming C–C
bonds in addition and substitution reactions. This is a key point since metal activation in this
manner leads to umpolung of the otherwise electrophilic carbon of CO2. Irrespective of whether this
reductive mode of binding CO2 plays a role as a short-lived intermediate in the Calvin cycle or not,
the very concept offers a new lead in the development of artificial photosynthesis. Clearly, a
periodic-table-wide exploration of the stability and properties of such complexes is highly desirable,
applying experimental and computational methods available. It should also be mentioned that
complexes of this kind react vigorously with water and that the unusual structural arrangement was
recently verified through infrared photodissociation experiments of the magnesium complexes, see
also lower box above.
From the literature and our own explorative work we have indications that elements of groups 1 and
2 are most likely to form M(η2-O2C) complexes, but it is also likely that low oxidation states of
4
some transition metals have this ability. Our strategy is first to systematically explore the periodic
plethora by computational quantum chemistry, of the structure and stability of the various complex
motifs (A – D) for these elements, and then try to form them using electrospray ionization of
solutions of the metal oxalate salts (or similar precursors), and thereby study their reactivity and
stability using mass spectrometric techniques.
(b) Decarboxylation and carboxylation, the Grignard perspective. Thermolysis of carboxylic acids
leading to CO2 elimination finds many practical uses in organic chemistry and decarboxylases are
essential for catalysing elimination of CO2 from amino acids in vivo, for example for the transfer of
L-DOPA to dopamine — the latter essential to synaptic transmission. Decarboxylation may either
occur from the acid itself or from its salt. In both cases the reaction is facilitated by the presence of
electron withdrawing substituents near the reaction centre. For a free acid the substituent also acts
as a proton acceptor. CO2 loss is also observed upon heating of carboxylate ionic liquids. Gas phase
decarboxylation of carboxylate anions may take place according to equation (4), provided that the
corresponding R. radical has positive electron affinity. 11
RCO2– → R– + CO2
(4)
Electrospray ionization (ESI) provides a straightforward and efficient method for producing
carboxylate ions from spraying carboxylic acid solutions. 12 By combining ESI and collisional
Scheme 1
activation it is possible to form arenide ions from deprotonated substituted benzoic acids, with
higher yields of R– the more electron withdrawing the substituents are.
The reverse of decarboxylation is the addition of an R– group to carbon dioxide. The classical way
of providing R– synthons is by Grignard reagents in the form of R-Mg-X (X = halide). This and
other reductive schemes for using CO2 as carbon feedstock in chemical synthesis, for example by
electrochemistry, currently receive a lot of attention. The reactivity of prototypical Grignard
reagents of the type CH3MgL2– (L = Cl or O2CCH3), formed by decarboxylation of MgL2 adducts
of acetate by collision induced dissociation (CID) were studied in the gas phase by O’Hair et al. 13
Under the reaction conditions used it was not possible to trap the Grignard adduct of CH3MgL2–
with water, methanol, ethanol and acetic acid, and small aldehydes. Due to kinetic reasons instead
CH4 formation was observed to occur. Similarly, formation of H2 is observed in reactions between
magnesium hydride anions, HMgL2− (L = Cl and HCO2) and formic acid.
As a part of our suggested survey of the very interesting reactivity landscape between Grignard
chemistry and decarboxylation reactions, also with biological and industrial CO2 fixation in mind, it
would be necessary to apply a broader perspective by investigating the unimolecular and
bimolecular chemistry of magnesium or zinc complexes of a wider range of carboxylic acids and
metal ions M(II) in the form of ML+ (M = Cu, Zn and perhaps other metals; L = OH, Cl, Br, RCO2).
5
In addition, we propose to investigate a series of di- and triacids, giving rise to intramolecularly
linked ligands with the potential of loosing several CO2 in consecutive dissociations. A further
perspective, not yet investigated, will be to study the requirements for CO2 exchange within
CH3CO2ML2– using isotope-labelled species.
(c) Models of dipolar and ionic addition of H2 to CO2, in water clusters. Electrolytic reduction of
CO2 is a complex process, involving short-lived surface and solution species that often are difficult
to identify and characterize. Matters are much simplified in the gas phase, and studying suitable
model systems allows for elucidation of key features of the elementary reaction steps that lead to
hydrogenation.
For example, the addition of H2 to CO2 in the isolated state, provided
the existence of nearby hydride donor and proton donor sites, can be
considered a two-step process giving rise to formic acid; addition of
hydride (AH– + CO2 → HCO2– + A) followed by proton transfer (BH+
+ HCO2– → HCOOH + B). The hydride and proton donating sites
require sources of hydrogen. In electrolysis, hydride is most likely
present at the cathode. In contrast, concerted addition of an intact H2
molecule (already formed at the cathode) to a CO2 molecule is
symmetry forbidden according to the Woodward-Hoffmann rules and
consequently has a high-energy barrier, making this mechanism irrelevant. In other words, it may
be rewarding to identify the requirements for each of the two elementary steps separately. The first
step, hydride transfer, may be obtained from a wide of range of potential hydride donors, AH–,
provided the hydride affinity of CO2 is the higher than that of A. In addition to the thermochemical
requirement defined by the difference in hydride affinity between CO2 and M, one may expect that
electronic effects associated with the hydride transfer are operative, giving rise to an inherent
activation energy. The final proton transfer step HCO2– + BH+ will depend on the relative proton
affinity of HCO2– and B but is more trivial in the sense that proton transfer reactions have negligible
inherent activation energy.
It is well established that the radical anion CO2-! is present during electrochemical reduction, and
good evidence for mechanisms involving CO2-! as a key intermediate, either in solution near the
electrode or as an electrode surface species, has been presented.8 However, it seems unclear how
further reaction between CO2-! and H2O occurs. Intermediate radical species proposed to exist along
this route, including HCO2!, are unstable toward
spontaneous dissociation and it may be questioned if these
species have sufficiently lifetime to play any significant
role during reaction. Also in this case, studying wellselected model systems may be rewarding in telling the
actual course of electrochemical reduction of CO2.
The ionic or dipolar nature of these reactions is clearly affected by the medium, in this case water.
Clusters of water molecules, (H2O)n, constitute particularly attractive small-scale models for bulk
water, and by introducing ionic or neutral molecules into a cluster, it becomes possible to
investigate solvation in water at a fundamental level. The interaction between a small number of
water molecules and polar or charged particles is in this respect essential. The nano-solvation
environment found in clusters containing one or several “solute” molecules is an ideal model of
solvation in bulk.
6
(d) Electrocatalysis
CO2 may undergo 2, 4, 6, and even 8e reduction, accompanied by the addition of protons. This
opens for a wide range of target products, such as CO, HCOOH, (COOH)2, HCHO, CH3OH, C2H4,
C2H5OH, and CH4, with the electrocatalyst as a key to achieving useful turnover frequency as well
as selectivity. A problem common to most implementations of these reactions is that they involve
high-energy reaction steps that require large overpotentials to become feasible. The task of the
electrocatalyst is to reduce the overpotential for the desired reaction by stabilizing high-energy
intermediates by bond-formation to the catalyst. Focusing on the 2e reduction, there are Fe(0)
catalysts that show exceptionally high activity, low overpotential and nearly quantitative faradaic
yield of CO, albeit in a non-aqueous solvent14 the Fe(0) state may be electrogenerated, while
phenolic substituents on the porphyrin ligand stabilize the initial Fe(I)CO2- adduct through Hbonding and also favor proton transfers. Largely reduced overpotential and almost quantitative yield
of CO was obtained under aqueous conditions through stabilization of the formate radical by
addition of an ionic-liquid-forming salt, 1-Et-3-Me-imidazolium tetrafluoroborate to high
concentration. 15 There are strong indications that the rôle of the imidazolium salt is not merely to
stabilize the formate radical but also involves specific interactions with the electrode (Ag, Pt).
Similarly, adding protonated pyridine to the solution shows promising effects on the reduction to
formic acid and methanol.8 Further, Brookhart et al.16 reported on an Ir-PNP pincer complex able to
reduce CO2 with high selectivity to formate, with water as solvent. Still, it is desirable to pursue
catalytic systems based on abundant elements and several recent studies (see 17 and references
therein) report on promising activity and selectivity for formate production over Sn/SnOx
nanocatalysts. Catalyst stability is favored at mildly alkaline conditions under which bicarbonate
serves as a reactant reservoir for formate formation. 17 The formation of formate over Sn(112) was
very recently explored by DFT modeling, although without considering the bicarbonate species as a
possible starting point.18
Approaches, hypotheses and choice of method
Academic research in this area provides both highly interesting opportunities and very demanding
challenges. For our laboratories, with background and expertise in chemical reactivity, spectroscopy
and theoretical methodology (computational quantum chemistry, reaction dynamics and reaction
kinetics), it is natural to aim our activities at the fundamental aspects of the problem in terms of
characterization and thermochemistry of reactants, products and intermediates at the atomic level,
as well as providing detailed reaction mechanisms of the elementary reaction steps — in other
words conducting a full survey of the energy landscapes of the reactions, taking full advantage of an
arsenal of precise spectroscopic and spectrometric methods for characterization, currently with
extraordinary spectroscopic, temporal and positional precision.
State-of-the-art experimental and theoretical molecular techniques will be used to explore a set of
carefully selected reaction systems of reduced dimensionality, as described above. Most
experiments will be conducted in Oslo using the Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR) and QTOF mass spectrometers equipped with EI/CI, electrospray ionization and supersonic
expansion cooling cluster sources. However, for the most demanding experimental challenges, we
need to collaborate with international experts who master highly advanced techniques using toplevel research infrastructures. In particular, we will involve our collaborators professors Mats
Larsson (Stockholm) and Knut Asmis (Leipzig/Berlin). In Stockholm, the brand new DESIRE
7
facility offers unprecedented opportunities for advanced mass spectrometric experiments, while the
recently opened free electron laser (FEL) facility at the Fritz-Haber Institute in Berlin gives access
to intense highly resolved infrared radiation for spectroscopic characterization of stored ions. In
fact, the already quoted work on Mg(η2-O2C)Cl– gave rise to the very first publication from the
FEL in Berlin. These two individuals support the initiative, and oblige themselves to participating
in the project. In this manner the current project supports our long time goal in strengthening
experimental physical chemistry in Norway, with emphasis on the groups in physical chemistry in
Bergen and Oslo, by extensive international collaboration.
Quantum-mechanical modeling forms an essential part of the project, both as complementary
approach to the experimental cluster studies and as a stand-alone source of information about
selected metal/metaloxide-based systems for electrocatalytic reduction of CO2. For the first part, the
Gaussian package of quantum mechanical programs will be the main tool, focusing on equilibrium
structures and energies of water-based clusters with dissolved molecules, ions or an electron. For
the second part, slab models as described with DFT and plane-wave bases will become a valuable
tool, augmented with Car-Parrinello calculations and multireference benchmarks to ascertain
electronic states in complicated cases. These calculations will require extensive computational
resources form the national NOTUR consortium for high-performance computations.
3. The project plan, project management, organisation and cooperation
Work packages
WP 1. Metal CO2 activation
(i) Computational study to identify stable M(η2-O2C) species, by a partial study of the periodic table
(Groups 1 and 2 and selected transition metals).
(ii) Formation of stable M(η2-O2C) species (see point above) and characterization of their
nucleophilic reactivity in formation of C–C bonds using electrospray ionization of mass
spectrometry and ion trapping techniques.
(iii) Spectroscopic characterization of selected M(η2-O2C) species by photodissociation (action
spectroscopy; IR, UV and X-ray), see points above.
Project-funded staff: One Ph.d. student (Oslo).
WP 2. Decarboxylation and carboxylation, the Grignard perspective
(i) Formation of Grignard type of reagents M = (Mg, Zn, Cu, Ag, Au) by CID mass spectrometry:
RCO2MXn- → RMXn- + CO2 in competition with carboxylate formation RCO2MXn- → RCO2- +
MXn.
(ii) Monitoring the reactivity of RMXn- towards Lewis acids for alkyl anion transfer.
(iii) Exchange of isotopically labelled CO2: RCO2MXn- + CO2 → RCO2MXn- + CO2
Project-funded staff: One postdoctoral fellow (Oslo).
8
WP 3. Electrolytic CO2 reduction
This WP combines (i) quantum chemical modeling of the catalytic reduction of CO2 over
Sn/SnO2(s) and (ii) experimental and theoretical cluster studies of the interaction between selected
intermediates and water. This allows for coupling of quantum chemical modeling of electrocatalytic
reactions and the exploration of reactivity of solvated electrons in finite clusters that offer welldefined elemental composition and free of side reactions that remove the solvated electron.
(i) The state of the nanocatalyst will be modeled at slightly alkaline pH. Adsorption and reduction
of HCO3- to HCOO- will be explored on Sn and SnO2, including stable crystallographic planes and
the impact of defect sites. Both slab and cluster models will be used for studying electronic, steric
and thus energetic profiles of individual reaction steps. The computational hydrogen electrode
(CHE) model proposed by Nørskov et al. 19 and previously applied to CO2 reduction 20,21 will be
applied to calculate the free energy change between two electrochemical steps involving a proton
and an electron transfer. We will also explore the approach to electrode-potential-dependent
activation barriers for inner-sphere reactions are proposed in 22.
(ii) In single-electron transfer the activation energy is largely due to solvent reorganization and thus
difficult to compute. This makes experimental studies of the capture of water-solvated electrons by
carbon oxygenates as well as electron and/or proton transfer of great value. Moreover, utilizing the
principle of micro reversibility, we probe the reverse of electrolytic hydrogenation, namely
dehydrogenation of formic acid, by reacting size-selected anionic water clusters, which can
conveniently be made using the equipment in Oslo, as follows:
CO2–(H2O)n + HCOOH and
e–(H2O)n + HCOOH
(5).
The experimental studies will be accompanied by high level quantum chemical calculations to
survey key features of the respective potential energy surfaces, and possibly also incorporate
trajectory calculations (direct reaction or Car-Parrinello dynamics).
Project-funded staff: One Ph.d. student (Bergen).
4. Key perspectives and compliance with strategic documents
Relevance and benefit to society
In its extension, the project is part of a massive international effort to develop the technology
necessary to operate a modern society without net release of CO2 to the environment. More
specifically, an efficient route to formic acid from CO2 represent a promising approach to storing
renewable energy in a form that may be used in mobile units, for instance in combination with fuel
cells. Such a system may draw on the present grid for gasoline and thus alleviate the need to
develop a worldwide distribution net for a gaseous energy-carrier such as hydrogen. Alternatively,
formic acid may be used as an industrial starting point for synthesizing value-added compounds.
Environmental impact
The long-term environmental impact of the successful completion of the project is thus both large,
positive and may be viewed as part of the implementation of internationally recognized goals for
limiting the ongoing change in global climate.
Ethical perspectives
9
Both universities are committed to high ethical standards, and have ethics policies in place.
Moreover, the project employees will be engaged in ongoing activities concerning good practice in
research, such as the course NANO310 Nanoethics at the University of Bergen. The research will
be conducted and presented in agreement with national Guidelines for Research Ethics in Science
and Technology.
Gender issues (Recruitment of women, gender balance and gender perspectives)
Recruitment of PhD students in chemistry is quite well balanced genderwise – the challenge lies in
recruiting and educating female postdocs for a further scientific career. Both universities exercise an
active recruitment policy that evens out unequal gender selection and indirect discrimination that
the share of women and men as professors and associate professors and in academic posts reflects
the gender distribution in the recruitment base. The project employees will be offered access to
CTCC’s programs for gender equality and career development, including participation in the
successful series of Fem-Ex meetings (https://www.ctcc.no/events/conferences/2014/femexoslo/).
Human resources and recruitment policies
The PIs, who both belong to research groups being highly rated in the evaluation report “Basic
Chemistry Research in Norway”, have worked together in the Nordic Network for Ionic Clusters In
The Atmosphere, NICITA, and have also successfully collaborated in a joint NFR FRIPRO project
entitled "Nano-solvation in Hydrogen-Bonded Structures", 2011-2015.
The main applicant, E.U., is head of both the Physical chemistry group and the Mass spectrometry
laboratory at The Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo and the NFR Centre of Excellence,
"The Centre of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, CTCC", 2007-2017. These affiliations
ensure ample experimental and computational resources for most of the experiments outlined
above, as well as providing very good links to the mass spectrometric community nationwide and
internationally.
In order to carry out the project to full extent, we need to hire one PhD students and one Postdoc in
Oslo and one PhD student in Bergen. One of these should have competence in experimental mass
spectrometry and will be heavily involved with the experimental part of module 1, which is based
on in-house instrumentation in Oslo. The other candidate should also be well versed in molecular
modelling. The PhD in Bergen should have a strong background in electron-structure calculations
and will develop experimental skills in ion-beam technology and spectroscopy. Moreover, the
Norwegian CoE Centre of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry (CTCC) supports the project
and is prepared to host the Post Docs and Ph.D.s associated with this project, to offer them access to
our programs for gender equality and career development, and to integrate them in centre activities
including seminars, courses and work shops. In addition, they will be exposed to a truly
international research environment including regular visits to and visits from laboratories abroad.
In particular, both of the PhD students will have extended research stays at abroad as indicated in
support letters.
Management and liaison
Due to the diversity of the project, including technical and geographical issues, it will be mandatory
to work out effective management procedures. We have identified the following important tasks: (i)
The two project leaders will meet on a regular basis, with biweekly telephone meetings as the main
10
channel for communication with one common project meeting once a semester, (ii) The core group,
including the two international colleagues, will meet on a regular basis, for project update and
decision making. (iii) The local, national and international networks mentioned above, will provide
a friendly environment for the project employees to discuss research ideas and hypotheses with
competent scientists outside their local groups. These networks do provide funding for student
exchange among the nodes in the network.
5. Dissemination and communication of results
In addition to publishing scientific articles (as described elsewhere) and contributing at scientific
conferences the PI’s are highly engaged in the popularization of science, both via radio and podcasting (E.U; NRK’s Abels tårn) and monthly magazines (K.B.; on the editorial board of
Universitetsforlaget’s Naturen). The project is well suited for presentation to a wider audience.
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