Education, Place and Sustainability:
A Literature Review and Overview of Curriculum and
Policy in the States and Territory of the MurrayDarling Basin
Prepared by Philip Roberts, Natalie Downes, Louise Cooke, Irmgard Heiner & Jo
Caffery
University of Canberra
For the MDBfutures Research Project ‘Towards Place Based Education in the
Murray-Darling Basin’
November 2014
This Murray-Darling Basin futures research is supported through the Australian
Government’s Collaborative Research Networks (CRN) Program
Additional funding and support has also been provided by the Murray-Darling Basin
Authority
The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not reflect the opinions of
the funding bodies or affiliated institutions or institutes.
© 2014 Philip Roberts, Natalie Downes, Louise Cooke, Irmgard Heiner & Jo Caffery. The
University of Canberra, ACT 2601.
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Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 4
Overview ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Section One: Place and Education - A Literature Review ....................................................................... 7
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 17
References ........................................................................................................................................ 18
Section Two: Exploring concepts in sustainability- A Literature Review .............................................. 25
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 25
What is Sustainability? ...................................................................................................................... 25
Ecological Perspectives ..................................................................................................................... 32
Globalisation ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Pillars of Sustainability ...................................................................................................................... 43
Environmental ................................................................................................................................... 44
Economic ........................................................................................................................................... 48
Social and Cultural ............................................................................................................................ 51
Social Capital ..................................................................................................................................... 55
Sustainability in Rural Schools .......................................................................................................... 61
Notions of Place ................................................................................................................................ 65
Rural Regional Sustainability............................................................................................................. 66
References ........................................................................................................................................ 69
Section Three: Sustainability in Curriculum and Policy......................................................................... 90
Curriculum Documents ..................................................................................................................... 90
Cross Curricular Priorities and the National Curriculum ................................................................... 97
Sustainability in Policy..................................................................................................................... 101
References: ..................................................................................................................................... 103
Links to each Curriculum ................................................................................................................. 104
Appendix A: Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative .................................................................... 105
Appendix B: Measures and Indicators ............................................................................................ 109
Appendix C: Glossary ...................................................................................................................... 114
Appendix D: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Action Plan 2010-2014 .................................... 121
Appendix E: Definitions of Sustainability in each Curriculum Document ....................................... 123
Appendix F: Sustainability in each Jurisdictional Curriculum ......................................................... 125
Appendix G: Sustainability in Policy ................................................................................................ 150
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Introduction
This document has been developed as part of the MDBfutures research project ‘Towards
Place Based Education in the Murray Darling Basin.’ The project explores the ways in which
sustainability is understood in Murray Darling Basin (MDB) communities (including
Indigenous, rural, small towns and regional centres); how it is presented in Murray Darling
Basin Authority (MDBA) education programs, and the ways it is currently taught in schools in
the MDB region. Upon identifying the various perspectives on sustainability the project will
examine how MDBA education programs and the Australian Curriculum, including its cross
curriculum priorities of Sustainability and Indigenous perspectives, can best be adapted
through place-based education to incorporate local knowledge in education.
This literature review provides a background for the research project; specifically it provides
an overview of two important concepts for this project: place and sustainability. These are
then followed with an analysis of the use of sustainability in State, Territory and National
curriculum and education policy. Overall this literature review outlines that both place and
sustainability are multifaceted and contested terms with each used in multiple ways
throughout the literature.
It is not our aim here to definitively conclude what is meant by place or sustainability: that is
work for the project in other publications and in relation to the work being undertaken.
That each is defined in relation to the work being undertaken is perhaps the key conclusion
here. Furthermore as the aim of the project is to uncover community understandings of
sustainability it would be presumptuous for us to make definitive conclusions. Indeed as the
project hypothesis the definitions of these terms tend to emanate from power and are not
defined in relation to community, and in particular rural community, knowledges and
understandings.
One thing that became clear undertaking this review is that there is little explicit
theorisation of the connection between place and sustainability. Undoubtedly it exists at
some level in the thinking of those writing on the topic, it is just that we could locate little
explicit theorisation. Instead it was common to see work relating to ‘place’ using arguments
4
that ‘place’ helps achieve sustainability, and equally for work on ‘sustainability’ in education
referencing the importance of place pedagogy in achieving ‘sustainability’. As a result this
document is divided into explicit sections on place and sustainability. Each makes reference
to the other but as per the literature does not attempt to account for the connection
between each. Adding to that connection will be part of the subsequent work of this
project.
Overview
This document has the following three sections:

Section One: A literature review on place and education

Section Two: A literature review on sustainability and education

Section Three: An overview of sustainability in the curriculum and policies from the
four states and one territory that the Murray-Darling Basin is part of.
The literature review on place-based education addresses the following questions:

What is Place-Based / Place-Conscious education?

What are the characteristics of Place-Based / Place-Conscious education projects?

What is known to work – not work?

Indigenous perspectives on place (and school knowledge)

What are effective means of Schools-Community partnerships & collaboration?
The literature review on sustainability addresses the following questions:

What is sustainability?

What is education for sustainability?

Triple bottom line

Indigenous perspectives

Genealogy of Sustainability in:
o Policy
o Social ecology
o Ecology
o Social sciences
o Education

What is known to work or not work?
5
The Overview of sustainability in the curriculum and policy contains the following:

how sustainability is defined in each curriculum document

how sustainability appears in each curriculum document

how sustainability appears as a cross curricular priority in the National curriculum

hos sustainability is defined in policy documents

how sustainability is used in policy documents
6
Section One: Place and Education - A Literature Review
Introduction
Place-based education spans over many years, is grounded on traditional environmental
education (Smith, 2007; Sobel, 2004) and the literature pertaining to this field of study
highlights that place-based education is both a response and challenge for education
systems. Challenges faced by The Australian Curriculum involve responding effectively to
issues connected with globalization and rapidly changing technological advances alongside
dealing with the complexities of environmental, social and economic burdens (ACARA,
2013). On the one hand education in the school system has seen the rise in the current
‘one-size fits all’ notion of curriculum and pedagogy that ‘teaches to the test’ (Jennings,
Swidler & Koliba, 2005), driven by factors such as economic productivity, the push for
measurable outcomes and formal accountability (Dulfer, Polesel & Rice, 2012; Lingard,
2010; McInerney, Smyth & Down, 2011; Pinar, 2012). On the other, there is evidence of
growing interest in place-based education as part of a broader movement responding to,
what McInerney et al. (2011) recognize as globalization, serious environmental issues,
capitalism and economic exploitation impacting on local communities.
Preliminary review of the literature highlights the various fields of study within which placebased education can be located, to include environmental studies (Ardoin, 2006; Powers,
2004; Smith, 2007); outdoor education (Brown, 2008; Wattchow & Brown, 2010); social
justice (Lescure & Yaman, 2014); sustainability education (Green, 2012); ecosustainability
(Duhn, 2011; Glasson, Frykholm, Mhango, & Phiri, 2006) and science education (Buxton,
2010; Semken & Freeman, 2008). While Powers (2004) perceives sustainable education as
well as community-based learning, service learning and project-based learning as “similar
terms” to place-based education and to be used interchangeably (p.17), McInerney, Smyth
& Down (2011) and Gruenewald (2003a) locate ‘features’ of place-based education in
environmental studies and ecological education, as well as in local or natural history
courses, work-experience or work-related programs.
Further review surfaces ‘place’
literature (Green 2012; Kudryavtsev, Stedman & Krasny, 2012; Nespor, 2008; Somerville,
2010) and interweave with both place-conscious education (Budge, 2010; Greenwood,
2013; Roberts, 2013) and place-based education (Gruenewald, 2003b; McInerney et al,
7
2011; Stevenson, 2008). Gruenewald (2003b) notes “the point of becoming more conscious
of places in education is to extend our notions of pedagogy and accountability outward
towards places … because places teach us … places make us… place matters” (p.620).
What is evident from the work of these researchers, and those that inform their
perspectives, is the growing attention, interest and critiques of place-based education.
Some researchers claim place-based education “lacks a specific theoretical tradition”
(Gruenewald 2003a, p.3), that which McInerney et al. (2011) refer to as “often undertheorised” (p. 4). Gruenewald (2003a) suggests this to be because of the wider application
of place-based education to various fields of study, contexts, approaches and processes
already highlighted in an earlier section. Place-based education is considered to not
adequately make connections between ‘the global and local’, these connections seen to be
essential if viewing place-based education as a response to current economic, social and
ecological concerns. This argument and a noted lack of critical perspective in place-based
education is shared by numerous researchers (Cormack, Green & Reid, 2006; Gruenewald,
2003a; McInerney et al., 2011 and Nespor, 2008). Mannion and Adey (2011) highlight the
binaries that exist in the form of “modern versus traditional knowledge, globalized versus
local or indigenous cultures” (p.41) and which Nespor (2008) believes not only “obscures the
critical questions of how places are constituted and connected” (p. 481) but leads to further
questions about the authenticity of culturally responsive dialogue. Nespor (2008) also notes
the differing conceptual notions of ‘place’ and ‘community’ that exist yet how the terms are
also used synonymously, used “uncritically and without attention to its conceptual
complexities”(p. 478).
Rather than forcing us to carefully distinguish among different historical,
geographical, cultural, political, economic and other dimensions of place
construction, or to look at issues of strategy, power, cooperation and exploitation in
their uses, the connotations of “community “ make it possible simply to orient PBE
theoretical discourse around an idealized image of “place” as a stable, bounded, selfsufficient communal realm. (Nespor, 2008, p. 479)
The implication of these findings is blurred notions of overlapping terms and concepts.
Distinctions between place, place-based, place-conscious education, and in the context of
various fields of study are not made clear in the literature. Complexities have been
8
highlighted through subtle and not so subtle differences in defining place-based education.
That said, in light of all that has been introduced in the previous paragraph of complexities
and issues generated by a lack of clear definition for place-based education, certain features
are evident.
Place-based education does not look like conventional education. Students don’t sit
quietly at their desks listening to teachers or completing worksheets. They instead
work and converse in teams and frequently leave the school itself, to engage in
activities in the field or community. And teachers do not concentrate on drilling
students for high stakes test, relying instead on forms of understanding and
knowledge that arise more organically through real-life investigations and problemsolving. (Smith, 2007, p. 204)
Place-based/place-conscious education is characterized as an interconnectedness of
student, teacher, school, community and local resources. It is grounded in “resources,
issues and values of the local community” designed to encourage school and community
partnerships, which incorporate environmental, ecological, cultural, social, economic and/or
political perspectives1 in a formal and informal way (Powers, 2004, p. 17). It relies on
interactions and actions which accept ‘place’ as an active process that can adapt and
refashion itself rather than be a static representativeness (Massey 1994, as cited in Green,
2012, p. 329). Problem-solving processes are involved (Longo, 2007, p. 10), which draw
attention to a real-world involvement utilizing a collaborative, learner-centred approach.
Embracing a multidisciplinary, integrated curriculum pedagogy in place-based/place1
Each of these perspectives is explained from a community development lens by Jim Ife (2013). He details the
need for interconnectedness of these perspectives and as part of ‘balanced development’ (p. 264 -266).
According to Ife:

‘Environmental’ is that which goes beyond simple environmental activities …involves awareness, conscious raising, education,
responsibility and action beyond the local community … with consideration given to social and broader societal issues (p. 251254)

‘Ecological’ incorporates holism, sustainability, diversity, equilibrium and interdependence being applied to both the natural
world and to the social, economic and political order (p, 49 - 50)

‘Cultural’ has four components - preserving and valuing local culture, Indigenous culture, cultural diversity and participatory
culture (p. 238 – 250)

‘Social’ involves the “identification of social needs and the provision of structures and services to meet them” (p. 215)

‘Economic’ is considered “a response to the economic crisis … that seeks to relocate economic activity within the community
…” (p. 221)

The political perspective is “ … essentially about issues of power… it seeks to enhance capacity of communities to operate in
the political arena … “ (p.231).
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conscious education (Cole, 2007; Gruenewald, 2005; McInerney et al., 2011) is ‘deeply
connected to the people, landscapes, cultures and politics students can know and
experience locally’ (Powers, 2004, p. 15) and is perceived as an important way to re-orient
the way people live and work (DEWHA, 2009). Yunkaporta (2009b) agrees by stating that
education programmes that incorporate the local community and links to the land integrates “real
life contexts, experiences and values” (p. 11), which are important steps in holistic learning for
Aboriginal Australians.
With definitions and characteristics of place-based education considered in the previous
paragraph and where nuances, overlaps and complexities in understandings of place-based
education have surfaced, this next section of this review will look at a selection of programs,
projects and perspectives that apply features, processes and approaches introduced in this
review in order to lay an informative platform for what may work.

Powers (2004) evaluates two aspects of four place-based education programs in the
United States (PEEC)2 which have goals, in part, to enhance “community
connections, increase understandings of connection to the local place and increase
understanding of ecological concepts” (p. 19). An ‘evolving’ working model 3 is
offered that looks at understanding ‘place’, providing opportunities for school
community
interactions
and
skills
enactment.
Program
consistency
and
effectiveness, as well as teacher practices are examined. Recommendations involve
start-up approaches; teacher, administrator and community buy-in; partnerships and
collaboration and communication (pp. 28, 29).

Smith (2007) considers how place-based education in the United States challenges
and transforms the ‘regularities’ of curriculum development and school based
learning through consideration of a published report, Rural Challenge Research and
Evaluation Program 1999. Case studies are reviewed that show positive outcomes
with school and community connections through innovative practices (p. 191).
2
The Place-Based Education Evaluation Collaborative (PEEC) formed in 2002 to evaluate programs in order to
develop, identify and disseminate evaluation techniques, tools and approaches (Powers, 2004, p.19).
3
Change Theory for place-based education, figure 1, “acts as a springboard for understanding the potential of
place-based education” (p. 19). It strives to build social capital which is believed to result in a healthy social
and natural community.
10
Findings from CO-SEED4 examples, in primary and high schools (pp. 193 – 202),
“demonstrate what is possible” (p. 193). Being an older study, a web link is noted
below to provide more contemporary case studies and projects in the Rural School
and Community Trust5.

Mannion and Adey (2011) state that place-based education is founded on the
relationships between adults and children “within and through place-change
processes” (p. 35). They draw on intergenerational research from both Bowers
(2008) and Gruenewald (2008b) to conclude that the term intergenerational is often
automatically incorporated into the general term of ‘community’. Connecting placebased education with intergenerational practice recognizes that place-based
activities involve people of all ages, stages of life, backgrounds and in many diverse
places. This is perceived as a radical form of educational practice because it links
school to place-intergenerational education through a different approach to learning
and knowledge creation, and where the authors challenge thinking in asking who
then becomes the educator and the learner, where education is actually taking place
and what the goals might be in this context.

Robson et al. (2009) explore the ‘Indigenous ways of knowing’ to enrich
environmental understandings, locating this within a place-based context and a
focus on contemporary natural resources and environmental management in New
Zealand. ‘Indigenous ways of knowing’ refer to “how Indigenous and local people
cultivate knowledge” (p. 173). This paper looks at the concept of ‘communities of
learning’ which embraces the contributions, interactions and cooperation of key
players who bring unique knowledge, world views and values. The authors write:
“Rarely have Indigenous ways of knowing been recognized as adaptive, dynamic
assets for building diverse development trajectories that reflect local needs and
aspirations” (p. 173) but claim practical and meaningful engagement when it has
occurred.

Berkes (2009) asserts that traditional Indigenous knowledge as “process, rather than
as content” should be examined. The researcher considers Indigenous ways of
knowing in the context of global environmental change and concludes the need for
4
Community –Based School Environment Education Project (CO-SEED) created by the Antioch New England
Graduate School in Keene, New Hampshire, United States.
5
http://www.ruraledu.org/articles.php?tag=709
11
deeper partnership of traditional knowledge with, in this context, science however
the underlying principles in this paper could well be applied to place-based
education.

Yunkaporta and McGinty (2009) undertake a project that looks at how to work with
Indigenous knowledge. Drawing on both The New South Wales Department’s Quality
Teaching Framework and Indigenous Pedagogies, this action research study surfaces
approaches to teaching and learning that tap into “sophisticated Indigenous ways of
knowing” p. 55. Drawing on local lore, language, the landscape and cooperatively
working with Indigenous learning circles, storytelling and sharing of these stories is
found to be the cornerstone of success.

Yunkaporta (2009a) provides an ‘8 ways’ pedagogical framework that assists teachers to
incorporate Aboriginal knowledge and learning styles in everyday classrooms. The eight
interlinked strategies fundamentally include storytelling that links to the land and its people
as “there’s no story without place, and no place without story” (p. 6). This framework’s
essential link between ecological and place-based learning incorporates both Western and
Indigenous ways of learning in a non-linear fashion.

Somerville (2010) may well inform further understandings of place-based education
in her outline of three key principles for a ‘reconceptualised place pedagogy’:
relationship to place constituted in stories and other representations, place learning
that is local and deep place learning. These principles give rise to new emergent artsbased methodologies for developing and practising place-responsive pedagogies.
“Any pedagogy of place must remain open and dynamic, responsive to the
interaction between specific people and their local places” (p. 342).

Kudryavtsev et al. (2012) are informants of ‘place’ literature with consideration given
to place-based education literature and environmental education. Examples are
given on how these can be applied (pp. 240-241) drawing the combination of
experiential and instructional approaches which they hope “will spark further
discussion about environmental education influencing a sense of place” (p. 242).

Frisk & Larson (2011) add to the enquiry and relevance of transformative action, in
response to behavioural change relevant to sustainability education. The authors
put forward knowledge domains that ask question on how systems function
(technical information), how to progress actions (process-oriented), that consider
12
outcomes of differing behaviours (attitudes and consequences) and seek to
understand what it is that motivates people (beliefs, perceptions and
responsibilities).
It is at this stage of the literature review that the concept of sustainability needs to be more
closely considered. There is a notable merge of place-based and sustainable education in
the literature and where investigation into what is meant by sustainability in the first
instance is appropriately summed up as “a complex and much contested concept but in
essence … understood as living in the contemporary moment in such a way as to provide for
an equitable and secure future” (Green & Reid, 2004, p. 257). Linked to the local
environment, sustainability is also grounded in environmental education (Feng, 2012;
Jickling & Wals, 2008; Kennelly, Taylor, Jenkins, 2008).

Green (2012) presents a teaching and learning framework that applies the theories
of ‘place’, place ecologies and place-based pedagogy in the context of education,
curriculum and sustainability. Examining two Australian schools, one in a coastal
setting and the other a ‘horticultural/forest environment’, it is concluded that
“children read and act the world through local geographies and diverse literacies,
and in the process become invested in the places where learning occurs” (p. 340).
Diverse literacies in this paper consider an integration of knowledge from various
subject disciplines, eg. history, geography, mathematics and science, via aesthetic,
arts- based and spatial literacies (p. 339).

Duhn (2012) looks at ‘place’ from an early childhood education perspective to
highlight the importance of engaging young children in environmental learning and,
through a research project in New Zealand, considers the intersections between the
local and global, local and Indigenous knowledge and ecological sustainability. The
author draws strong conclusion that early childhood education has a place in
contributing to “theory and practice of education for sustainability” (p. 19).

Burns (2011) provides a focus on approaches and processes for transformative
learning and action, in the context of behavioural and systemic understandings of
sustainability issues for educators at postsecondary education level. Ecological
principles, Burns suggests, “serve as a guide” (p. 3). In consideration of ‘what works’
in place-based education, the Burns Model of Sustainability Pedagogy may warrant
13
further review. Personal connections to places are seen as important, as is an
understanding of diverse perspectives and finding solutions. 6
As mentioned much earlier in this review, place-based education has been synonymously
used with sustainability education as well as other fields of study and focus. Jickling and
Arjen (2008) draw together “sustainable development, environmental thought, democracy
and education” (p. 1) in a study which examines the shift from environmental education to
education for sustainable development and highlights the problematic nature of the
sustainable development ‘agenda’ within environmental education. Kennelly et al. (2008)
considers this in light of the NSW’s Sustainable Schools Programme which was a response to
the environmental education debate. In their work they cite earlier Australian studies
(Connell, Fien, Lee, Sykes & Yencken, 1999; Loughland, Reid, Walker & Petocz, 2003) that
indicated environmental education did not offer adequate student learning. This is
supported by Stevenson (2007) who examines ‘contradictions of purpose and practice’
while a paper written by Kemmis and Mutton (2011) questions whether knowing what
should be done for the environment results in acting on that knowledge. Tilbery and
Wortman (2008) conclude that increased awareness of environmental issues does not result
in change of attitudes and behaviours.
Adding to the environmental discourse and posing another layer of thinking is the work of
Jim Ife (2013) who considers environmental responses to ecological problems to be too
‘lineal’ because problems and specific solutions are considered in isolation, a reflection of
the dominant thinking of the Western world view according to Ife. He asserts another
characteristic of environmental responses to be a search for solutions within the existing
social, economic and political order, “capable of solving the problems through the
application of technical expertise” (p. 34). What he is suggesting is social, economic and
political change, supporting a ‘green perspective’ which he defines as one that “accepts the
fundamental social-economic-political basis for the ecological crisis and the need for
fundamental change” (p. 35). Ife (2013) discusses the concept of sustainability from an
ecological principle perspective concluding that “within its proper ecological context the
concept of sustainability is very powerful, and requires a radical transformation of the
existing, blatantly unsustainable order” (p. 51). His work on eight dimensions of community
6
The Burns Model (2011) has an ecological focus that brings together content, perspectives, process, context
and design.
14
development, these dimensions being social, economic, political, cultural, environmental,
spiritual, survival and personal, warrants closer investigation as he explains the need for
“holistic and integrated understandings of what community development means” (pp. 212264).
Miles (2008) suggests that environmental education needs to be grounded in place, as this
provides context for the learning and allows students to examine how natural places have
been influenced by social, political, and economical decisions, while also incorporating
socially, critical and political action goals of environmental education. This encourages
students to care for their own place as well as explore how their place is interrelated with
others (Miles, 2008). In particular, Miles advocates for an approach to environmental
education where “experience, consciousness, and responsiveness to place provides
opportunity for relationships with environments, living and non-living things” (Miles, 2013b
p. 1). Miles (2013a) gives an example of a case-study where by ‘tearing down’ the school
walls, the school and community worked together to create a local nature reserve which
created a place for environmental learning. By doing this, “the community has played a role
in shaping place, and the place shaped the community” (p. 4) and these partnerships
contribute to rural regional sustainability. By focusing on how we live sustainably in place, it
enables rural and regional communities to develop their sense of identity and local
community pride (Miles, 2013a). A focus on place in environmental education also
addresses some of the criticisms of environmental education (Miles, 2008).
The concept of triple bottom line (TBL), a term developed by John Elkington (1998), places
the emphasis of sustainability on “economic prosperity, environmental quality and – the
element which business had preferred to overlook – social justice” (p. 70). Sustainable
development in this context takes economic growth and ecological sustainability into the
social realm. Looking at this from different angles in the literature, “Companies recognize
that aligning with non-profit organisations makes good business sense, particularly those
non-profits with goals of economic prosperity, social well-being and environmental
protection”, as a response to broad sustainability issues (Slaper & Hall, n.d., p.6). Corporate
social responsibility, a ‘buzz word’ aligned with social justice discourse is seen by Manteaw
(2008) as a “must do thing for corporations to show the human face of capitalism (pp. 428,
429). This author stresses the need for a collaborative bottom-up approach by businesses,
15
listening and responding to the voices of the community to guide decisions and activities. A
study by Jickling & Wals (2008) raises discussion around the responsibility on government
and private sector to consider ‘people, planet and profit’ from a more socially accountable
perspective but also with closer scrutiny into interpretation and approach stating that
“profit silently has become the undisputed component of the triple bottom-line (p. 3).
Mitchell, Curtis & Davidson (2008) evaluate the process of triple bottom line reporting, with
an aim to improve outcomes and in doing so put forward a framework, ‘Evaluating
processes of TBL reporting’ (p. 73), with ‘things to think about’ in order to move towards
sustainability. They stress the need to identify the unsustainable ways in which society
functions.
The last section of this review summarises place-based and sustainable education in the
more specific school context starting with participation, partnerships and collaboration with
key players. Partnerships are seen as critical because they recognize the value and
importance of local knowledge of the community involved in working to support “longevity”
of sustainable education programs (Somerville & Green, 2012, p. 72). Expertise and
knowledge of community members who work alongside schools are seen to contribute and
extend the learning experiences. . Alternative ways of understanding the nuances of place
and place-based education may be best channelled through people, services, organisations
and structures. Intergenerational partnerships, it seems, are further strengthened with
student interactions. Ife (2013) examines conditions that are needed to encourage and
support meaningful and genuine participation, believing activity or issues need to be
considered as important enough in order for people to feel that their actions will make a
difference. According to Ife, different forms of participation need to be acknowledged and
valued, and with supportive structures and processes (pp. 173, 174).
On a more practical level, the literature shows that ‘buy-in’ from teachers and
administrators will be impacted by attitudes, understandings, knowledge of sustainable
development and sustainability, and practical issues such as time constraints imposed in
conventional school timetabling (Cole, 2010; Kennelly et al., 2008; Summers, Corney &
Childs , 2003). Powers (2004) provides evidence of positive impact on teacher practice in the
areas of leadership, collaboration, curriculum and planning skills and interdisciplinary
teaching. When teachers become collaborative participants with students who are also
16
encouraged to actively advocate in issues of concern they contribute to a socially critical
approach and a shared responsibility, believe Kennelly, Taylor and Jenkins (2008, p. 58).
However, Powers (2004) draws attention to administrative, technical, technological, and
peer support needed by teachers. Active, positive participation may well be determined by
further practical considerations that Powers notes as involving the school structure and how
to skillfully implement place-based programs into the school curriculum. Tangible skills and
resources are to be provided to teachers to then further develop with students.
Conclusion
This literature review has brought to the surface a vast body of literature that covers a
broad range of connected and interconnected understandings, themes and responses to
place-based education for sustainability designed to address the challenges noted in the
opening paragraph. Common elements that have emerged may well be best summarized by
Smith (2007) where he sees place-based education as adaptable and responsive to teacher,
student and community needs. Organizational and conceptual changes need consideration
in the specific ‘place context’. He suggests that in the first instance teachers and students
consider their “immediate situations as foundations for curriculum development” (p. 593).
This enables and supports students to play an active role as key players in the school and
community.
Additionally, the voice of the community needs to be heard and where the
overall goal is to share a common language and vision. In Australia and across the world
rapid social and environmental change is calling for understanding and action that requires a
holistic response from all sectors of the community. Environmental and ecological concerns
feature alongside engagement of schools with local settings. Green (2012), whose paper
focuses on education for sustainability writes of “integrated curriculum approaches”
quoting Sterling (2008) on place-based education as “a gateway to a different view of
curriculum, of pedagogy, of organizational change, of policy and particularly of ethos”
(2012, p. 327).
17
References
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24
Section Two: Exploring concepts in sustainability- A Literature Review
Introduction
This section of the literature review explores themes in sustainability connected to rural,
place and outdoor education and cultural diversity. Search terms covered:
- Sustainability, education
- Sustainability, environment
- Sustainability, rural
- Rural, education, sustainability, teacher
- Rural, place based, education, sustainability
- Rural, education, sustainability
- Outdoor education
- Cultural diversity and sustainability
- Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander sustainability
- Deep ecology, social ecology and eco-socialism
- Sustainability in curriculum
Given the scope of the subject and the time limitations, this literature review offers a
sample of the thinking in this area as a useful starting point for deeper inquiry.
What is Sustainability?
Between 1820 and 1920, the world population doubled from one billion to two billion. We
reached 3 billion in 1960 and 7 billion in 2011 (http://www.worldometers.info/). This rapid rise
in population prompted the Meadows’ 1972 ‘The Limits to Growth’ study on population,
growth and material wealth. Roberts (2004) states that this study generated wide discussion
on the ‘state of global equilibrium’.
Another important milestone which took place in 1972 was the Stockholm Conference on
the Human Environment. This conference resulted in the ‘The Stockholm declaration’,
where the relationship between humans and the environment was acknowledged and led to
the establishment of many environmental protection agencies and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) (Palmer, 1998). The United Nations (UN) saw a growing
25
need for an organisation to address environmental challenges which were intertwined with
economic and social conditions. Discussions generated from these types of studies and
events led to conclusions that the only way to deal with the problems of global poverty and
hunger would be through redistribution of wealth. Roberts (2004) highlights that there has
been no easy way to achieve this, indeed, the idea that economic growth must cease as
environmental limits are reached is not popular. Policies with aims derived from such a
philosophy have been difficult to frame and enforce (Roberts, 2004).
The concept of sustainable development emerged from this conundrum (Roberts, 2004) and
resulted in the establishment of the World Commission on the Environment and
Development (WCED) in 1984. The purpose of the WCED was to establish an independent
body to focus on environmental and developmental problems and solutions after an
affirmation by the UN. The UN General Assembly explicitly called attention to two important
ideas:
-
The well-being of the environment, of economies and of people is inextricably
linked.
- Sustainable development involves co-operation on a global scale (Strange & Bailey
2008).
The WCED, also known as the Brundtland Commission, (named after the Chairperson Gro
Harlem Brundtland) aimed to create, a united international community with shared
sustainability goals and in 1987 published ‘Our Common Future’, which is author to the
most commonly referred to definitions on sustainability, which reads:
‘Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs’ (Brundtland, 1987, P. 43).
This landmark document went onto be influential at the 1992 Earth Summit held in Rio De
Janeiro and the third UN Conference on Environment and Development in Johannesburg,
resulting in a range of key initiatives and framework documents (Agenda 21, Earth Charter,
Kyoto Protocol - see timeline in this chapter) detailing actions or options for change. The
1992 Earth Summit led to the development of principles relating to an integrated approach
to the environment, health and sustainable development, along with a plan of action. A key
26
message to come out of the Earth summit was that the principle of respect for nature and
the control of environmental degradation should guide human activities in order to balance
the potential conflict between health and the environment (Landon, 2006, p. 8).
Strange and Bailey (2008) unpacks the Brundtland definition and makes it explicit that
sustainable development is about integration:
Developing in a way that benefits the widest possible range of
sectors, across borders and even between generations. In other
words, our decisions should take into consideration potential impact
on society, the environment and the economy, while keeping in mind
that: our actions will have impacts elsewhere and our actions will
have an impact on the future (p. 24).
Similarly, Somerville and Green (2013), state that sustainability represents an ideal that will
be achieved when human-caused environmental degradation has been reversed, along with
overconsumption and gross economic injustices that deprive future generations of the
ability to meet their needs. Green and Reid (2004) rephrase this definition by stating
sustainability can be understood as living in the contemporary moment in such a way as to
provide for an equitable and secure future, emphasising this has particular resonance for
rural-regional Australia.
Strange and Bailey (2008) go on to suggest the need to shift the focus from
compartmentalising issues to considering issues in a holistic way across the economic, social
and environmental aspects of any issue, this is a theme which is reflected in all sustainability
literature, as will become evident through this literature review.
Berger and Steurer (2009) state that in the 1990’s social and economic issues were only taken
into account if they were relevant to environmental concerns. In addition, sustainable
development has been concerned with addressing governance challenges such as long term
perspective (intergenerational equity) and the involvement of stakeholder participation. Since
then, sustainable development has been redefined as balancing the economic, social and
environmental pillars of sustainability, ruling out the prioritisation of environmental issues.
Thus, horizontal policy integration in the context of sustainable development strategies is
27
understood as balancing the economic, social and environmental interests and policies in a way
that trade-offs between them are minimised and synergies are maximised. In systems thinking,
these issues are combined not as single entities added to each other but as one entity, based
on the thinking that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts – the bottom line. Integrating
these three elements together forms the foundation for effective governance for sustainability
(Grootjans, Townsend, Butler & Heyworth, 2005, p. 203).
The Triple Bottom Line (Grootjans, et al., 2005; Landon, 2006) is an accounting or reporting
system that evaluates the social and environmental performance as well as its financial
outcomes/resources. Elkington (1997, as cited in Grootjans et al., 2005) described the TBL
elements of sustainability as:
Economic bottom line: (growth, efficiency, stability) financial capital of an
organisation; physical capital (machinery, equipment etc.) human capital (skills, experience,
knowledge in the organisation). Sustainability revolves around cost competitiveness and
future projections, demand, profit margins, maintenance of human capital.
Environmental bottom line: (biodiversity, resilience, natural resources, pollution)
critical natural capital essential to the maintenance of life and ecosystem integrity and
renewable, replaceable, or substitutable natural capital.
Social bottom line: (empowerment, inclusion, consultation, governance) focuses on
social capital and human capital.
While concepts of sustainable development continue to draw from the Brundtland
definition, they have similarly evolved through global and national efforts to shape and
influence nations globally to make policies to support sustainable development (see
timeline later in this section). Strange and Bailey (2008) state that first, there is the
realisation that economic growth alone is not enough: the economic, social and
environmental aspects of any action are interconnected. Considering only one of these at a
time leads to errors in judgment and “unsustainable” outcomes. Focusing only on profit
margins, for example, has historically led to social and environmental damages that cost
society in the long run. By the same token, taking care of the environment and providing the
services that people need depends at least in part on economic resources.
28
Palmer (1998) highlights two modes of sustainability, sustainable growth and sustainable
development, developed by Turner and O’Riordan (1988) as identified in Table One.
Table one: Two modes of sustainability
(Turner and O’Riordan, 1988 as cited in Palmer 1998)
Sustainable Growth
Sustainable development
Technocentrist
Ecocentrist
Essentially a technical concept
A broader concept embracing ethical norms, eg.
bioethics, intergenerational justice
Bound by formalistic rules of existing
Requires new institutions to deliver
institutions
Social reform
Social revolution
Conservation one of several goals within Conservation the sole basis for defining a
an overall materials policy including
criterion on which to judge policy/alternative
waste recycling/reduction
allocations of resources
Three basic elements of policy: resource Policy derived from theories of, for example, zero
recovery/recycling, residuals
growth, steady state economy, bioeconomic
management, waste reduction
equilibrium, coevolutionary development.
Requires a modified economics
Requires a new economics
Requires attention to
Requires attention to four premises
- Knowability (the amount, rate and
- Knowability
other characteristics of renewability
- Homeostasis
are knowable and calculable) and
- Internal bioethics (drawing upon a renewable
- Homeostasis (renewable resource
resource even below some threshold of take
systems operate broadly around
has implications for only the tightly confined
equilibria or can be manipulated to
ecosystem that is that resource
approximate steady states following
- External bioethics (utilising a renewable
human intervention – homeostasis is
resource up to the point of sustainable yield is
a preferred state of nature)
morally justifiable even though that resource,
below the threshold of optional ‘take’ may
have other ecological values and functions.
Core is reforming social systems to
Core is changing social systems to ensure popular
ensure reproduction of conditions of
control of livelihood or the conditions of
production
production
Is manageable and politically acceptable Is politically treacherous since it challenges the
because it is safely ambiguous
status quo
The greening of capitalism
The greening of socialism
In December 2002, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the years from 2005 to
2014 the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD). In response, the
Australian Government developed a document 'Caring for Our Future' (Commonwealth of
Australia (CoA), 2007) which outlined a ten year framework to foster sustainable
development through education and learning. The principles of this framework include:
29
-
futures thinking;
-
the importance of good process;
-
critical thinking and reflection;
-
capacity building for individuals and organisational change;
-
innovation;
-
mentoring and facilitation;
-
genuine participation in decision making;
-
the formation of partnerships for change; and
-
lifelong learning.
Australia's approach to the decade was to seek to utilise these concepts through a range of
Australian Government frameworks including 'Educating for a sustainable future (CoA,
2005) and Living sustainably: The Australian Government's National Action Plan for
Education for Sustainably (CoA, 2009). The Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative fits
within this global and national framework for action (CoA, 2009) (see Appendix A for more
on the AuSSI).
In October 2012, the National Sustainability Council (NSC) was established by the Australian
Government as a source of independent expert advice on sustainability. One of the Council’s
primary roles was to produce a public report every two years drawing on the national
sustainability Indicators which were also published in 2012. Prior to the Council’s
disbandment in 2014 by the incoming Abbott Government, released its first and only report
Sustainable Australia Report 2013: Conversations with the future (NSC, 2013). This report
provides a thorough overview of issues which are set to have impact on the next generation
of Australians. It covers a broad range of sustainability issues looking back and projecting
forward. Key issues include issues of health, education, wellbeing; ageing and population
are discussed, as are issues related to economy such as employment levels, income,
innovation, and impacts on equity and the environment. The NSC refers to the Brundtland
Commission’s 1987 Our Common Future report and definition and states that the concept
of sustainability continues to evolve. Core features of most definitions include:
- Sustainability is concerned with the future and with the ability to maintain certain
values, assets or capabilities over the long term.
30
- Sustainability
involves
decisions
that
address
the
interaction
between
environmental, social and economic domains.
- Sustainability requires choices considering equity within society and across
generations.
They go on to state the wellbeing of individuals, communities and society has been widely
accepted as an appropriate objective of governments and has become increasingly
influential domestically and globally (NSC, 2013, p. 9). The NSC approach to assessing
sustainability focussed on measuring stocks of social, human, natural and economic capital,
as per the sustainability indicator table (Table Two).
Table Two: National Sustainability Council, Sustainability Indictors
Sustainability indicators
National Sustainability Council, Sustainability Indictors
Social
Education, health, community engagement, employment, security
Environmental
Climate, Atmosphere, Biodiversity and ecosystems, Water, Natural
resources
Economic
Wealth and income, housing, transport and communications,
productivity and innovation, additional economic information
Contextual
Population, cultural diversity, migration, land use
There are a number of additional indicators which can inform thinking on issues of
sustainability, health and wellbeing, some of these are listed in Appendix B.
31
Ecological Perspectives
Palmer (1998) states that the concept of ecological sustainability and the notion of
sustainable development are by now well subsumed within the tension that defines and
characterises modern environmentalism. As with sustainability, terms are open to different
interpretations and viewpoints, however the following provides a brief overview of
ecological perspectives.
An ecological analysis starts with the major environmental crises facing the world which has
led Green thinkers to seek a radical alternative, which give the Green position a sense of
both urgency and inevitability. Ife and Tesoriero (2006) discuss ecological standpoints at
some length, and suggest that environmental responses to ecological problems have two
characteristics. First, they seek to solve specific problems by finding discrete solutions, for
example, global warming can be solved by reducing greenhouse gases, increasing the use of
renewable energy etc. Secondly, they seek solutions within the existing social, economic and
political order. It is not seen as necessary to change the nature of society in any
fundamental way, but rather, relies on technical solutions. They are a conventional
considered linear response/approach.
Alternatively, Green responses to environmental problems take a more fundamental
approach. It sees environmental problems as being merely the symptoms of a more
significant underlying problem. They are the consequence of a social, economic, and
political order which is blatantly unsustainable which needs to be changed (Ife & Tesoriero,
2006). Green ideology comes from a holistic standpoint, where environmental problems are
related and the result of social, economic and political systems. In order to address the
issues, the system needs to be addressed, a symptomatic response is inadequate over the
long term. Ife and Tesoriero (2006) suggest that, the Green, rather than the environmental,
position has a strong argument, where if the ecological crisis is to effectively resolved, it will
be through social, economic and political change, rather than through scientific and
technological progress.
Eco-socialism
The eco-socialists argue that the ecological crisis is caused by capitalism. The development
of capitalism has seen the rise of waste, overconsumption and pollution, with an equal
32
measure of a lack of responsibility for the health of the planet. Conventional socialists have
generally accepted and emphasised the need for sustained economic growth as a way to
enable increasing wealth to be shared more equitably. A green position questions the
viability of continued economic growth, at least in its traditional form. Conservative critics
criticise Green politics as being ‘socialism in disguise’ and have disparagingly referred to
Greens (Ife & Tesoriero, 2006). Critics argue that it is not capitalism alone that places such a
value on growth, and that capitalism is just responding to peoples’ needs. If people didn’t
want the goods that capitalism produces they would not buy them. However, these issues
do not negate the argument that capitalism is premised on the idea of growth and has
contributed to the environmental problems that society is grappling with now (Kenny,
2006).
Eco-feminism
Ife & Tesoriero (2006) state that while eco-socialists see the problem in terms of capitalism,
and eco-anarchists see it in terms of structures of domination and control, eco-feminists see
the problem of an ecologically insane world primarily in terms of patriarchy and its
consequences. Eco-feminism views patriarchal structures of domination, oppression and
control have resulted in a competitive, acquisitive and exploitative society and has
ultimately proved to be unsustainable. Eco-feminists call for patriarchal structures to be
challenged, dismantled, deconstructed and replaced. The eco-feminist position raises two
questions for those developing a Green analysis. First, how to ensure that whatever change
is initiated does not perpetuate the oppression of women or the structures and discourses
of patriarchy but serves to challenge, overthrow such structures and discourses. Ife &
Tesoriero (2006) state the second issue is the extent to which women’s experiences,
consciousness and world views represent an alternative paradigm within an ecologically
sustainable social, economic and political order might be successfully developed.
Deep ecology
Cudworth’s (2003) chapter on environment and society in green social and political theory
provides an outline of some of the general characteristics of green political and social
thought where it is suggested that the most significant contribution of deep ecological
thought has been the concept of anthropocentrism, whereby deep ecologists have tended
to argue that modern western societies are ‘anthropocentric’. Cudworth (2003) explains
33
that an anthropocentric society is one with a dominant worldview places humans in a preeminent position with respect to the environment. Deep ecology rejects the dualistic view
of humans and nature as separate and different. Naess (1995) argues that humans are a
part of the natural environment and are one with nature, and have a tendency to appreciate
all life forms, remaining conscious of their intrinsic value and dignity, as opposed to killing
and conquering. Deep ecologists try to live with nature’s ways and rhythms rather than just
visit beautiful places. Deep ecology combines its concerns for nature with a desire to
transform society; to choose meaningful work rather than just making a living, make efforts
to protect local ecosystems and participate in change making processes, respectfully and
with non-violent words or deeds (Naess, 1995).
Cudworth (2003) explains that deep ecologists have been criticised for assuming that all
human cultures are collectively and equally responsible for generating an environmental
crisis, because their theory of ‘anthropocentrism’ does not take into account of the ways in
which human societies are differentiated. The following table provides a comparison
between deep ecology, social ecology and eco socialism.
Table three: Deep, social and socialist ecologies – some comparatives themes (Cudworth,
2003)
Ethics, nature and human
Approach to scientific
Conception of relationship
nature
knowledge
between environment and
society
Deep
ecology
Humans are animals.
Humans are not separate
from nature, but a part of
nature.
Ethics must be humancentred.
All nature has intrinsic
value.
Social
ecology
Humans are special kind of
animal because they are
rational and reflective
beings.
Ethics is inevitably human
centred because humans
must attribute value to
nature.
Some science is
responsible for justifying
and enabling
environmental destruction.
Systems science, such as
Gaia theory, understand
the interdependence of
the Earths organism and
eco systems.
Science is value free. It is
shaped, however, by social
forces of capitalism and
the state, which means it
may be complicit in
environmental damage.
Ecology is a revolutionary
science because it sees
34
Contemporary society is
ánthropocentric’. Humans
as a species dominate the
natural environment and
are collectively responsible
for damaging it.
Anthropocentrism fails to
appreciate that natural
resources are finite.
The destruction of the
environment is a result of
intrahuman domination or
hierarchy.
Oppression and exploitation
in terms of class, caste,
gender, race and by the
state, leads to human
Humans and other animals
Ecosocialism have a specific nature or
species life. Different
species have different kinds
of life needs.
Therefore, different species
need different treatment.
Humans attribute ethical
value and decide what such
treatment might be.
human society and the
natural world as
interdependent.
exploitation of natural
resources.
Science can have radical
agendas, even Darwinian
evolutionary science can
be ecological science. A
range of scientific
approaches is considered
Capitalism commodifies
nature and defines natural
resources as objects for
human use. The
organisation of work means
that humans are alienated
from nature.
Social deprivation leads to
environmental problems.
Deep ecologists appreciate diversity in others and see everyone as equal; valuing
complexity, not complication (Naess, 1995). Merchant (1992) explains another champion of
deep ecology is Fritjof Capra (see the Turning Point and the Tao of Physics) as he sees deep
ecology emerging as a new paradigm, which offers a holistic worldview, emphasising the
whole over the parts and does not separate humans from the environment. Capra’s
transition, states Merchant (1992), coincides with a transformation in values that could
bring about a balance between the rational and the intuitive, the reductionist and holistic,
and the analytic and synthetic. The purpose is not to abandon one mode for the other, but
to work toward a balance between them.
Capra is not alone in talking about the inadequacies of ‘the dominant paradigm’, which is
referred to as Western, Industrial, Cartesian, Newtonian, mechanistic (Ife & Tesoriero 2006).
Thinkers such as Capra, Rifkin, Henderson, Ornstein and Ehrlich suggest that while this
paradigm has undoubted benefits for humanity it has reached a point of increasing
dysfunction which won’t be resolved until we develop an alternative.
Ife and Tesoriero (2006) state that challenges to the dominant paradigm have emerged from
a number of sources, one which has been very influential has come from the physical
sciences. The impact of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle quantum physics, relativity and
chaos theory has been to question the certain, ordered and predicable world, and to
acknowledge the existence of unpredictability and uncertainty.
35
Ife and Tesoriero (2006) point out that the social sciences have had a similar impact on the
dominant paradigm through the critique of positivism and empiricism. The humanities
postmodernism has also had a major impact on social and political thought, and has been an
important influence in seeking alternative formulations. It reflects the dominant paradigm
as being the essence of the modern and seeks different, non-linear models of cultural
production and critique that reject conventional forms of logic and discourse. According to
postmodernism, reality is characterised by multiple discourses. Kenny (2006) states that
supporters of postmodernism argue that humanity has lost its way and postmodernism
offers a radical and even revolutionary means of responding to the precarious state of
humans and the earth. Critics of the model argue that its sum effects create a defeatist and
individualistic world, where individuals abrogate their responsibility to collective processes
and wellbeing, lest they should be seen as meta-narratives (Kenny, 2006).
Ife and Tesoriero (2006) state that while Capra’s analysis weakness is in the failure to deal
effectively with issues of social structure, discourses of power and structural inequality, it
has made an important contribution in emphasising the importance of a holistic perspective
rather than linear thinking. Ife and Tesoriero (2006) suggest that all the positions above
could be more appropriately referred to as new paradigm thinking as opposed to the term
Green.
Please refer to the glossary at Appendix C for extended sustainability definitions and related
concepts.
Globalisation
There are opposing views on globalisation its meaning and its value. Changes in the world’s
economic, political and social systems have brought unprecedented improvements in
human living conditions, in both developed and developing countries. The process of
globalisation has accelerated over the past two decades, creating a human crisis as well as a
threat to the entire planet (Ledwith, 2007). Signs of breakdown are everywhere:
disintegration of families; destruction of Indigenous societies, degradation and annihilation
of plant and animal life; pollution; crime, alienation and substance abuse, unemployment,
and a widening gap in incomes and productive capabilities (Davis & Cooke, 2007).
36
Gough and Scott (2007) suggest there are those that see globalisation as real and beneficial,
some see it as a process capable of liberating individuals from the vagaries of national
government policy decisions and resource management so that they can compete freely in a
global marketplace. Ife and Tesoriero (2006) suggest globalisation is almost exclusively
economic. It is about the integration of trade and financial markets at a global level and the
breaking down of national barriers. The idea that the economy and economic growth can
and must take second place to the needs of the economy has been a core policy assumption
of many governments around the world (Ife & Tesoriero 2006).
Ledwith (2007) highlights that since the Second World War there is evidence of a fivefold
increase in economic growth and at the same time poverty gaps between nations and
within nations has doubled. Ledwith (2007) argues that this is central to sustainability and
social justice – ‘we cannot operate on a naive interpretation of social justice which aims to
lift the standards of living of the poorest in line with the artificially crated greed of the rich,
when the world is not able to support such excesses’. She goes onto state that critical
connections like this provide us with a picture of the interlinking dimensions of poverty.
Setting this within an understanding of world poverty and environmental justice gives
insight into the ways in which the problems lie with disproportionate levels of consumption
in Western societies which the earth cannot sustain (Ledwith, 2007).
Changing consumption patterns are broad and area addressed by the United Nations
through Agenda 21, under the areas of energy, transportation, and wastes, economic
instruments and the transfer of technology. The United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP), highlight that over consumption, poverty and environmental degradation are
closely interrelated. While poverty results in certain kinds of environmental stress, the
major cause of the continued deterioration of the global environment is the unsustainable
pattern of consumption and production, particularly in industrialized countries, which is a
matter of grave concern, aggravating poverty and imbalances. The UNEP notes that more
needs to be known about the role of consumption in relation to economic growth and
population dynamics in order to formulate coherent international and national policies. See
UNEP
for
more
information
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.Print.asp?DocumentID=52&ArticleID
=52
37
Concentration on the economic without considering other international agendas of
environmental protection, education, cultural exchange, human rights and social justice
comes at a high price. Some suggest that globalisation has led to a loss of cultural diversity
(Harmsworth, 2002) and the destruction of local communities, while offering the world’s
poor next to nothing. Worldwide, Indigenous cultures are being increasingly swamped by
cultures dominated by capitalism and consumerism, which are based on individualism
rather than communal cooperation, sharing and caring (Harmsworth, 2002). Ife and
Tesoreiro (2006) refer to the globalisation of culture, rather than a globalisation of
citizenship, sometimes referred to as McDonaldisation or Disneyfication, eating the same
thing, listening to the same music, playing the same games.
Numerous languages are threatened or are lost in the Asia Pacific region through migration
and settlement (Adger, Barnett, Chapin, Ellemor, 2011; Nettle & Romaine, 2000). Globally,
there are approximately 7000 known languages with half of these are destined to be
threatened or lost by the end of this century. As the world becomes more intertwined,
many minority language speakers stop using their traditional languages as they regard them
as economic and social liabilities (Caffery, 2009). Every time a language dies so too does a
unique view of the world (Grimes, 2001). The world has lost unique cultural and ecological
knowledge (UNESCO, 2005, p. 6) including thousands of years of vital knowledge gained
from experience, trial and error, in areas of knowledge as diverse as land management,
native animal behaviour, the use of plants for medicinal purposes and human evolution and
migration (Caffery, 2009). Ostler (2003) argues that globalisation is the “biggest threat of
all” (p. 30). Preserving cultural practice is important as a mechanism for expressing cultural
and spiritual identity and it provides a boundary that is distinctive to specific Indigenous
nations (Nash, 2009). UNESCO (2005) argues that “the loss of any single language may be
the key to answering fundamental questions of the future” (p.3).
Furthermore, in a speech to the opening of the annual meeting of United Nations Human
Rights NHCR's Executive Committee, The High Commissioner for Refugees, Guterres said
UNHCR was facing a level of refugee crises unmatched in its recent history, with
simultaneous new emergencies in Syria, Mali, Sudan and South Sudan, and Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC). So far this year, more than 700,000 people have fled from the
DRC, Mali, Sudan and Syria. Guterres said UNHCR’s capacity to help the worlds forcibly
38
displaced was being ‘radically tested’ by this acceleration in new crisis. He praised countries
that have kept borders open to people fleeing conflict. The High Commissioner also warned
that the costs of helping the world's more than 42 million forcibly displaced were escalating
fast, with protracted large-scale displacement situations continuing – for example, in
Afghanistan and Somalia (Guterres, 2012).
A June 2014 report which details Oxfam’s proposals for the Millennium Development Goals
post 2015, highlights that disasters and conflict can also entrench inequality. The burden of
losses is significantly higher for poor people, a larger proportion of whose wealth is
generally held in physical assets that are vulnerable to conflict and disasters, and for whom
financial protection and state support are often severely limited. Women and girls are often
most vulnerable as a result of widespread pre-existing discrimination. The instability and
insecurity that accompany conflict and disasters can lead to an increase in violence against
women and girls (Oxfam, 2014a).
Whether it is global or local, there are acts of violence and injustice directed in part from
one person to another based on their religious and/or cultural backgrounds. In Australia, for
example, Aboriginal peoples report high levels of racism that result in feelings of exclusion,
disempowerment, low self-esteem, stress and anxiety (HREOC, 2009; Victorian Health
Promotion Foundation, 2009). Miller (2010) states that in order to broaden the scope and
purpose of sustainability it is important to have an understanding of history and how
Western paradigms have had adverse impacts on social, political, environmental and
economic systems on a global scale and why it is important that we consider social justice,
inclusion, fairness and reconciliation as part of the broad sustainability agenda. Miller (2010)
suggests that in Australia social, political and economic issues including reconciliation,
fairness and inclusion have been discussed as part of the broad sustainability agenda in
recent years where it is acknowledged that reconciliation is one of the most pressing ethical,
political and economic issues on the Australian landscape and forms part of a holistic view
of sustainability. Reconciliation includes justice, equality, recognition and healing
(Langmore, 2007).
Ife and Tesoriero (2006) suggest that most of the important decisions that affect people's
lives, and that affect communities are made at the global level, in boardrooms, stock
exchanges, investment houses and global forums, far removed from the local context.
39
Giddens (1994) discusses the notion of globalisation beyond a top-down economic process.
Robertson (1995) referred to this process as glocalisation, which enables the local to
influence the global (see for example http://glocalforum.flyer.it/default.php).
Howes (2005) suggests that while far from perfect, the initial concept of sustainable
development, had the potential to generate a policy framework to address the economic,
social, political and ecological problems associated with industrial development. It also
offered a way to abate the clash between neo-liberalism and environmentalism by including
environmental groups in policy making forums.
National policies, however have
systematically narrowed the concept to suit a pre-existing political and economic agenda,
which serves economic growth over environmental and social sustainability concerns. Thus,
proving the challenge of reforming institutions founded on nineteenth and twentieth
century ideals to effectively address twenty first century issues.
40
41
42
Pillars of Sustainability
Relational and holistic concepts of sustainability and sustainable development are
throughout the sustainability literature, and as outlined in table two below, incorporate
issues such as food security, poverty, sustainable tourism, urban quality, women, fair trade,
green consumerism, ecological, public health and waste management as well as those of
climate change, deforestation, land degradation, desertification, depletion of natural
resources, loss of biodiversity and terrorism are primary concerns to sustainable
development (see CoA, 2005; Feng, 2012; Hunting & Tilbury, 2006; Lang, 2007; Stibbe &
Luna, 2009; Tilbury & Wortman, 2004).
Lang (2007) prepared a sustainability table (see Table Four below) as tool for planning
sustainability curriculum. Many of these themes are discussed throughout this paper:
Table four: Themes and concepts across the four pillars of sustainability (Lang, 2007, p. 57)
Ecological
sustainability
Biodiversity
Carrying capacity
Climate change
Conservation
Ecology
Ecological
dysfunction
Ecological
footprint
Environmental
monitoring
Environmental
quality
Extinction
Habitats
Interdependence
Natural cycles and
processes
Natural resource
management
Pollution
Wildlife corridors
Political
sustainability
Advocacy
Civics and active
citizenship
Conflict resolution
Corporate
greenwashing
Democracy
Empathy
Good governance
Human rights
Intergenerational
equity
Interspecies equity
Participatory
decision making
Power
Resilience
Sustainability
values & principles
Tolerance
Understanding and
respect
Economic
sustainability
Closed cycle economy
Ecological footprint
Ecosystem services
Energy efficiency
Globalisation
Life cycle analysis
Natural capital &
renewable resources
Over consumption &
advertising
Precautionary principle
Resource recovery
Standard of living
Sustainable
consumption
Sustainable
development
Triple bottom line
Waste hierarchy
Waste Minimisation
43
Social/cultural
sustainability
Community
engagement
Cooperation &
collaboration
Cultural diversity
Cultural heritage
Human rights
Indigenous cultures
and wisdom
Intergenerational
equity
Intercultural harmony
Peace
Poverty
Religious faith diversity
Social justice
Social quality
Spirituality
Sustainability values
and principles
Sustainable practices
Environmental
Due to scope of the review, not all environmental sustainability issues are covered in this
paper and they are fundamentally well known. However many of them are touched upon in
discussion points. As indicated above through Lang’s list, the major global issues regarding
environmental sustainability include climate change, population and income, pollution,
depletion of the earth’s natural resources, extinction of species, the loss of wilderness,
erosion, desertification, deforestation, nuclear waste, urbanisation, health care, food,
fisheries, agricultures, materials, education, energy and consumption (Ife & Tesoriro 2006;
Rogers et al., 2006).
Climate Change
Given the impact of climate change has on pretty well everything in the above mentioned
list, it is worthwhile to provide a snapshot of what current reports are saying.
The Climate Council of Australia recently released a report which unpacks the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) fifth assessment report on climate
change. The Climate Council state that the IPCC is the most authoritative international body
on climate change science and impacts. IPCC assessment reports are subject to an extremely
rigorous review process through which the IPCC reports conclude that climate change is
occurring as a result of human activities. Other key findings include increased evidence that
climate change is already affecting many natural and human systems and poses significant
risks to human health, ecosystems, infrastructure, agricultural production and communities.
For Australia:
-
This will have a marked impact on the agricultural production in the Murray-Darling Basin if
projections of severe dry conditions are realised.
-
There are risks of increased loss of life, damage to property and economic loss to bushfires
in southern Australia.
-
Hot extremes have become more frequent and intense, while cold extremes have becomes
rarer. Increased hot weather is expected. Similarly there is increased frequency and
intensity of flooding from extreme rainfall events.
-
The Great Barrier Reef is under threat. If average global temperatures rise above 2 degrees
it is expected that few coral dominated systems will survive.
44
-
Reducing the risk in Australia of water shortages, bushfire weather, extreme heatwaves and
decreased agricultural production will depend on how rapidly we are able to reduce carbon
emissions locally and globally.
-
People living in poverty are and will be, hardest hit by the effects of climate change.
Vulnerable communities will struggle to cope with additional pressures created by climate
change, including impacts on crop yields, infrastructures, communities, livelihoods, rising
sea levels and homelessness (Climate Council of Australia, 2014).
For detailed information on the state of the Australian climate please refer to the CSIRO
State
of
the
Climate
Report
2014
http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Climate/Understanding/State-of-the-Climate-2014.aspx.
These findings build on the work of The Australian Climate Change Authority, which
released its final report ‘Reducing Australia’s Greenhouse gas emissions – targets and
progress review’ in February 2014 after being disbanded by the Abbott Government in 2013.
The report highlighted that climate change science is clear, that the world is warming and
human activities are the dominant cause:
Climate change poses major risks for Australia’s people, economy
and environment. A warmer climate is predicted to increase the
frequency and intensity of weather extremes, such as heatwaves,
droughts, floods and bushfires, and to cause rises in sea levels.
Australia is likely to better adapt to projected impacts if global
warming is limited to less than 2 degrees above pre-industrial
levels, with large increases, adaptation can be expected to become
increasingly costly and challenging (Climate Change Authority, 2014,
p. 7).
Australia has a formal international undertaking to reduce
emissions by at least 5% by 2020, and has indicated it might do
more
under
certain circumstances…. A
new international
agreement, covering emissions reductions goals beyond 2020, is
scheduled to be negotiated by the end of 2015. This agreement is
intended to cover all major emitting economies; Australia will be
expected to indicate its post 2020 targets by the first quarter of
2015 (2014, p. 8).
45
This Climate Change Authority review provides the current Government advice based on the
latest evidence on climate science and the impact of climate change, international action to
reduce emissions and economic and social implications for Australia. It provides background
on what Australian governments at all levels have implemented to reduce emissions over
the last two decades and it is acknowledged that there has been considerable change in the
suite of policies over time. While the Government is currently revising Australia’s climate
policies, this document provides an overview of Australia’s policies and progress to date.
Kent (2009) postulates that responses to climate change mitigation within Australian are
increasingly relying on individual actions and commitments to behaviour change at the
personal and household level, through for example, participation in Earth Hour, and
activities aimed at reducing personal and household ecological footprints. Kent (2009)
suggests that the concept of individual responsibility arose in the 1970s out of neoliberalists
and has been embraced globally. The calls for individual responsibility are universally
appealing, where increasingly their citizens, particularly in western countries, are called to
take on a greater responsibility for one’s own health, education, employment.
This
response is appealing to the political right who dismantle state structures for the public
provision of services and to replace them with market driven, private sector activity (Ife &
Tesorierio, 2006). There are a number of thinkers who contest this ideology as helpful (see
Kent, 2009) Among other things it raises issues for the public in terms of institutional trust,
capacity, capability and duty of care, structural and systems impediments; and highlights the
inequitable and uneven power relationships that operate between the individual citizen and
the state.
Interestingly, the third annual survey of Australian attitudes to Climate Change (Leviston et
al., 2013) report that across the 5000 respondents, most were in agreement that climate
change is happening, but there was contention as to whether the major driver is natural
variability or human activity. Those who thought climate change was largely human induced
displayed higher levels of worry, anticipated individual harm, had greater experience with
climate change and placed greater importance on climate. Those people who suggested
climate change was not happening at all (7.7% of respondents) consistently gave the lowest
ratings to attitude items. Opinions about the causes of climate change in turn were strongly
46
associated with political voting intentions. Respondents were asked to nominate who they
intended to vote for in the next Federal election.
Those who intended to vote for Labor or Greens were far more likely to think that climate
change was human-induced, while those intending to vote Liberal and National were much
more likely to consider climate change a product of natural variation (Leviston et al., 2013).
Diethelm and McKee (2009) state that denialists are driven by a range of motivations, be it
greed, ideology, faith, or eccentricity. Responding to denialists require an understanding of
tactics used and having an awareness that discussion and exchange of discourse employed
by academics is not the process observed by denialists. Climate change denialists employ
some or all five characteristics in a concerted way.
Table five: Strategies used by denialists (Diethelm & McKee, 2009)
Identification of
conspiracies
Denalism does not concur with the scientific community, rather
they assert that those scientists are engaging in a complex and
secretive conspiracy. Denialists will argue that the peer review
process is seen as a tool by which the conspirators suppress
dissent, rather than as a means of weeding out papers and grant
applications unsupported by evidence or lacking logical thought.
A variation of conspiracy theory is inversions, in which some of
one’s own characteristics and motivations are attributed to
others. For example tobacco companies describe academic
research into the health effects of smoking as the product of an
anti-smoking industry.
The use of fake
These are individuals who purport to be experts in a particular area
experts
but whose views are entirely inconsistent with established
knowledge. For example, economic rationalists will claim it is part
of a natural cycle and cherry pick experts to espouse this view. A
related strategy is the marginalisation of real experts, in some
cases through an alliance between industry and government. For
example, ExxonMobil successfully opposed the reappointment by
the US Government of the chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change.
Selectivity
1. Drawing on isolated papers that challenge the dominant
consensus or highlighting the flaws in the weakest papers among
those that support it as a means of discrediting the entire field.
The Creation of
For example, those denying the reality of climate change point to
impossible
the absence of accurate temperature records from before the
expectations of what
invention of the thermometer, or the use of the intrinsic
research can deliver
uncertainty of mathematical models to reject them entirely as a
means of understanding a phenomenon.
47
The use of
These include the use of red herrings, or deliberate attempts to
misrepresentation and change the argument where the opposing argument is
logical fallacies
misrepresented to make it easier to refute.
Economic
Ife and Tesoriero (2006) state that he globalisation of the economy, under the influence of
neoclassical economics and the power of transnationals has impacts on local industries
closing down, lost jobs, devastated communities and personal despair. The mechanics are
justified by the rhetoric of economic rationalism – reducing deficits, increasing
competitiveness, free trade, wealth creation, prosperity.
Advocates of the new right, neo-liberalists approach seem unable to acknowledge that what
the experience of 200 years of capitalism has demonstrated when it comes to equality and
equity for all. While the free market has led to advantages in competition and efficiencies, it
fails to address human needs in equitable ways (Ife & Tesoriero, 2006). Rather, it tends to
exacerbate rather than reduce social and economic inequalities, where values of economic
growth and prosperity for a few far outweigh the value of universal access to health care,
education, for all to share.
Kenny (2006) points out that one of the arguments in political philosophy is that freedom
and equality are contradictory precepts. From the left, there is commitment to increasing
equality, in terms of access to resources, information, opportunity and freedom. On the
right, comes the view that equality undermines freedom, for example, any government that
promotes equality must redistributed resources, this impinges on the freedom of those who
on the disproportionate resources by taking these resources away. Kenny goes onto state
that Freedom is dependent on equality in access to resources; it requires the redistribution
of resources based on the principle of social justice, so that people can have real choices in
their lives. From this perspective, says Kenny (2006), the issue is a paradox rather than an
irreconcilable contradiction.
The erosion of community and the increasing concentration of global economic power into
the hands of a few have encouraged increasing individualism, particularly in western
societies. Here, Ife and Tesoriero (2006) explain that value is placed on the individual and
individual achievement, and failure to achieve is attributed to individual deficiencies.
48
Competition weakens social ties and tends to be exclusionary. Blaming the individual
renders iniquitous structures invisible and encourages fear, hostility and suspicion towards
those who deviate from the norm. Trust is eroded, replaced by mistrust and competition.
The wealthiest 20 per cent of households in Australia now account for 61 per cent of
total household net worth, whereas the poorest 20 per cent account for just 1 per cent
of the total. In recent decades the income share of the top 1 per cent has doubled, and
the wealth share of the top 0.001 per cent has more than tripled. At the same time,
poverty is increasing and many of those dependent upon government benefits,
including the unemployment benefit, have fallen below the poverty line.
Growth in inequality of incomes and wealth leads to greater stratification of the
community with adverse impacts on trust, self-image, and equality of opportunity for
disadvantaged groups. This in turn has negative effects on health and social stability.
There is growing evidence from the International Monetary fund, that increasing
inequality impedes economic productivity and economic growth as well (Douglas,
Friel, Denniss & Morawetz, 2014).
Douglas et al. (2014) argue that Australians need to engage in a national conversation about
how inequity is impacting our lives, culture, economy and society in order to enact change.
They make the point that politicians are not going to act while the community acts as a
passive recipient. The report documents a roundtable event held at Parliament House in
January 2014. Discussion points, drawing on the work of Marmot (2004), Sen (2009),
Wilkinson and Pickett (2012) included:
- Australian Aspirations for the day;
- Social, political, economic and cultural consequences of inequality and the barriers
to reform; and
- What kinds of factors will lead to electoral support for change.
From the roundtable the report states that economic growth will be of most benefit if it is
inclusive, offering a high degree of equality of opportunity to all. It identifies the causes of
growing inequality, the adverse effects of inequality and the benefits of intervening now to
reduce inequalities. The report concludes by offering ten ways to advance Australia fair.
49
Global organisations, such as Oxfam, are also talking about the consequences of inequality
on economic growth, with Oxfam reporting that chronic inequality stunts long term
economic growth and makes it more difficult to reduce poverty (Oxfam 2014(b), p. 9).
Similarly, the C20 (Civil Society 20) is a platform for dialogue between the political leaders of
G20 countries and representatives of civil society organisations, headed by Tim Costello.
They hope that through C20, civil society can have a say in the discussion shaping the global
economy. The C20 website contains a number of position papers including climate and
sustainability, in the lead up to a C20 Summit in June 2014. They pose the following points
for discussion:
-
Economic growth at any cost, and inclusive growth that narrows the gap between
rich and poor, both within and between nations?
-
Infrastructure programs which are just about roads, rail and buildings, and an
agenda that also includes social infrastructure like health and caring services?
-
A global economy reliant on fossil fuel subsidies, and one committed to tackling
climate change and transitioning to sustainable energy sources?
Grudnoff (2013) argues that the mining boom has not been managed well and challenges
the notion that the growth in the resource sector is in Australia’s national interest. He
reports on the impacts of the mining boom on rural exports, stating that the rural sector is
heavily reliant on export earnings, in particular the food and agricultural crops, including the
sugar, cotton, wheat, beef and veal sectors. Grudnoff (2013) reports that since the
beginning of the mining boom Australia’s rural sector has lost $61.5 billion in export income,
primarily due to the high Australian dollar. This includes $18.9 billion in 2011-12 alone. He
argues that the Australian economy needs to have many viable industries. The report only
provides an economic analysis; it doesn’t count the social and environmental impacts of any
of these industries.
The Australia Institute recently released report ‘Auditing the auditors: the people’s
Commission of Audit (Richardson, Deniss, Grudnoff, 2014) theorises that Tony Shepard’s
National Commission of Audit (NCA) is a deeply flawed document. The Australia Institute
review provides an overview of what was absent from the NCA, and the implications on
50
taxation, superannuation and healthcare. Some of the key points raised in the report
include:
- Questioning the narrow focus of the NCA report.
- Lack of evidence to support the premise that Australia has high levels of debt, taxes
or public spending.
- Inconsistent information on population and demographic trends and issues.
- Questioning the NCA’s lack of analysis of the efficiency and effectiveness of the
Abbott Government’s Direct Action Policy.
- Lack of analysis on privatisation and deregulation issues (leading to increased
efficiency and lower costs to consumers).
- A narrow evidence base for claims made, reference list is short and self-referential.
- Questioning the ability for the Commissioner of Audit (Tony Shepard) to be
independent given the Business Council of Australia (BCA) demanded an audit of the
nation’s finances be conducted while Tony Shepard was the President of BCA and the
Commissioner of Audit’s secretariat is staffed by Peter Crone, BCA’s immediate former Chief
Economist. There are no statements about their independence or declarations to their
personal or organisational interests.
Social and Cultural
Sustainability also includes social justice, intergenerational justice; mental and physical
wellbeing; social, economic and cultural transformation and the flourishing of the diversity
of life (see CoA, 2005; Feng, 2012; Hunting & Tilbury, 2006; Lang, 2007; Stibbe & Luna, 2009;
Tilbury & Wortman, 2004). As evidenced by the above discussion, the issues of social
sustainability are inextricably linked to environmental, economic, global, political and
cultural issues.
Ife and Tesoriero (2011) suggest that social systems and institutions, such as the family, the
community, bureaucracies, educational institutions and voluntary organisations, need to be
evaluated from the point of view of their sustainability.
Applying the principle of sustainability to social systems means that they must be evaluated
not simply in terms of their immediate role and function but also in terms of their long term
viability, their impact on other systems, the energy they extract from their environment and
51
their output. Ife and Tesoriero (2011) suggest that it can be seriously questioned whether
many modern social systems, institutions and organisations can meet the criterion of
sustainability. Aboriginal practitioners in community and health development suggest a
holistic conception which could be useful in terms of analysis and evaluation frameworks:
Health is holistic, encompassing mental health and physical, cultural,
and spiritual health. Land is central to well-being. This holistic concept
does not merely refer to the 'whole body' but in fact is steeped in the
harmonised interrelations which constitute cultural well-being. These
inter-relating factors can be categorised largely as spiritual,
environmental, ideological, political, social, economic, mental and
physical (Swan & Raphael, 1995).
Fundamental to aspects of social justice and human rights is the notion of equity. For
example take a look at consumption and exploitation issues through the story of stuff
http://storyofstuff.org/. Intergenerational equity is often espoused in sustainability
literature due to the implication of past and current policies and actions on future
generations.
We also need to look into our past and redress the injustices of the past. Kimpton (2014)
and
other
first
nations
health
leaders
argue
(See
for
example,
http://nationalcongress.com.au/recognition/ ) that constitutional recognition is the next
step in developing a healthier nation. Recognising Indigenous Australians as the First
Nations peoples will enrich the identity of the nation and make significant steps towards
reconciling past injustices.
As outlined in the section on globalisation, a universal culture is emerging, propagated
through increasingly global media, for example, television, music, food, drink, clothing, film,
sport. It is increasingly difficult for communities to preserve their own unique culture.
External influences can effectively break down local cultural traditions and often requires a
deliberate community strategy if they are to be retained. At the global level there are a
number of United Nations protections, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. In
52
Australia, The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (RDA) gave domestic effect to Australia’s
international obligations under the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Racial Discrimination. Almost 20 years later, a number of new provisions were added to
the RDA concerning racial vilification.
The National Congress of First Peoples (2014) submission to the Attorney-General on the
Exposure Draft of the Freedom of Speech (Repeal of Section 18C) Bill 2014, Racial
Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth), advise that these new provisions were in response to racial
violence against both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and ethnic groups in the
late 1980s and early 1990s and three major inquiries, including the National Inquiry into
Racist Violence, the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, and the Australian
Law Reform Commission’s Multiculturalism and the Law report, had demonstrated a need
for, and made recommendations about, the introduction of racial vilification legislation.
The RDA is a key, if not foundational, law establishing Australia’s identity as a nation
upholding equality and tolerance within a diverse multicultural society. It is also a keystone
for reconciliation in Australia between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and the
settler state. The current provisions in the RDA strike a careful balance between freedom of
expression and freedom from racial vilification. Congress is concerned that a change to
these provisions in the RDA would send a signal that racism is acceptable. Racist sentiments
cannot be separated from or dissociated from racist behaviours. The actual harm caused by
racial vilification should not be dismissed. The impacts of racism are significant, they matter,
and racism is rightfully acknowledged as a determinant of health for first nations peoples
globally (Kimpton, 2014; WHO, 2011). Recent research shows that experiences of racism
and discrimination remain prevalent in Australia, through race-hate talk, race-based
exclusion and physical attack (Dunn, Forrest, Babacan et al., 2011; Priest, Paradies,
Gunthorpe et al., 2011). Similarly, there is evidence associating racism with poor outcomes
in contemporary and historical contexts, via colonisation and oppression (Paradies, Harris,
Anderson, 2008).
The Australian Reconciliation Barometer is a biennial national research study that measures
the progress of reconciliation between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and nonIndigenous
Australians.
For
more
53
information
please
see
http://www.reconciliation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/2012-AustralianReconciliation-Barometer-Overview.pdf .
Indeed, valuing first nation’s cultures is critical to community development and
sustainability. Quite aside from addressing issues of social justice and reconciliation, there is
a great deal to be learnt about sustainability from Indigenous standpoints. Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander communities hold and sustain cultural heritage assets of enormous
importance to themselves, to the nation, and to world cultural heritage (Jenke, 2008).
Polistina (2009) is one in the literature that includes culture as the forth pillar of
sustainability and recommends that an important skill for dealing with cultural diversity in
their development of sustainability literacy is cultural competence. The role of the educator
itself demands a high level of cultural literacy to ensure that education provides chances for
critical reflection on culture from multiple perspectives, rather than being confined to one’s
own world view (For more information on cultural competence and cultural safety see AIDA,
2013; Dudgeon, Garvey & Pickett, 2000). Yunkaporta’s (2009) eight Aboriginal ways of
learning framework provides strategies for educators to incorporate both Aboriginal and
Western approaches to education that values cultural diversity and builds cultural literacy.
Such approaches to education
Emphasise the enhancement of self and community learning. It includes the process of
being aware of yourself and others, education is underpinned by personal development and
healing, professional practice, and enhancing skill and training (Dudgeon, Milroy & Walker,
2014).
Opportunities to encourage the embracing of cultural diversity in every day practice to help
reinforce that it is an everyday part of living in a multicultural society. Further, seeing things
from other people's daily lives can help increase students understandings of the similarities
and differences between their own cultural background and that of other people
(MacNaughton & Williams, 2009). Alternatively, racism increases children’s sense of
difference and vulnerability by devaluing their culture and making them feel unwelcome
(Kidsmatter, 2009). Access to cultural activities provide opportunities for cultural exchange,
social connectedness, co-operation, friendships and when children have things from their
54
own culture on display it can help build a sense of belonging and of being valued
(MacNaughton & Williams, 2009; see Appendix C - Aboriginal cultural heritage).
The Australian Government released a report in 2013 on the What Works Program, a
community partnership model, in operation in Australian schools for over ten years. The
report details, through case studies and the provision of resources, how schools can make
systems changes aimed at supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students and
increasing sustained educational outcomes for Aboriginal and Torre Strait Islander students
(CoA, 2013).
The beneficial relationships held between Indigenous people and country is encapsulated in
sayings by Indigenous people such as ‘healthy country, healthy people’. In 2011 the
Australian Institute for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) prepared a
literature review which considers the benefits of caring for country. It begins by scoping
what caring for country means within our intercultural society, and why connection with
country is important. Consistent with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander worldview’s of
interconnectedness and holism, this review provides an insightful discussion of the
influential literature on the benefits of caring for country. These benefits include:
- health and wellbeing benefits;
- cultural and socio-political benefits;
- economic benefits; and
- environmental benefits.
The discussion includes some of the barriers to achieving benefits, as well as anticipated and
realised benefits of caring for country. Much of the innovation in this field is in the
exploration of health and country, and the matching of economic and environmental goals
(CoA, 2011).
Social Capital
Franklin (2011) states that there has been a loss of social resilience in rural communities,
arguing that local community sustainability and local systems and processes that support
and maintain individuals whose knowledges and identities together produce the social
capital and cultural artefacts of communities of common purpose, deserves the attention of
55
education providers and researchers. She implores researchers to identify and engage in the
particular social capital of the local as education practitioners have been left ill-equipped to
identify and address complex and often disconcerting issues, leaving rural young people
stranded and torn between two disparate and often oppositional sets of knowledges and
values. Work undertaken by Nielsen et al. (2012) may provide insight to this issue. This
study evaluated a teacher education subject called ‘Education for sustainable development’
and evaluated the subject for its ability to prepare pre-service teachers for their roles as
environmental educators, using place based pedagogy and critical thinking to underpin the
subject design.
Key to successful EFS initiatives is the ability to adapt frameworks to suit local needs and
conditions at a pace congruent with the schools ability to implement individual action plans.
The whole-school approach encourages all participants to play a role in determining the
level of progress. This generates benefits related to increased control and selfdetermination, concepts central to health and social justice (Ife & Tesoriero, 2006). This is
only possible with strong executive commitment, engagement and enthusiasm from all staff
and students. Other success factors for sustainable schools include embracing an ecological
approach, fostering transformative learning, an interest in facilitating a cultural change
process for improved learning and action (Gough, 2004; Lang, 2007) distributed leadership,
school leadership teams, student involvement in day to day EFS activities and integrating
EFS ideas into school operations and across the curriculum and extensive links within their
local community (Cutter-Mackenzie, 2010; Gough, 2004; Henderson & Tilbury, 2004;
Jackson, 2008; Larri, 2006; MACER, 2006; Maller, 2009; Maller et al., 2005).
While the research base is small, the emerging EFS related research does indicate promise
of positive outcomes in relation to social connectedness, lower levels of absenteeism and
aggressive behaviour, improved communication skills and enhanced self-esteem (Block &
Johnson, 2009; Cutter-Mackenzie, 2010; Gough, 2004; Jackson, 2008; Larri 2006; MACER,
2006; Maller 2005).
According to the AIHW (2009) social capital is an important aspect in which a child develops.
Strong connections between individuals promote a sense of belonging and provide access to
support. This can be represented by the degree to which people feel they can access
56
support from neighbours, friends and participate in community activities. Leonard (2013)
concludes that AuSSI programs were characterised by the elements of genuine and lasting
professional development initiatives as opposed to mandated training packages and
mandated professional development. The process whereby schools and communities
worked on developing approaches to issues they genuinely cared about and were able to
define and implement in their own terms in an effectively 'place-based' approach made
them successful initiatives. The signs of strong social capital such as robust social networks,
strong community based resources and commitment to respectful, reciprocal, trusting
relationships (Baum, 2008; Putland et al., 2009) are reported as key successes in leading EFS
schools. This seems to be benefiting students through increased sense of self, trust,
connectedness and responsibility. These elements are all seen as important determinants of
community mental wellbeing (Butterworth, 2000).
Partnerships and networks are key elements to successful sustainable schools. Robust social
networks, strong community based resources and commitment to respectful, reciprocal,
trusting relationships are strong signs of social capital. These are most common in
communities where economic capacities and resources are more equally shared (Putland et
al., 2009). For social capital to grow, people need to be able to regularly interact with one
another which provide opportunities for trust to grow. Carnegie (2014) suggests that
Australia should develop a new Compulsory National Service, whereby we can call upon
each other as a means to increase civic engagement, trust and social cohesion we need for
local
communities
to
prosper
(see
ABC
Lateline
17
June
2014
http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2014/s4027403.htm).
Places with a strong identity help to enhance community awareness and bonding. In this
sense, contributes to place identity. At the same time, places with a strong identity make
social cohesion easier. From this position, Uzzell et al. (2002) hypothesises that socially
cohesive communities that have a strong sense of social and place identity will be more
supportive of environmentally sustainable attitudes and behaviours compared with those
communities in which cohesiveness and social and place identities are weaker.
Reports of increased social connectedness and cohesion in schools with EFS programs are
recorded in numerous case studies (see for example, Block & Johnson 2009; CoA, 2011;
57
Gould League, n.d.; Jackson 2008; Maller 2005). A schools ability to identify, mobilise and
address issues of sustainability by cultivating and transferring knowledge, skills, systems and
resources that affect community and individual changes consistent with the AuSSI's
framework is referred to as community capacity.
Vygotsky provided a collaborative framework where students or learners socially construct
knowledge through talk and collaborative activity (Woodhead & Faulkner, 2008). Educating
for sustainability through the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Curriculum supports the use
of experiential learning where students have the opportunity to participate in a range of
hands on activities working with students they may not have otherwise worked with,
parents, carers and other family members and other groups and schools. Further, the AuSSI
in the ACT demonstrates that inquiry-based collaborative professional learning can and is
happening in Australian schools (Leonard, 2013). This is congruent with Feng’s (2012) paper
on the interdisciplinary aspects of sustainability education, which highlights that a core
feature of sustainability education curricula is the interdisciplinary framework of EFS. Feng
clarifies out the distinctions in terminology as follows:
Disciplinarity
Multidisciplinarity
Interdisciplinarity
Shared language, tools institutions, rules and
epistemological commitments. The boundaries and
procedures established by disciplinary discourse
communities are central to the legitimation of the
knowledge produced by and within that community
(Greckhamer et al., 2008 as cited in Feng 2012).
Studying simultaneously or in sequence more than one
area of knowledge, without making connections between
them
or
without
collaborating
as
learners.
Multidiscplinary teams tend to work on their work
individually, coming together at the end to form a series
of works, not necessarily synthesised (Feng, 2012).
Learners make links between individual disciplines and
generate cooperation between themselves and others.
Fosters a community of learning in connection with other
disciplines (Feng, 2012).
For example, teachers tend to incorporate and link different programs together, as
evidenced through the recent CarbonKids evaluation (Larri, 2010), one school stated:
Our vision of being a sustainable school is holistic – it is about
personal, social and environmental responsibility. This permeates
every aspect of school life for example we use restorative practices to
58
promote personal and social sustainability. This means when there is
a situation where there is student conflict we work through a process
of what happened and what has contributed to the conflict: then
how to get resolution and avoid the conflict cycle. We are trying to
link this sort of thinking with sustainability generally. Our approach is
being conscious of CarbonKids and AuSSI across every part of the
curriculum.
Similarly, Brown, Harris and Russell (2010), discuss sustainability issues in the context of
‘wicked problems’ that require transdisciplinary approach. Their book, ‘Tackling wicked
problems’ offers 15 case studies which provide examples of how researchers have engaged
with the opportunities and challenges of conducting transdisciplinary inquiries. In this
approach, academic disciplines are combined with personal, local and strategic
understanding and researchers are required to recognise multiple knowledge cultures,
accept the inevitability of uncertainty, and clarify their own and others’ ethical positions.
In light of current professional learning models contained in the Australian Teacher
Professional Development Framework, Leonard (2013) highlights the benefits of
collaborative models of professional learning such as those associated with EFS practices
rather than ‘performative’ reforms which seek to improve teacher practice by increasing
external accountability, eg. The My School website.
International literature
A United Kingdom (UK) Sustainable Schools evaluation (Jackson, 2008) stated that successful
programs are evidenced where sustainability is at the heart of the school ethos through a
shared vision and is embedded throughout all school activities. Successful sustainable
schools have an outward orientation and look to build relationships and to act beyond the
school. Having close links with the local community produced important social benefits such
as increased business for local businesses, increased fund raising potential, new
partnerships, improved social relationships inside the school and between the school and
community. Further, achieving energy and water efficiencies can lead to significant savings
in resources, and active staff and student participation in these processes provide important
learning and deeper understandings on sustainability. However a lack of capacity or
59
resources to roll out sustainability projects is seen as a barrier to implementation (Jackson,
2008).
The obesity crisis is driving the growing momentum for ‘greening’ school grounds in the
United States (Ozer, 2007). A US meta-analysis (Ozer, 2007) noted anecdotal evidence that
school garden programs can enhance students learning in academic, social and health
related domains and reports evidence of increased levels of ownership, connectedness and
attachment in the school environment. Ozer (2007) identifies some of the challenges
including reliance on donations, voluntary work and lack of continuity with school
maintenance and advocates that such programs need to go beyond individual health and
behaviour to environmental sustainability. Developing and sustaining capacity is crucial to
these types of programs; like Jackson (2008) and others (eg. Lang, 2007 & Ozer, 2007) state,
that long term commitment, ethos change and engaging family and community are
essential.
In countries such as Sweden, France, Belgium and the Netherlands, major national
initiatives have been taken to improve the condition of schoolyards as educational
resources. Similar environmentally based initiatives are underway in Canada and the United
States (Moore & Wong 1997). In Norway environmental education is being written into its
national curriculum documents (starting at pre-school level) (Davis, 2009). However,
comprehensive frameworks such as the AuSSI are relative newcomers. In New Zealand, the
successful Enviroschools program is changing the way that students learn for the
environment and their future (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004).
Faber Taylor & Keo (2009) encourage schools to consider more natural elements and areas
in schools yards such as trees, shrubs and vegetable gardens for students with
concentration and attention difficulties. Including students in the design and construction of
outdoor spaces strengthens potential benefits for schools. For example, a Swedish school
engaged the students in a number of ways in designing its playground. This included
physically re-creating a space in which they liked, the students described what they liked in
their existing playground and what they would like to keep, and the design was integrated
into school study subjects such as history and woodworking. The end product resulted in a
process that energised the whole school community (James & Lahti, 2004). A Canadian
60
study also found that when fully involved in the process students can acquire skills related
to democracy, participation and citizenship (Dyment, 2005). A recent UK gardening in
schools study (Passy, Morris & Reed, 2010) evidences outcomes such as increased
confidence, resilience and self-esteem; development of physical skills; sense of
responsibility, positive behaviour and improvements in emotional wellbeing.
Sustainability in Rural Schools
White and Reid (2008) highlight that rural schools, are often at the sharp end of economic
downturns. In addition to the loss of teaching staff as school numbers decline, rural schools
face daily an ever increasing range of social and welfare issues with which many teachers
find themselves ill-equipped to deal. They suggest that schools are often the social
barometer of community wellbeing. In these periods, rural communities need additional
support to maintain sense of identity, sense of purpose, sense of place. Rural communities
are more likely to remain sustainable when community members are able to discern issues,
and lead the community in identifying creative solutions and achieve successful outcomes
(Bartholomaeus, 2013b; Ife & Tesoriero 2006).
Franklin (2011) states that beyond the acknowledgement by ACARA about the changing
nature of educational goals and the acknowledgement that the Australian Curriculum
should be implemented to reflect the local context and take into account the individuals
family, culture and community background (ACARA, 2011) there has been no recognition of
the possible need to frame a policy or direction to address the educational issues that are
outstanding in rural Australia. Franklin goes onto argue that by ACARA adopting the global
definition of sustainability outlined in the Brundtland Report (1987), it causes tensions
between local rural industry practices and communities and broader perceptions about the
need to sustain global resources in the face of economic exploitation (Franklin, 2011).
Green and Reid (2004) point out that through the distinctive geography and demography of
Australia, the land mass, industries and services state that the concept of sustainability has
particular resonance for rural-regional Australia. They highlight that as the emphasis of
Australian life is increasingly focused on urban centres, rural and regional Australia is
increasingly marginalised and pose a question about what role teacher education can play in
rural-regional sustainability. They surmise that what happens inside schools and classrooms
61
need to become more closely aligned with the outside, with more explicit attention given to
the contextualisation and exchange. It is more than locational; it should incorporate an ecosocial justice agenda for Australian education. That is, the relationship between the
historical relationship between culture and ecology and the challenges globalisation brings.
Kemmis and Mutton (2012) undertook a study in the Murray-Darling Basin to investigate
educational practice in ten EFS initiatives to characterise exemplary practice in school and
community EFS. They explored the notion that EFS can be regarded as successful when and
if it produces changes in peoples knowledge and through to their actions. Kemmis and
Mutton (2013) suggest that EFS, especially in place-based forms, offers a sense of urgency
and purpose to education. For example Landcare and other types of community action,
recycling, restoring landscapes etc., and the education process being involved with such an
event is far more than incidental learning. They argue that EFS is much more than
knowledge into action, it has the potential to transforms peoples social, economic and
cultural practices sayings, doings and relating characteristics of more sustainable ways of
living.
Researchers such as Boon (2011); Franklin (2011); Green and Reid (2004); Roberts and
Green (2013); Somerville and Green (2014); White (2006) highlight a range of educational
issues in which rural communities engage that have an impact on EFS in schools. They are
far ranging and include issues of recruitment and retention, pre-teacher placements,
professional teaching experiences, rural and urban comparative outcomes, equity and social
justice.
White and Reid (2008) suggest that teacher education providers can more
successfully prepare teachers for rural settings if they understand and enact teacher
education curriculum with a consciousness of and attention to the concept of place. Franklin
(2011) suggests that to be ‘rural’ is for rural people much more than ‘not urban’, and rural is
not simply distant or remote in relation to urban places. Sustainability, Franklin (2011)
suggests, as with rural, means one thing to rural people in a particular rural setting, and
another to the people of the city who develop policies and practices in education,
conservation or otherwise. Similarly, Roberts and Green (2013) suggest that rural and urban
schools have been simultaneously compared through the same lens which illuminates how
space and place are ill-considered notions in Australian educational policy.
62
White’s work in the pre-service and teacher education highlight the gap in rural pre-service
training placements and provide strong arguments for the need to consider placements in
the context of the placement, through rural and regional lens. White’s research indicates
there are gaps in capacity and knowledge creating opportunities to develop a framework for
rural and regional teaching opportunities as a distinct from urban centres (see Reid et al.,
2010; White, 2006; White et al., 2011; White and Kline 2012; White and Reid 2008). Kinash
and Hoffman (2009) undertook a literature review searching rural and primary school and
92% of the 100 articles pathologised rural primary schooling. Implicit in this literature,
Kinash and Hoffman (2009), is the notion that families enrol their children out of necessity
rather than informed choice, low socio-economic status is a dominant topic of discussion as
are poorer health outcomes. A clear challenge to researchers to consider re-framing the
discourse on and about rural school communities.
A schools ability to identify, mobilise and address issues of sustainability by cultivating and
transferring knowledge, skills, systems and resources that affect community and individual
changes consistent with the AuSSI's framework is referred to as community capacity. O’Neill
(2013) suggests that the sustainability of schools in rural areas relies on the confidence and
support by the local community and this confidence is dependent upon the perception that
the school is a successful one. It follows that a critical component of reflective practice
should be to maintain vigilance on the language we use and develop an awareness of its
consequence. Who says what when, are issues of power. In this context, power operates at
every level of society, and can be positive and productive or negative and counterproductive
(Drewery & Winslade, 1997).
For example, the education system has a history of rendering Aboriginal stories invisible,
passive, tokenistic or controversial. Gorringe et al., (2011) refer to Chris Sara’s research
regarding perceptions of Aboriginal students similarly laden with negative language; for
example, ‘lazy’, ‘under achievers’, ‘cheeky’ and ‘defiant’. This language was echoed in the
words used by Aboriginal people to describe themselves, and noted that this underpinned
damaging and self-limiting behaviours:
The greatest tragedy is that young black kids make choices about
these perceptions as well. Too many aspire to be these negative
things thinking that they are supporting their Aboriginal identity. So
63
those who do well get picked on by other kids who say ‘you’re a
coconut’ etc. These kids think that the negative stereotype is a
cultural identity but of course it’s not. At Cherbourg I was determined
to smash this perception of Aboriginal identity, but we had to replace
it with something — which brought us to the ‘Strong and Smart’
philosophy (p. 12).
Ironically, these concepts are now embedded within the negative stereotype, leading to the
derogatory description of some people as less ‘Aboriginal’, less ‘real’ or less ‘valid’ than
others (Gorringe et al., 2011). Essentially, dominant discourse has created the impression
that Aboriginal communities (and by association individuals) are terminal places outside of
rational modern Australia (Phipps & Slater, 2010). Instead of being value neutral, the use of
this type of terminology frames Aboriginal identity in a negative way and acts, therefore, as
a component of negative stereotyping (Gorringe et al., 2011). It is important to remember
that Aboriginal people are as ‘modern’ as any other people and all living in the present (Muk
Muk Burke, 2009) and that Aboriginal peoples have multiple knowledges relevant in a
globalised world, continually adapting and learning from other knowledge systems (Nash,
2009).
Thus, it is worthy to consider that no-one has complete power over themselves or their
environment as we live in social contexts where many different discourses operate
(Drewery & Winslade, 1997), as White and Epston (1990) theorise about Foucault’s ideas on
power and truth stating that:
The notion of a power that is negative in its effects contributes to a
theory of repression, while the notion of power that is positive in its
effects leads to a theory about its role in ‘making up’ persons’ lives.
And when discussing ‘truths’ Foucault is subscribing not to the belief
that there exist objective or intrinsic facts about the nature of
persons but instead to constructed ideas that are accorded a truth
status. These ‘truths’ are ‘normalizing’ in the sense that they
construct norms around which persons are incited to shape or
constitute their lives (p. 19).
64
Notions of Place
A sense of place describes an attachment to a place that is an important part of a person’s
sense of identity and creates a feeling of belonging. An outdoor experience in the natural
environment can foster personal discoveries and assist a person in becoming grounded and
secure in their sense of self and in creating a sense of belonging and identity, which in turn
improves mental health (Bird, 2007; Wright & Tolan, 2009). Instilling a sense of place means
restoring local culture and connections with local places and communities, reweaving the
local ecology into the fabric of the economy and life patterns while diminishing our
consumption patterns (Ife & Tesoriero, 2006; Orr, 2004).
Place based pedagogies put the local and the known in the centre of the education process.
They allow teachers to structure learning opportunities that are framed as meaningful and
relevant to their students because they are connected to their own places, to people and to
the popular cultures and concerns that engage them (Comber, Reid & Nixon, 2007 as cited
in White & Reid 2008). Place conscious pedagogies are more interested in developing and
projecting awareness outward toward places (Gruenewald, 2003) beyond the local
connecting with the global. Bartholomaeus’ (2013a) article on sustainable rural education
explains that placed based education can provide opportunities for learning the skills and
knowledge that will enable students to understand and apply knowledge that is more
distant from their lives and adopt it in the context which matches local environments.
Bartholomaeus goes onto discuss Smith’s (2002) five dimensions of working with the local
place: social, cultural, economic, political and natural/ecological. Concepts of decolonisation
are also discussed as a way of renewing traditions and cultural patterns of local
communities. Bartholomaeus (2013a & 2013b) showcases Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander communities, as example of place based learning in a local cultural context, inspired
by community. Various published books have been written by children with interaction from
adults in elders in a number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities which
strengthen Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural knowledge as it is passed on to the
next generation in the school setting. For example, the Papunya school book of country and
history published in 2001. These types of programs have the potential to be transformative
as knowing about your own history and culture provides a sense of belonging, it provides
connections to the knowledge of ancestors, and it elucidates cultural ways of being and
65
doing (SNAICC 2005). It allows empowerment, for a person to move on in life in a positive
way, and increases a sense of well-being and inter-connectedness (Brough et al., 2006;
Wright & Tolan, 2009). All these factors contribute to building a strong sense of self and
identity.
Wattchow and Brown (2011) suggest that many people may experience a sense of
placelessness in the high mobility of present times where ‘globalising’ agendas are not
conducive to gaining a sense of place in a constantly changing world. As educators they see
it vitally important for outdoor educators to understand and foster a sense of connection
with the places where they live, learn and teach. Their book, A Pedagogy of Place discusses
why these issues are so important in the Australian and New Zealand context through case
studies and discussion, highlighting that in post-colonial societies like ours, there is a lot to
discuss that relate to land, identity and community.
Partnerships engender support for the development and wellbeing of young people
and their families and can provide opportunities for young Australian's to connect
with their communities, participate in civic life and develop a sense of responsible
citizenship. In particular the development of partnerships between schools and
Indigenous communities, based on cross-cultural respect, is the main way of
achieving highly effective schooling for Indigenous students (MCEETYA, 2009).
Rural Regional Sustainability
Rather than focusing on rural sustainability, Green (2010) suggests that the focus needs to
be on rural-regional sustainability. This concept draws on Tomaney’s (2008 as cited in
Green, 2010) concept of regionality and regions, and Lemke's (1995 as cited in Green, 2010)
interdisciplinary thinking in eco-social sustainability. Regions are “historically contingent
social constructions rather than physical entities” (p. 7). Regionality then links with Lemke’s
(1995 as cited in Green, 2010) eco-social dynamics, as the survival of everything depends on
the health and wellbeing of the environment. Building on Lemke's (1995 as cited in Green,
2010) argument that it is necessary to bring together different fields of research, Green
(2010) indicates that there is a need to work across fields in systematic ways to consider
rural education, environmental education and Indigenous education and look beyond
schooling as a distinctive field. Within this, notions of spaces and places need to be
66
supplemented by notions of scale and region. This involves "thinking relationally, and
trialectically, with space, place and scale brought together in a single dynamic framework"
(Green, 2010, p. 7). Other areas such as health and professional practice fields that focus on
rural and regional sustainability in relation to policy and professional education also need to
be brought together, something which would support inter agency initiatives in rural
circumstances. In particular, there needs to be a “ greater appreciation of and engagement
in the educational practice of rural regional sustainability, at all levels and in every sphere of
lifelong learning-including that of formal schooling, although by no means limited to it and
indeed as a life-long investment in the Lifeworld itself” (Green, 2010, p. 10).
Like Green (2010), Hasley (2005) also argues that rural education needs to work with other
services in relation to sustainability to regenerate rural education. In particular, there are
five main issues where rural education can connect with others and create new policy to
promote sustainability and the role of rural education. These are food security, energy, fresh
water supply, declining natural environment, territorial security. To do this, he proposes
that through policy changes, city students should access rural schools and experiences to
increase the enrolment numbers of rural schools and the possibility of youth taking up
careers in rural areas. Crucially, this involves acknowledging that education in rural locations
is just as good as education in city areas by acknowledging and celebrating differences.
White & Reid (2008) indicate that sustainability and teacher education are connected, as
teacher education can prepare graduates to teach in rural areas, which will support healthy
rural communities. This can be done by helping teachers to understand and consider place,
as this helps them to address the communities’ and schools’ needs, resist rural decline, help
sustain rural communities, and encourage teachers to be engaged with their communities.
Green & Reid (2004) argue that teacher education is dominated by metrocentric
perspectives, and that preparing teachers for rural settings needs to be considered as part
of the larger project of teacher education, not as a supplementary education program. In
particular, they argue that teacher education needs to be a “situated practice” (p. 255).
Building on this, White & Reid (2008) suggest that “Place conscious approaches bring a
particular sort of curriculum, and as teachers come to know about a particular rural place,
they are developing knowledge, sensitivities, awareness, skills, attitudes, and abilities that
will allow them to feel more at home and more powerful in rural communities” (p. 6).
67
Reid et al. (2010) propose a model of rural social space that brings together social, economic
and environmental dimensions of rural-regional sustainability that works with rural regional
sustainability. This model aims to help teachers understand the rural and prepare teachers
for working in rural communities and aims to improve teacher education for teachers who
will work in rural areas. “Rural social space is the set of relationships, actions, and meanings
that are produced in and through the daily practice of people in a particular place and time”
(p. 269). It links demographics, economics and geography. This model also incorporates the
TBL considerations of sustainability. Understanding of these factors helps teachers move
beyond the deficit view of rural schooling, and improves teachers practice in place,
something which is essential for both economic and social sustainability of rural areas and
of Australia.
68
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Section Three: Sustainability in Curriculum and Policy
The following section provides an overview of how sustainability appears in each
jurisdictional curriculum documents and policies in the states and territories of the MurrayDarling Basin.
Curriculum Documents
Of those curriculum documents that provided a definition of sustainability, all were
consistent with sustainability being about maintaining the needs of the current generation
while ensuring the needs of the future generation are also able to be met. An example is
that of the National Curriculum, where sustainability is defined as follows:
Sustainability addresses the ongoing capacity of Earth to maintain all
life. Sustainable patterns of living meet the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs. Actions to improve sustainability are both individual and
collective endeavours shared across local and global communities.
They necessitate a renewed and balanced approach to the way
humans interact with each other and the environment (Australian
Curriculum,
Assessment
and
Reporting
Authority,
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/crosscurriculumpriorities/s
ustainability, 2014).
See Appendix E for definitions of sustainability from each educational jurisdiction.
In the various jurisdictions, except for NSW Geography K-10, no specific area of
sustainability is focused on or prioritised over the other, suggesting a TBL approach with
references to all areas of sustainability-particularly in the National Curriculum. However,
when examining how sustainability is covered in the curriculums, there is a bias towards
sustainability being seen in predominantly environmental terms. So while the official
definitions suggest a non-specific, or TBL identification of sustainability, the implied
definition of sustainability is one of environmental issues and focuses. This is evident in the
context sustainability is taught, the subjects it is taught in, and the different elements of
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sustainability that are taught and focused on. For example in the majority of instances
where sustainability is mentioned in the curriculums in each state and territory and
nationally, it is either referenced directly as environmental/ecological sustainability, or
usually where it isn’t only an environmental reference, other areas are referenced closely to
environmental issues. While it does occur, it is rare to see references to sustainability out of
the context of environmental. This suggests there is at least some small recognition of a TBL
approach, however, with the focus predominantly on environmental, this can be seen as an
‘add on’ - the focus is small, so the message is lost within the largely environmental focus.
This is exemplified in Table Six and Table Seven below, where details of the number of times
sustainability appears in the core subjects of the curriculum are identified. Appendix F
contains a detailed break-down of where sustainability is can be located in each
jurisdictional curriculum by subject areas. The ‘find’ function was used to explore where
sustainability appeared in the curriculum documents, and the types of examples used. This
is throughout the whole document, including introductions, however, those that have been
developed with the national curriculum references to sustainability as a cross curricular
priority have been excluded. So for example, in the NSW syllabus, English K-10 for the
National Curriculum, on p. 28, sustainability is referenced as a cross curricular priority and
what this means (http://syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au/download/). Examples such as this have
been excluded.
The uses of sustainability were categorised into environmental only
references, environmental and other areas, or just other areas (see Appendix F for a
breakdown of this by subject area).
The ‘number of times environmental only’ refers to how many times sustainability is only
referenced in terms of the environment. This includes references to resource based
sustainability-such as: “They analyse how the sustainable use of resources depends on the
way they are formed and cycle through Earth systems” (Australian Curriculum year 7
Science
Achievement
Standard,
ACARA,
1014,
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/science/curriculum/f-10?layout=1).
The ‘number of times other & environmental’ refers to where sustainability is referenced in
environmental terms as well as other aspects of sustainability. When this occurs, it is usually
environmental and social that are referenced together. For example, in the NSW English K91
10 curriculum, it is identified that: “In each year students must study examples of: texts that
include aspects of environmental and social sustainability” (content and texts required for
early stage 1 to stage 3, p. 24; content and texts required for stage 4, p. 25; content and
texts required for stage 5, p. 26; content required for years 7-10 life skills, p. 159,
http://syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au/download/). This category also includes those which are
predominantly environmental only, but could be seen to include other areas. Two examples
of this are where environmental sustainability is the focus, but it references using
Indigenous
knowledge’s
to
maintain
environmental
sustainability;
and,
where
environmental sustainability is in the interests of maintaining life on earth, however, the
focus is mainly environmental factors (see for example South Australia Curriculum Science
for examples of both, http://www.sacsa.sa.edu.au/index_fsrc.asp?t=LA.)
The ‘number of times other only’ refers to where sustainability is either referenced in a nonspecific way, with no indicator of a specific area of sustainability, such as: “Respond to and
compose texts- formulate, develop and express their own ideas and beliefs creatively,
thoughtfully, positively and confidently on issues such as sustainable patterns of living”
(NSW
K-10
English
Stage
Five:
Objective
C
Outcome
5,
http://syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au/download/, p. 143), or, when it is referenced in relation to
areas other than environmental, such as social, cultural or economic sustainability. An
example of this is: “Students are introduced to the concept of resources and their
management, and begin to understand how resource use reflects community
interdependence and economic sustainability. They begin to understand how local
resources are used to make products which meet local people's needs and the needs of
people in other places. They also begin to understand that resources from other places may
be used to make products locally to meet their needs” (The Humanities Level 1 Learning
focus
AusVELS
[Victoria]
Curriculum,
http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/English/Overview/English-across-Foundation-to-Level-10).
Additionally, as this is based on counting the number of times the word ‘sustainability’ is
used, there are times when it is used in close relationship to each other-for example, in the
National Curriculum for Geography, in one Year 4 level descriptor, it appears as follows:
“The Earth’s environment sustains all life focuses on developing students’ understanding
of sustainability which is about the ongoing capacity of the environment to sustain human
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life and wellbeing. Students recognise that people have different views on
how sustainability can be achieved. They learn that sustainability means more than the
careful use of resources and the safe management of waste, and they develop their
understanding of the concept by exploring some of the other functions of
the environment that support their lives and the lives of other living things”
(http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/humanities-and-socialsciences/geography/curriculum/f-10?layout=1). This has been noted in the table.
Table Six: Sustainability in the Curriculum
Jurisdiction
National
Number of times
sustainability is
referenced
43
Number of times
environmental only
14 + 2 together
Number of times
other &
environmental
11 + 6 together
Number of
times other
only
23*
note: the high
number here is
from 21 in
technology
NSW
108
71 +2 together
11
24
QLD
23
8
7
8
VIC
34
17 +2 together
8
7
SA
213
97
67
39
ACT
ACT has a whole ELA dedicated to environmental sustainability: ELA 20: “The
student acts for an environmentally sustainable future” TBL factors are considered
in the context of other ELA’s however, the emphasis is small and not specifically
stated as ‘sustainability’.
93
Table Seven: Examples of the use of sustainability in the contexts described in Table Six
Jurisdiction
National
NSW
Environmental only
Environmental and Other
Science: Year Seven Achievement Standard:
They analyse how the sustainable use of
resources depends on the way they are
formed and cycle through Earth systems.
Geography: Year 4 Level Description:
Science: Stage One: Earth and Space:
identify some actions which could be taken
to care for and use water sustainably, eg.
turning
Aboriginal Studies: Students learn to:
Home Economics LSSG & K&U examples:
I C&T Assessment
Investigative analysis involves research assignments,
reports or system evaluations that:
The Earth’s environment sustains all life focuses on
developing students’ understanding
of sustainability which is about the ongoing capacity of
the environment to sustain human life and wellbeing.
Students recognise that people have different views on
how sustainability can be achieved. They learn
that sustainability means more than the careful use of
resources and the safe management of waste, and they
develop their understanding of the concept by
exploring some of the other functions of
the environment that support their lives and the lives
of other living things.
analyse the contribution of Aboriginal technologies to
tourism, trade and the Australian economy through
avenues such as ecotourism and environmentally
off dripping taps and/or taking shorter sustainable industry; use electronic communication
showers
including the internet to find information
QLD
 Sustainable energy solutions, inductive
94
Other only
Civics and Citizenship: Year 10 Content DescriptionsGovernment and Democracy:
The challenges to and ways of sustaining a
resilient democracy and cohesive society(ACHCK094)
English: Stage Five: Objective C Outcome 5:
Respond to and compose texts
- formulate, develop and express their own ideas and
beliefs creatively, thoughtfully, positively and
confidently on issues such as sustainable patterns of
living
Design and Technology Year Eight-Ten:
Year 8 & 9 Processes and Techniques: Investigate
design situation requirements, considering concepts
cooking
analyse sustainable practice, ethical principles and
their impacts on society, culture, the economy, and the
environment
such as ergonomics, safety, sustainability and
production.
VIC
Geography: Level 6 learning Focus:
At Level 6, students identify and describe
Australia’s significant natural processes.
They describe the reaction of people to
these processes including the management
of natural disasters. They compare the
various ways humans have used and
affected the Australian environment.
Students recommend ways of protecting
environmentally sensitive areas in a
sustainable way.
Economics: Level 9 & 10:
Students investigate the relationship between
economic growth, ecological sustainability and the
standard of living, and explore what it means to be an
ethical producer and consumer. They begin to reflect
on the role of values in the economic decision making
of producers, consumers and governments.
Civics and Citizenship: Level ten standards:
They explain the development of a multicultural
society and the values necessary to sustain it.
SA
Society and the Environment:
Ecological sustainability such as:
environmental stewardship and
conservation; a commitment to maintaining
biological diversity; and a recognition of the
intrinsic value of the natural environment.
These values contribute to learners’
understanding of how ecological
sustainability can be achieved, in ways that
redress environmental damage caused by
past and present generations and safeguard
the inheritance of future generations.
 20.LC.3 some effects of human action on
natural environments (e.g. land clearing,
air and water pollution)
Science: Senior Years: Strand Earth and Space
Society and the Environment: Middle years: strand
time continuity and change:
appraises how further change could take into account
sustainability and fairness for all.
ACT
5.1 Researches and analyses contemporary theories
about geological features, such as plate techtonics, and
investigates their effects on sustaining life on earth.
95
The subjects which sustainability appears are overwhelmingly the humanities, in particular
geography, or HSIE (or variations in that subject name). It also appears in the sciences, with
this usually being in relation to using/managing earth’s resources, as well as environmental
aspects of the earth. For example: A year seven achievement strand in the National
Curriculum Science is: “They analyse how the sustainable use of resources depends on the
way
they
are
formed
and
cycle
through
Earth
systems”
(http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/science/curriculum/f-10?layout=1). The location
of these examples further suggests it is an environmentally focused issue. In specific subject
areas such as economics and business, and the arts, HPE, other elements such as cultural,
social or economic sustainability are favoured. This includes examples such as: “The
contribution of drama and theatre to enriching and sustaining cultures and societies” (NSW
syllabus 7-10 Drama Values and Attitudes). Technology in particular, had non-specific
references to sustainability. For example: “Critically analyse factors, including social, ethical
and sustainability considerations, that impact on designed solutions for global preferred
futures and the complex design and production processes involved” (ACTDEK040 Year 9 &
10
National
curriculum,
ACARA,
2014,
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/technologies/technologies-across-foundation-toyear-10 ). This suggests a separated, context specific view of sustainability-rather than an
interrelated TBL approach.
96
Cross Curricular Priorities and the National Curriculum
Each cross curricular priority has a set of organising ideas that are embedded throughout
the curriculum content descriptors and elaborations where appropriate. These reflect “the
essential knowledge, understandings and skills for the priority” (ACARA, 2014,
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/CrossCurriculumPriorities/Sustainability).
For sustainability, the majority of these reflect a TBL approach to sustainability, consistent
with the definition of sustainability used in the curriculum document. For example:

Systems: OI. 3 Sustainable patterns of living rely on the interdependence of healthy
social, economic and ecological systems.

World Views: OI. 4 World views that recognise the dependence of living things on
healthy ecosystems, and value diversity and social justice are essential for achieving
sustainability.

Futures: OI. 6 The sustainability of ecological, social and economic systems is
achieved through informed individual and community action that values local and
global equity and fairness across generations into the future.
However, some specifically prioritise environmental sustainability, or environmental
sustainability with links to other areas of sustainability. For example:

Systems: OI.2 All life forms, including human life, are connected through ecosystems
on which they depend for their wellbeing and survival.

Futures: OI. 7 Actions for a more sustainable future reflect values of care, respect
and responsibility, and require us to explore and understand environments.

Futures: OI.9 Sustainable futures result from actions designed to preserve and/or
restore the quality and uniqueness of environments.
(ACARA, 2014, http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/crosscurriculumpriorities )
Examining where these were embedded in the curriculum as cross curricular priorities, it
was predominantly environmental in the majority of core subjects. In some specific subject
areas such as economics and business, the arts, HPE, other elements such as cultural, social
97
or economic sustainability are favoured. This suggests a separated, context specific view of
sustainability, rather than in interrelated TBL approach. For example:

Mathematics
Year 10 / Statistics and Probability / Data representation and
interpretation, ACMSP252
The content descriptor is: Investigate and describe bivariate numerical data where the
independent variable is time.
The elaboration is: investigating biodiversity changes in Australia since European occupation

Science Year 1 / Science as a Human Endeavour / Use and influence of science,
ACSHE022
The content descriptor includes: identifying ways that science knowledge is used in the care
of the local environment such as animal habitats, and suggesting changes to parks and
gardens to better meet the needs of native animals
 Geography Year 8 / Geographical Knowledge and Understanding
The content descriptor is: The ways of protecting significant landscapes ACHGK052
 The Arts / Visual Arts / Years 7 and 8
The content descriptor is: Identify and connect specific features and purposes of visual
artworks from contemporary and past times to explore viewpoints and enrich their artmaking, starting with Australian artworks including those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Peoples ACAVAR124
 Humanities and Social Sciences / Year 5 to Year 10 curriculum / Year 5 / Economics and
Business Knowledge and Understanding
The content descriptor is: The difference between needs and wants and why choices need
to be made about how limited resources are used ACHEK001
The above examples are from the cross curricular priorities in version 7.0. On 25/8/2014
version 7.1 was released and the cross curricular priorities in English, Mathematics, Science
and History were revised. In both English and Mathematics, sustainability no longer appears
as a cross curricular priority (as previously referenced with the sustainability symbol) In
98
History, it is no longer present in primary school, and in high school, it is predominantly
environmental, with some reference to people (see the examples in Table Eight below). In
science, it is all environmentally focused (see examples in Table Eight below). The changing
nature of the use of sustainability as a cross curricular priority suggests there is no
consistent way it is decided on, and is based on interpretations of those people designing
the curriculum.
Table Eight: Examples of Sustainability as a Cross Curricular Priority, Australian Curriculum
Version 7.1
Australian Curriculum Version 7.1
Subject
Area
Example of teaching sustainability as a cross curricular priority
Science
Always in relation to environment or resources

Eg: Science / Year 2 / Science as a Human Endeavour / Use and influence
of science / ACSHE035
The content descriptor is: People use science in their daily lives, including when
caring for their environment and living things

Eg: Science / Year 9 / Science Understanding / Biological sciences /
ACSSU176
The content descriptor is: Ecosystems consist of communities of interdependent
organisms and abiotic components of the environment; matter and energy flow through
these systems
History
It is linked predominantly to environmental and international issues of sustainability. The
environmental can then be linked to social/cultural in some places, and there is one
example of social only (see ACDSEH076).

Eg: Humanities and Social Sciences / History / Year 8 / Historical
Knowledge and Understanding / The Asia-Pacific world / Japan under
the Shoguns’ (c.794 – 1867) / ACDSEH064
The content descriptor is: The use of environmental resources in Shogunate Japan
and the forestry and land use policies of the Tokugawa Shogunate

Eg: Humanities and Social Sciences / History / Year 8 / Historical
Knowledge and Understanding / Expanding contacts / The Spanish
conquest of the Americas (c.1492 – c.1572) / ACDSEH076
The content descriptor Is: The longer-term effects of colonisation, including slavery,
population changes and lack of control over resources
The elaboration is: explaining the longer-term effects of conquest and colonisation
99
on the Indigenous populations of the Americas (for example the unequal distribution of
land and wealth, and political inequality)
100
Sustainability in Policy
The Environmental focus of sustainability is also evident in the policies of each Government
sector. This was in terms of school specific policies, Department wide policies as well as
whole of Government Policies. The policies that were analysed, and a breakdown of how
they define sustainability and its implied meaning can be found in Appendix G.
At a Government Level, ACT, NSW and SA have a general policy incorporating sustainability
that related to any government department. Of these, there were mixed focuses. ACT was
TBL focused, and incorporated this throughout the plan, without prioritising one area over
any other. It explicitly acknowledges a TBL approach, and then focuses on each area
throughout the policy. For example, it states: “The Government has adopted a triple bottom
line approach to sustainability, recognising the interdependence of social, economic and
environmental well-being, but also acknowledging that decision-making will often involve
trade-offs between the three” (ACT Government, 2009, p. 3). SA incorporated sustainability
goals into its strategic plan. Within this, while there was an acknowledgement of
sustainability in all areas, environmental sustainability was the main area of focus, with
most attention given to this as an area of itself. For example, one area of vision was
identified as “we look after our natural environment” (Government of South Australia, 2011,
p. 48) with this incorporating many aspects of environmental sustainability. The NSW
Government sustainability plan was entirely environmentally focused, relating to reducing
consumption and use of resources and protecting the environment.
At a Departmental level, NSW, Vic and QLD, each had a departmental policy on
sustainability. These policies related not just to school settings, but usually anywhere that
education for sustainability was relevant, and anything that came under the banner of that
department/directorate. All these policies in each state were environmentally focused. The
NSW policy demonstrated a small recognition that environmental sustainability impacted
upon other areas of sustainability (see for example the diagram on page 12 of the policy),
and while Vic’s definition of sustainability; “Today sustainability is a concept which involves
managing all aspects of the world we live in – economy, community and environment – to
generate a secured future” (Department of Education and Early Childhood Development
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Victoria, 2009, p.3) recognised other areas of sustainability, the policy generally focuses on
environmental sustainability.
At a school level, Schools as part of the Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative (ASSI) are
expected to have a School Environmental Sustainability Policy and NSW Department then
has a policy guide for schools on how to create this. The focus in the ASSI is environmental
sustainability. ACT and QLD also have specific school level policies. ACT used the “Educating
for a Sustainable Future: A National Environmental Education Statement for Australian
Schools” (Australian Government Department of Environment and Heritage, 2005) to inform
sustainability education in its schools, which within the policy implies an environmental
perspective. This is in contrast to the ACT Government’s policy which is TBL focused. QLD’s
school level policy, ‘Statement on Sustainability for all Queensland Schools “Enough for all
Forever”’ (QLD Government Department of Education, Training and the Arts, 2008), is TBL
focused, in contrast to the Departmental policy, which is mostly environmentally focused.
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References:
ACT Government. (2008). The Canberra Plan: Towards our Second Century. Retrieved from:
http://www.cmd.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/120217/canberra_plan_text_V5.p
df
ACT Government. (2009). People, Place, Prosperity: The ACT’s sustainability policy 2009.
Retrieved from:
http://www.cmd.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/119730/people_place_prosperity.
pdf
Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage. (2005). Educating for
a sustainable future: a national environmental education statement for Australian schools.
Retrieved from: http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/1b93d012-6dfb4ceb-a37f-209a27dca0e0/files/sustainable-future.pdf
Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. (2009). Looking Ahead DEECD’s
Environmental Sustainability Strategy. Retrieved from:
https://www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/edulibrary/public/schadmin/environment/lookahead.pdf
Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW. (2008). NSW Government
Sustainability Policy. Retrieved from:
http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/government/NSWGovSustainabilityPolicy.p
df
Government of South Australia. (2011). In a Great State: South Australia’s Strategic Plan.
Retrieved from:
http://saplan.org.au/media/BAhbBlsHOgZmSSIhMjAxMS8xMS8wNC8wMV8wMl8xNF8yMjN
fZmlsZQY6BkVU/01_02_14_223_file
NSW Council on Environmental Education. (2006). Learning for Sustainability: NSW
Environmental Education Plan 2007-2010. Retrieved from:
https://www.centennialparklands.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/32215/NSW_Gover
nment_-_Learning_for_Sustainability.pdf
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NSW Department of Education and Training Curriculum Support Directorate. (2001).
Environmental Education Policy. Retrieved from:
http://www.namoi.cma.nsw.gov.au/environmental_education_policy.pdf
NSW Department of Education and Training Curriculum Support Directorate. (2001).
Implementing the Environmental Education Policy in your School. Retrieved from:
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/env_ed/assets/pdf/eeimplementdoc.
pdf
Queensland Government Department of Education, Training and the Arts. (2008). Earth
smart Environmental Sustainability Strategic Plan 2008-2012. Retrieved from:
http://deta.qld.gov.au/publications/strategic/pdf/earthsmart.pdf
Queensland Government Department of Education, Training and the Arts. (2008). Statement
on Sustainability for all Queensland Schools “Enough for all Forever”. Retrieved from:
http://education.qld.gov.au/publication/production/reports/pdfs/statement-onsustainability-all-qld-schools-enough-for-all-forever.pdf
Links to each Curriculum
Jurisdiction
Link
National Curriculum V 6.0
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/
New South Wales Curriculum
Subjects developed for the National Curriculum:
http://syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au/
Secondary Subjects:
http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_sc/
Primary Subjects:
http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/k-6/
Victoria Curriculum
http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/
Queensland Curriculum
https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/20735.html
ACT Curriculum
http://activated.act.edu.au/ectl/framework.htm
South Australia Curriculum
http://www.sacsa.sa.edu.au/index_fsrc.asp?t=HOME
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Appendix A: Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative
The AuSSI provides a framework for education for sustainability in schools and complements
existing school programs. The AuSSI is a partnership between the Australian Government
and the States and Territories which entails a 'whole of school, action learning approach to
sustainability which is generating measurable social, educational, financial and
environmental outcomes' (CoA, 2009, p.11).
The AuSSI integrates existing environmental education initiatives into a holistic program
with measurable environmental, economic, social and curriculum outcomes. The initiative
implements efficiencies in a schools management of resources (e.g. energy, waste, water,
products and materials) and the management of school grounds (e.g. biodiversity,
landscape design, soil, noise, and human and vehicular traffic) and integrates this action
based approach into the existing curriculum and daily running of the school (CoA, 2005).
Through the provision of resources and hands on support the AuSSI provides a framework
to encourage schools to develop a culture of sustainability at their own pace. The
framework focuses on minimising a school’s energy, waste, materials, products and water
usage and the conservation of biodiversity. EFS requires a holistic approach (Lang, 2007),
accordingly, the AuSSI encourages schools to incorporate EFS themes into school
operations, curricula teaching and learning, the surrounding landscape, relationships
internally and with the broader community (ACT TAMS, 2009; & Davis 2009). Being a
sustainable school and engaging with EFS ideas and activities is not just the domain of the
AuSSI. The AuSSI provides the scaffolding to assist in planning, monitoring, curriculum
development and action. As such there are a range of environmental initiatives which
complement the work achieved through the AuSSI as well as health and wellbeing programs
such as the school values framework, reflective and strengths based practices, the kids
matter program and other health and mental health promotion initiatives, policies of
inclusion, reconciliation etc.
There are those activities which contribute to embedding EFS into whole school practice
through incorporating content into key school documents such as policy, curriculum and
planning documents. This rolls out in day to day activities through a variety of measures
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including subject based material such as science, maths, English, art, leadership programs
and other less frequent activities such as public speaking opportunities, participating at
Conferences or Wakakirri arts festival, or going on excursions to places like National Parks,
walking to school initiatives, incorporating recycling, edible gardens, composting, worm
farms, animals, greening schools programs, and creating access to outdoor adventure
programs etc. EFS is not done by selectively picking one of these examples, nor is it giving
one teacher the sole responsibility, or setting up a leadership team without having any
democratic participatory means by which to communicate meaningfully. EFS strives for
continual improvement, requiring a coherent, strategic whole school approach (Lang, 2007)
which embeds these ideas and practices into the day to day running and philosophy of a
school.
In 2010, the Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and
the Arts (DEWHA) commissioned this evaluation of the operational effectiveness and impact
of AuSSI to assess how it is performing in meeting its goals (ARTD Consultants, 2010).
Table Nine: Key Findings from the National AuSSI evaluation
 Approximately one-third of Australian schools have registered during the past eight years,
with most registrations occurring in the past three years. In some jurisdictions, the number
of registered schools is constrained by the model used to identify AuSSI schools and in
others the numbers are enhanced by a more lenient process for registering schools.
 Although several stakeholders felt that implementation of AuSSI was easier in primary
schools, the results indicate that the pattern of AuSSI registration for primary and secondary
schools is broadly consistent with the numbers of all primary and secondary schools.
 The AuSSI has had a positive impact on the learning experiences of students in some
schools. A student-centred approach, especially incorporation of student leadership teams,
enhances the involvement of students in learning for sustainability.
 Teachers appear to be applying the principles of action-based learning in their EfS teaching,
which has proved much more engaging for students.
AuSSI schools have been engaged in numerous activities to improve their management of
resources, most commonly reducing, reusing, and recycling of resources.
 Schools have also been engaged in energy, water and biodiversity conservation activities
and improving school grounds.
 These activities have often been supported by resource audits within the school, which
enable changes in resource use to be monitored over time. These audits reveal that, in
many cases, AuSSI schools are significantly reducing their use of resources.
 Students appear to be driving EfS activities in many schools and are often involved in
selecting, planning and delivering sustainability projects in their school and community.
Some stakeholders felt that this is empowering students and developing their
communication, teamwork and leadership skills. It was also
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 Suggested that such activities have a positive impact on student behaviour and on their
understanding of sustainability and its relation to social justice. In some schools, parents
have been engaged in the EfS activities, although there is little evidence about whether
student learnings are transferring to the home environment.
 There is evidence of schools and AuSSI partners engaging the wider community in their
sustainability efforts, including local councils, local community organisations, land owners,
Aboriginal groups and environmental experts. These partnerships appear to enhance the
schools’ efforts towards sustainability and strengthen their involvement in community-wide
sustainability issues.
 AuSSI schools are saving money from reductions in water and energy use and waste to
landfill. In all jurisdictions, savings made by schools through reduced resource consumption
are available for use within the school. Some stakeholders reported that schools use these
funds for sustainability projects.
The emphasis on a whole school approach is promoted and generally embraced by all
jurisdictions and with all school sectors.
 Those fully embracing a whole school approach appear to have more positive EFS outcomes
than those that have not yet taken up the approach.
(ARTD Consultants, 2010)
The National AuSSI evaluation reports that most schools are supported by professional
development sessions or face-to-face contact with AuSSI facilitators/ officers to develop a
School Environmental Management Plan (SEMP). One approach is to focus early in the
school’s engagement with AuSSI on development of specific action plans to address the
issues of most interest to the school, with the SEMP as a less important document. AuSSI
facilitators/ officers may also support schools in the early stages of implementation, but
support is generally of short duration. In most jurisdictions, there is no follow up of whether
a school has implemented its SEMP, partly because there aren’t resources to do this and
partly because how a school moves forward with their sustainability education initiatives is
up to the school. In some jurisdictions, schools are asked to report against their SEMP each
year, but whether a school chooses to report is variable nationally (ARTD Consultants,
2010).
A recent EFS study in a Victorian school study reinforces findings in other EFS schools
literature in that all sustainability programs involved embodied action based learning
experiences. Further, integrative and inquiry based learning in EFS places students at the
centre of learning, where they work independently in small groups in local places (Green,
Somerville & Potts, 2013). Somerville and Green (2012) reveal the overriding storyline of
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EFS as a cross-sectoral system is the lack of funding and resources in all parts of the system.
The importance of partnerships, networks and community capacity are highlighted as
integral to the success of EFS in schools.
Indeed, strong links with community through partnerships, collaboration and networking
have long been signalled in the literature as key success factor in EFS schools (Water Wise
Schools - Cutter- Mackenzie 2010, Carbon Kids – Larri 2010, UK EFS Leading Schools Jackson 2008; Queensland EFS schools - MACER 2006; AuSSI Schools - Larri 2006). This
research indicates that EFS programs have the potential to promote and enhance social
networks, increase a sense of empowerment and connectedness, and develop the skills of
the community within the school context (Block & Johnson, 2009; Cutter-Mackenzie, 2010;
Gough, 2004; Henderson & Tilbury, 2004; Jackson, 2008; Larri, 2006; Maller, 2005; Ozer,
2007).
There are a range of environment education programs that strengthen the capacity of AuSSI
framework such as the CSIRO's Carbon Kids, school greening grounds and garden programs.
Outcomes from the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden (SAKG) mid-way evaluation found
that the program was incorporating positive attitudes to environmental sustainability and
children were seen to be benefiting from the experience of working in groups, developing
confidence and self-esteem and developing strong relationships and enhanced academic
outcomes (McCaughey Centre, 2008). The final SAKG report stated the program was
considered particularly effective at engaging non-academic learners and children with
challenging behaviours (Block & Johnson, 2009).
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Appendix B: Measures and Indicators
In 2012, the Australian Government announced a set of National Sustainability Indicators,
along with the establishment of the National Sustainability Council. The indicators have
been designed to measure and provide impacts of social, environmental, economic
dimensions of Australia (National Sustainability Council, 2013), they include:
Social and human
capital
Skills and education, health, community engagement, employment, security,
institutions, government
Natural capital
Climate, atmosphere, biodiversity and ecosystems, water, waste, natural
resources, land
Economic
capital
Wealth and income, housing, transport and communications, productivity and
innovation, additional economic information
Contextual
Population, cultural diversity, migration, land use
An article on Magee, Scerri and James’ (2012) ‘Measuring social sustainability’ study
summarises a selection
sustainability well- being measures, before discussing their
Community Sustainability Survey, which applied to approximately 3,300 members of various
communities in the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia and Australia. This community
sustainability measure focused on:
- Economic prosperity;
- Ecological resilience;
- Political engagement; and
- Cultural vitality.
The CSIRO Sustainable Communities Initiative
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) conducted a
Wimmera Case Study for Australian primary industries transforming for a changing climate –
working towards a blueprint project, in 2011 (Gaillard, 2011). Part of project included a
community stakeholder workshop to:
- Identify the major future potential challenges faced by the Wimmera Community;
- Understand what assets the Wimmera community has and how these (and others)
need to be fostered to ensure the community can transform if necessary to be sustainable
into the future; and
109
- Identify ways in which the Wimmera community could collaborate with CSIRO in the
Transformation project over the next three years.
This case study utilised the following forms of capital as their indicators (Gaillard, 2011):
- Human capital - education level, skills and health status of individuals and
populations.
- Natural capital - natural resource base (land, water, trees) that yield products
utilised by people for their survival.
- Physical capital - assets brought into existence by economic production, e.g. tools,
machines, land improvements like terraces or irrigation canals.
- Social capital - social networks and associations in which people participate, and
from which they can derive support.
- Financial capital - stocks of cash that can be accessed in order to purchase
production or consumption goods (includes credit).
Health and wellbeing indicators
There are a raft of existing health and wellbeing measures primarily targeting the individual
that have already been developed. A selection are identified below.
Pursuing health and well-being measures by assessing a school’s social capital, ascertaining
community connections, social ties and networks is another method to measuring wellbeing. Social capital and social networks are seen as a resonant measure of community
strength (Johnson, Headey & Jensen, 2003 as cited in Keleher & Armstrong, 2006). Social
capital and social connectedness are key determinants of mental and physical health and
inequality. (Berkman & Kawachi, 2000 as cited in Keleher & Armstrong, 2006). While
measuring social capital is complex, it could be a useful framework to consider. If such
approach was fostered it would be beneficial to assess new AuSSI schools as a priority to
develop individual benchmarks as the AuSSI has done in other areas of reporting. It may be
possible to explore options through case study development, where the researcher could
work with schools to analyse existing data. For example, it might be interesting to examine
playground incidences (fights, bullying, accidents etc.); levels of absenteeism; staff sick leave
rates; suspensions; community events; community networks; fund raising activities etc.;
and, the types of well-being programs (eg. Reflective practice, buddying programs) before
being an AuSSI school and again a few years into being an AuSSI school.
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Preliminary research indicates there are additional indicators which could also be of value to
investigate, such as community indicators initiatives in Victoria such as the Community
Indicators Victoria and the research through the McCaughey Centre, VicHealth Centre for
the Promotion of Mental Health and Community Well Being; The Australia Institute’s
Genuine Progress Indicator, (23 measures of environmental, social and economic wellbeing);
and The Australian Unity Well-being Index through Deakin University (an adult based surveybased assessment of Australians’ subjective wellbeing). These type of indicators are broader
by nature – they are not measuring program effectiveness, but may add value as part of
current trends.
Measuring the health and well-being impact one program has in isolation to other
activities in schools is problematic. It is a complex area and it is difficult to pin point exact
factors because there are so many variables for individual students and staff, the impact of
their families and built environments and the school community as a whole. The following
list provides an example of the plethora of existing indicators on health, well-being, mental
health and social and emotional well-being, and purely by the size of the list is a
demonstration of how complex this area is and the potential mine field that awaits.
- 1370.0 The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Measures of Australia's Progress;
- 4326.0 ABS National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing 2007 - summary
publication. Note references: Andrews & Slade (Interpreting scores on the K10) and the
WHO papers;
- 4327.0 ABS National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing 2007 - users' guide.
Note 'other scales and measures' this contains information on the K10, delighted-terrible
scale and self-assessed health rating. A sample questionnaire is also available to download see the zip file in the 'downloads' tab.
- 4714.0.55.002 ABS National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey
(NATSISS) 2002 - data reference package. Note the Paper version of the CAI questionnaire
(note: the questionnaire differed for community/non-community areas, the PAPI
questionnaire contains questions relating to personal stressors, social support and selfassessed health; and
- 4363.0.55.001 ABS National Health Survey 2007-2008 users guide contains some info
on personal stressors in the 'Health status indicators' chapter.
- 4363.0.55.002 National Health Survey and National Aboriginal and Torres Strait
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Islander Health Survey. (NHS/NATSIHS) 2004-05 - data reference package. Of interest would
be the questionnaire which contains social and emotional well-being questions, as well as
the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander version of the K5 (based on the K10, but with
testing to ensure coherence). This module has basically been used in the 2008 NATSISS, for
which the results have not yet been released.
- 4363.0.55.001 National Health Survey and National Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Health Survey 2004-05 - user’s guide. This could assist with some
definitions/descriptions through the K10.
- The Australian Unity Wellbeing Index http://www.australianunity.com.au/aboutus/wellbeing/auwbi
- The Australian Institute of Family Studies.
for Growing
Up
in
Australia:
The
Longitudinal
Annual Statistical Report series
Study
of
Australian
Children
(LSAC). http://www.growingupinaustralia.gov.au/pubs/asr/2012/index.html
- The United Nations Human Development Index - key developmental indicators.
- The World Mental Health Survey Initiative http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/wmh/
- The World Values Survey http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/ The website provides
a range of survey questions to ascertain values and cultural changes which are
downloadable.
- The Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth's The Report Card on the
Well-being of Young Australian's – a summary of the well-being of Australia's young people.
It provides a national and international perspective based on eight domains of health and
wellbeing,
including
behaviours
and
risks
and
subjective
well-being.
http://www.aracy.org.au/index.cfm?pageName=report_card_overview
- The Royal Children's Hospital, Centre for Community Child Health, Melbourne.
Indicators for child health, development and wellbeing: a systematic review of the literature
and
recommendations
for
population
monitoring
(2002).
http://www.rch.org.au/emplibrary/ccch/Indicators_for_child_health.pdf
- Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. A picture of Australia's Children 2012.
- http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=10737423343
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AuSSI Program
Indicators were developed on the establishment of the AuSSI program by the Sustainable
Schools Initiative Working Group of the National Environmental Education Network.
Representatives comprised of representatives from Australian, State and Territory
Government education and environment agencies. The indicators were developed as a
means of measuring certain aspects of change through the initiative not as a comprehensive
evaluation tool (CoA, 2005). They included:
- Educational – looking at staff and students participation and take up of
environmental and sustainability issues
- Environmental – looking at the school's engagement on environmental and
sustainability issues through their policies and management plans
- Water – looking at consumption and factors which may have influenced the results
- Electricity – looking at consumption and factors which may have influenced the
results
- Waste – looking at landfill reduction levels and factors which may have influenced
the results
- School Grounds – looking at changes made to increase Indigenous vegetation,
habitats, the impacts of good design and factors which may have influenced the results
- Social – looking at engagement with other schools, local community, signs of any
shifts towards more sustainable practices and processes within the school and within their
local community
- Economic – Looking at economic savings from reductions in water and energy use
and waste to landfill. It also looks at whether the school has attracted sponsorship from
other sources and how commercial enterprises (such as the canteen) have engaged with
these ideas (CoA, 2005).
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Appendix C: Glossary
The Australian Curriculum: The Australian Curriculum, currently under review, built on
three key areas identified at the 2008 Melbourne Declaration as benefit for both individuals
and for Australia as a whole. They enable the delivery of learning area content at the same
time as developing knowledge, understanding and skills relating to Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander histories and cultures, Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia or
Sustainability. These areas are referred to as cross-curriculum priorities (ACARA, 2013).
Built Environment: Part of the overall eco-system of our earth. It encompasses all the
buildings, spaces and products that are created, or at least significantly modified by
people. It includes our homes, schools and workplaces, parks, business areas and
roads (Health Canada 1997 as cited in Butterworth, 2000).
Culture and Cultural heritage: Children’s connection to their culture develops as they learn
the rules and standards that govern social relationships for their cultural group. Having a
strong sense of their own cultural history and traditions helps children build a positive
cultural identity for themselves. This also supports children’s sense of belonging and selfesteem (Kids Matter, 2009). The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2002)
states that:
Culture takes diverse forms across time and space. This diversity is
embodied in the uniqueness and plurality of the groups and societies
making up humankind. As a source of exchange, innovation and
creativity, cultural diversity is a necessary for humankind as
biodiversity is for human nature (pg. 13).
Cultural heritage includes traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and
passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices,
rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe of the
knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts (UNESCO, n.d.). Indigenous Cultural
Heritage (ICH) transmitted from generation to generation, is maintained and revised by
communities providing a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for
cultural diversity and human creativity (UNESCO, n.d.). In 2003 UNESCO adopted the
Convention for Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Australia is not a signatory to
the 2003 Convention, however the recording, dissemination, digitisation and commercial
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use of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) raises issues for Indigenous Australians (Jenke,
2008). ICH as defined by the UNESCO convention, consists of non-physical characteristics,
practices, representations, expressions as well as knowledge and skills that identify and
define a group. This category includes the following cultural manifestations:

Oral traditions and expressions, including language

Music, dance, drama and other performing arts

Social practices, rituals and festive events

Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe

Foods and clothing

And traditional craftsmanship.
International, regional and national policies that empower Indigenous peoples and promote
sustainable development are the key to preserving local ecosystems essential to language
maintenance. The preservation of local ecosystems is, in turn, critical for the preservation of
the global ecosystem, which is the intersection of all local ecosystems (Nettle & Romaine
2000).
Environmental Health: Those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are
determined by physical, biological, social and psycho-social factors in the environment. It
also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling and preventing
these factors in the environment that potentially can adversely affect the health of present
and future generations (WHO, 1993, as cited in Landon, 2006, p. 5).
Environmental Education for sustainability: Is a concept encompassing a vision of
education that seeks to empower people of all ages to assume responsibility for creating a
sustainable future (UNESCO, as cited in TAMS, HEAT & DET, 2007). As a result of the global
call to pursue sustainable development, it provides a new orientation for current practice in
environmental Education (Hunting & Tilbury, 2006).
Gaia: The Gaia hypothesis, closely aligned with deep ecology, argues that the Earth can be
regarded as if it were a single living organism (Lovelock, 1988). All parts regular and balance
the planet via feedback mechanisms, thus sustaining life as we know it (Lovelock, 1988).
Health: The World Health Organisation's (WHO) definition of health states that 'Health is a
state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of
disease of infirmity' (WHO, 1948). When Aboriginal people speak of health, it is in the
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context of well-being. Well-being is the integrity and harmony of the inter-relation of all
those things that constitute Aboriginal peoples' life ways, central to which is the right to
self-determination (NACCHO, 1993). A broad definition of health is outlined as:
Health is holistic, encompassing mental health and physical, cultural, and spiritual
health. Land is central to well-being. This holistic concept does not merely refer to the
'whole body' but in fact is steeped in the harmonised interrelations which constitute
cultural well-being. These inter-relating factors can be categorised largely as spiritual,
environmental, ideological, political, social, economic, mental and physical (Swan &
Raphael, 1995).
Health Promotion (Ottawa Charter, 1986): the process of enabling people to increase
control over, and to improve their health. To reach a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being, an individual or group must be able to identify and to realise aspirations,
to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health, is, therefore seen as a
resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept
emphasising social and personal resources, as well as physical capabilities. Therefore, health
promotion is not just the responsibility of the health sector, but goes beyond the healthy
lifestyles to well-being (International Conference on Health Promotion, 1986).
Health promoting schools: WHO (2002) defines a health-promoting school as 'one that
constantly strengthens its capacity as a healthy setting for living, learning and working' and
states that the physical school environment has a strong influence on children's health
because:
 The environment is one of the primary determinants of children's health
 Children may be more susceptible to the adverse health effects of chemical, physical
and biological hazards than adults.
 Children's behavioural patterns are distinctively different from adults and place them
at risk from exposure to environmental threats that adults may not face.
A health psycho-social environment simultaneously provides support to teachers, students
and their families (WHO, 2003).
Indicators: Measure or symbol that reflects the status of a system
Inequality: a measurable phenomenon that can be applied to income, wealth, social status,
education, health and social outcomes (Douglas et al., 2014).
116
Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (2008): focuses on high
quality schooling for all young Australians and identifies the necessity to build confident
individuals who have amongst other attributes (MCEETYA, 2008):
 a sense of self-worth, self-awareness and personal identify that enables them to
manage their emotional, mental, spiritual and physical well-being
 have a sense of optimism about their lives and the future
 develop personal values and attributes such as honesty, resilience, empathy and
respect for others
 have the knowledge, skills, understanding and values to establish and maintain
healthy, satisfying lives
 relate well to others and form and maintain healthy relationships
 embrace opportunities, make relational and informed decisions about their own
lives and accept responsibility for their own actions.
Mental Health (The Melbourne Charter, 2009): is a state of complete physical, mental,
spiritual and social well-being in which each person is able to realise ones abilities, can cope
with the normal stresses of life, and makes a unique contribution to one's community (The
Melbourne Charter, 2009).
Neoliberalism: proposes that human well-being can best be advanced by the
maximisation of entrepreneurial freedoms within an institutional framework
characterised by private property rights, individual liberty, free markets and free
trade (Harvey, 2006, p. 145).
Self Determination: is central to health and social justice. Self-determination is felt in a
variety of ways from day to day interactions to lifestyle choices to community goals and
structures (Beilhardz, 2002).
Social Inclusion: is a determinant of mental health and well-being that is integrally
linked to the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. At one level it represents the
degree to which individuals feel connected with their communities; more broadly it is
about the strength within communities and organisations that sustains positive
mental health. Social inclusion is a broad notion that incorporates the concepts of
social capital, social networks, social connectedness, social trust, reciprocity, local
117
democracy and group solidarity (Jermyn, 2001, as cited in Keleher & Armstrong,
2005).
Social exclusion: Social inclusion can be understood in relation to social exclusion.
The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2000, as cited in Keleher & Armstrong, 2005)
identified four dimensions of social exclusion:
1. impoverishment or exclusion from adequate income or resources
2. labour market exclusion
3.
service exclusion
4.
exclusion from social relations.
Solastalgia: a concept developed to give deeper meaning and clarity to
environmentally induced distress. Solastalgia is the distress that is produced by
environmental change impacting on people while they are directly connected to their
home environment (Albrecht et al., 2007).
Stakeholders: Those that have a vital or vested interest in the process, activity and/or
outcome.
Systems thinking: Berkowitz et al. (2005) suggest that through systems thinking, an ecologically
literate person can:
- define an object of study in the environment as a system with all the key components
and their connections specified and bounded in time and space;
- identify the two main types of systems in ecology, those involving individuals,
populations, genes and evolution and those involving groups of species, communities, and
ecosystems in functional ecological time;
- place whole systems into their hierarchical context
- understand the nature of causal factors, constraints and feedbacks in ecological
systems.
Well-Being: Well-Being is happiness plus meaningfulness. The basic psychological needs
underpinning well-being include autonomy, competence, personal growth, life purpose,
mastery and positive relatedness (Eckersley, 2004, p. 97). Pomagalska et al. (2009) view health
and well-being as reflecting physical, psychological, emotional and spiritual health for
individuals and as incorporating social and environmental well-being for communities. The
Australian Bureau of Statistics states that well-being can be seen as a state of health or
sufficiency in all aspects of life (Trewin, 2001). In order to achieve optimal conditions for health
118
and wellbeing, it is now readily accepted that many other factors can have either a positive or
negative influence and include political, economic, environmental, social, spiritual, cultural,
psychological, and physical conditions. What is apparent is that social and emotional wellbeing
is part of a holistic understanding of life itself (Social Health Reference Group, National
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Council and National Mental Health Working Group,
2004, p. 7).
Intrapersonal – a students’ sense of self and their capacity to function in the school community
(Frallion, 2004; Larri, 2009):
-
Autonomy – showing independence, actions and or values are fully endorsed
-
emotional regulation – the degree to which the students emotional responses are
appropriate to the event surrounding them
-
Resilience – the capacity to manage, recover and move on from critically challenging
events
-
Self-efficacy – the degree to which the student believes they are effective – able to
organise, implement and adapt strategies to meet desired outcomes
-
Self-esteem – the way a student feels about themselves
-
Spirituality – a positive sense of meaning and purpose in life
-
Curiosity – an intrinsic desire to learn more
-
Engagement – engagement with the learning process and the school community
-
Mastery orientation – the desire to complete tasks to the best of one’s ability
interpersonal – a students’ appraisal of their social circumstances and their capacity to function
in the school community (Frallion, 2004; Larri, 2006):
-
Communicative efficacy – using communicative skills in the context to achieve a
purpose
-
Empathy – responding to another person with the same emotion and being able to
understand another person’s perspective
-
Acceptance – having respect, tolerance, trust to be able to understand society and
the qualities of others
-
Connectedness – meaningful linkage with a wide range of people.
119
Wicked problems: are complex, dynamic and contested. They are not amenable to off the
shelf solutions. Their contested nature means that tackling these problems effectively
requires participatory approaches that engage the consituents involved in/impacts by the
issues (Williams et al., 2009). Wicked problems have been defined by the APSC (2007) as:
-
Difficult to clearly define
-
Have many interdependencies and are often multi-causal
-
Often unstable/dynamic
-
Have no clear solution
-
Socially complex
-
Hardly ever sit conveniently within the responsibility of any one organisation
-
Involve changing behaviour
-
At times, characterised by chronic policy failure
-
Attempts to address the problem often lead to unforeseen consequences.
120
Appendix D: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Action Plan 2010-2014
The Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs
(MCEEDYA) (2011) Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Action Plan 2010-2014
acknowledge that schools need to:
embrace diversity and explicitly value Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander languages and cultures to enable students to feel culturally
safe at school. Increased engagement between the school,
community and parents is a key factor in supporting regular
attendance. A curriculum and pedagogy that embed Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander cultural perspectives will support attendance
and retention (p. 18).
This is supported by the MCEEDYA Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in
the 21st Century (1999), key to supporting cultural diversity and wellbeing include:
1. Schooling should develop fully the talents and capacities of all students. In particular,
when students leave school they should:
1.1 have qualities of self-confidence, optimism, high self-esteem, and a commitment to
personal excellence as a basis for their potential life roles as family, community and
workforce members.
1.3 have the capacity to exercise judgement and responsibility in matters of morality, ethics
and social justice, and the capacity to make sense of their world, to think about how
things got to be the way they are, to make rational and informed decisions about their
own lives and to accept responsibility for their own actions.
1.7 have an understanding of, and concern for, stewardship of the natural environment,
and the knowledge and skills to contribute to ecologically sustainable development.
1.8 have the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to establish and maintain a healthy
lifestyle, and for the creative and satisfying use of leisure time.
3. Schooling should be socially just, so that:
121
3.1 students' outcomes from schooling are free from the effects of negative forms of
discrimination based on sex, language, culture and ethnicity, religion or disability; and
of differences arising from students' socio-economic background or geographic
location.
3.3
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students have equitable access to, and
opportunities in, schooling so that their learning outcomes improve and, over time,
match those of other students.
3.4 all students understand and acknowledge the value of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultures to Australian society and possess the knowledge, skills and
understanding to contribute to and benefit from, reconciliation between Indigenous
and non-Indigenous Australians.
3.5 all students understand and acknowledge the value of cultural and linguistic diversity,
and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from,
such diversity in the Australian community and internationally.
The importance of inclusion and cultural understanding is also acknowledged in the National
Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools (DEST 2005:4) and in particular:
1. Care and Compassion - Care for self and others;
3. Fair Go - Pursue and protect the common good where all people are treated fairly for a
just society;
4. Freedom - Enjoy all the rights and privileges of Australian citizenship free from
unnecessary interference or control, and stand up for the rights of others;
7. Respect - Treat others with consideration and regard, respect another person’s point of
view;
8. Responsibility - Be accountable for one’s own actions, resolve differences in constructive,
non-violent and peaceful ways, contribute to society and to civic life, take care of the
environment; and
9. Understanding, Tolerance and Inclusion - Be aware of others and their cultures, accept.
122
Appendix E: Definitions of Sustainability in each Curriculum Document
Jurisdiction
Definition of Sustainability
National
“Sustainability addresses the ongoing capacity of Earth to maintain all life. Sustainable
patterns of living meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. Actions to improve sustainability are both individual and
collective endeavours shared across local and global communities. They necessitate a
renewed and balanced approach to the way humans interact with each other and the
environment.”
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/CrossCurriculumPriorities/Sustainability
ACT
Sustainability is the quest for a society that can persist over generations without destroying the social
and life-supporting systems that current and future generations of humans and all species on Earth
depend on.
Every Chance to Learn, http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/ , P. 196
Acknowledged as being from: Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage,
Educating for a sustainable future: a national environmental education statement for Australian
schools, Curriculum Corporation, 2005.
NSW
No specific definition-differs in each subject area
Foe example:
 HSIE K-6 defines ‘sustain’ (not sustainability): Able to be kept going. Possessing the
necessary resources to maintain or improve the current state.
 Geography 7-10 defines ecological sustainability: The ability to meet the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs.
 Science 7-10 defines sustainability: The patterns of activities that meet the needs of the present
generation without prejudicing the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Those based on the new AC:
 Mathematics K-10: Sustainability is concerned with the ongoing capacity of Earth to
maintain all life. Sustainable patterns of living meet the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
 Science K-10: Sustainability is concerned with the ongoing capacity of the Earth to
maintain all life.
(science glossary) Sustainability: The patterns of activities that meet the needs of the present
generation without prejudicing the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
 History: Sustainability The ongoing capacity of the Earth to maintain life, including the
needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
123
their needs.
Subjects developed for the National Curriculum: http://syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au/
Secondary Subjects: http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_sc/
Primary Subjects: http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/k-6/
VIC
As a cross curricular priority, the definition of sustainability is: “Sustainability addresses the
ongoing capacity of Earth to maintain all life. Sustainable patterns of living meet the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs”.
(The same as is used in the National Curriculum)
http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/
SA
None present
QLD
No definition indicated in the curriculum (however see “statement on sustainability”- where it is
defined as: meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs, or simply as ‘enough for all forever’)
(Queensland Government Department of Education, Training and the Arts, 2008)
http://education.qld.gov.au/publication/production/reports/pdfs/statement-on-sustainability-all-qldschools-enough-for-all-forever.pdf
124
Appendix F: Sustainability in each Jurisdictional Curriculum
The following tables outline how/where sustainability appears in each of the curriculums with examples demonstrating each point.
The overview was developed by using the ‘find’ function, to count the number of times the word sustainability appeared in each curriculum
document. This is throughout the whole document, including introductions, however, for those that have been developed with the national
curriculum references to sustainability as a cross curricular priority have been excluded. So for example, in the NSW syllabus, English K-10 for
the National Curriculum p. 28 references sustainability as a cross curricular priority and what this means. Examples such as this have been
excluded.
The ‘number of times environmental only’ refers to how many times sustainability is only referenced in terms of the environment. This
includes references to resource based sustainability-such as: “They analyse how the sustainable use of resources depends on the way they are
formed
and
cycle
through
Earth
systems”
(Australian
Curriculum,
Year
7
Science
Achievement
Standard,
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/science/curriculum/f-10?layout=1 ).
The ‘number of times other & environmental’ refers to where sustainability is referenced in environmental terms as well as other aspects of
sustainability. When this occurs, it is usually environmental and social that are referenced together. For example, in the NSW English K-10
curriculum, it is identified that: “In each year students must study examples of: texts that include aspects of environmental and social
sustainability” (content and texts required for early stage 1 to stage 3, p. 24; content and texts required for stage 4, p. 25; content and texts
required for stage 5, p. 26; content required for years 7-10 life skills, p. 159, http://syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au/download/ ). This category also
includes those which are predominantly environmental only, but could be seen to include other areas. Two examples of this are where
environmental sustainability is the focus, but using Indigenous knowledge’s to maintain environmental sustainability; and where
125
environmental sustainability is in the interests of maintaining life on earth, however, the focus is mainly environmental factors (see for
example SA Curriculum Science for examples of both, http://www.sacsa.sa.edu.au/index_fsrc.asp?t=LA ).
The ‘number of times other only’ refers to where sustainability is either referenced in a non-specific way, with no indicator of a specific area of
sustainability, such as: “Respond to and compose texts- formulate, develop and express their own ideas and beliefs creatively, thoughtfully,
positively and confidently on issues such as sustainable patterns of living” (NSW K-10 English Stage Five: Objective C Outcome 5,
http://syllabus.bos.nsw.edu.au/download/, p. 143) Or, when it is referenced in relation to areas other than environmental, such as social,
cultural or economic sustainability. An example of this is: “Students are introduced to the concept of resources and their management, and
begin to understand how resource use reflects community interdependence and economic sustainability. They begin to understand how local
resources are used to make products which meet local people's needs and the needs of people in other places. They also begin to understand
that resources from other places may be used to make products locally to meet their needs” (The Humanities Level 1 Learning focus AusVELS
(Victoria) Curriculum, http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/English/Overview/English-across-Foundation-to-Level-10 ).
Additionally, as this is based on counting the number of times the word ‘sustainability’ is used, there are times when it is used in close
relationship to each other-ie in the National Curriculum for Geography, in one Year 4 level descriptor, it appears as follows: “The
Earth’s environment sustains all life focuses on developing students’ understanding of sustainability which is about the ongoing capacity of
the environment to sustain human life and wellbeing. Students recognise that people have different views on how sustainability can be
achieved. They learn that sustainability means more than the careful use of resources and the safe management of waste, and they develop
their understanding of the concept by exploring some of the other functions of the environment that support their lives and the lives of other
living things” http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/humanities-and-social-sciences/geography/curriculum/f-10?layout=1 . This has been
noted in the tables.
126
National Curriculum
General Comments:





Mostly environmental references and mostly appears in humanities (geography).
In science it is resource based in the context of environmental.
History-environmental
Technology TBL, more resource sustainability, with some then in relation to the environment.
In Civics and citizenship, it is social
Subject
English
Mathematics
Science
Number of
times
sustainability is
referenced
0
0
1
Number of
times
environmental
only
0
0
1
Geography
15
6
Number of
times other &
environmental
Number of
times other
only
Example (Primary School)
0
0
0
0
0
0
N/A
N/A
N/A
3 individually
6x more
together in one
paragraph
overview-TBL
focused,
however, in
context of
environment.
(see Year 4
example)
0
Year 4 Level Description:
The
Earth’s environment sustains
all life focuses on developing
students’ understanding
of sustainability which is
about the ongoing capacity of
the environment to sustain
human life and wellbeing.
Students recognise that
people have different views
127
Example (High School)
N/A
N/A
Year Seven Achievement
Standard: They analyse how the
sustainable use of resources
depends on the way they are
formed and cycle through Earth
systems.
Year 9 content Descriptor:
Unit 1: Biomes and food
security
The capacity of the world’s
environments to sustainably
feed the projected future
population to achieve food
security for Australia and the
world (ACHGK064)
Year 10 Level Description:
on how sustainability can be
achieved. They learn
that sustainability means
more than the careful use of
resources and the safe
management of waste, and
they develop their
understanding of the concept
by exploring some of the
other functions of
the environment that support
their lives and the lives of
other living things.
History
4
2
plus 2 together(see example)
0
0
None
Economics
and Business
Civics and
Citizenship
0
0
0
0
N/A
2
0
0
2
None
128
Environmental change and
management focuses on
investigating environmental
geography through an in-depth
study of a specific environment.
The unit begins with an
overview of the environmental
functions that support all life,
the major challenges to
their sustainability, and the
environmental worldviews including those of Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander
Peoples - that influence how
people perceive and respond to
these challenges.
The Asia Pacific World: The
Polynesian expansion across
the Pacific (c. 700 – 1756)
The way Polynesian societies
used environmental resources
(sustainably and unsustainably),
including the extinction of the
moa in New Zealand, the use of
religious/supernatural threats
to conserve resources, and the
exploitation of Easter Island’s
palm trees (ACDSEH068)
N/A
Year 10 Content Descriptionsgovernment and Democracy:
The challenges to and ways of
sustaining a
resilient democracy and
cohesive society(ACHCK094)
The Arts
0
Technologies 21
(including
D&T and
Digital
Technologies)
0
5
0
8
0
21
N/A
Year 3 & 4 Technology:
Recognise the role of people
in design
and technologies occupations
and explore factors, including
sustainability that impact on
the design of products,
services and environments to
meet community
needs (ACTDEK010)
N/A
Year 9 & 10 Technology:
Critically analyse factors,
including social, ethical and
sustainability considerations,
that impact on designed
solutions for global preferred
futures and the complex design
and production
processes involved (ACTDEK040)
H & PE
0
0
0
N/A
N/A
0
NSW Curriculum
General Comment:
Subjects sustainability is taught in are Humanities, and small references in science where sustainability appears. Small references the arts.
 Science (k-10 AC) resource based view-ie energy consumption etc, weather, environment) (BUT not mentioned in K-6 NSW science-just
the new National curriculum k-10)
 History (k-10 AC) but, mostly a global view, and mainly environmental.
 HSIE K-6 (a lot of references-mostly found here) the focus is on environmental/ecological sustainability-sustainability is not mentioned
without reference to the environment.
 Geography (7-10) Mostly environmental, and resource management /use. Small references to population/social sustainability.
Subject
Number of
times
Number of
times
Number of times
other &
129
Number of
times other
Example (Primary)
Example (High)
sustainability is
referenced
English
8
environmental
only
2
environmental
only
P-10 National
5 (social and
1 (non specific)
environmental)
In each Year students
must study examples of:
aspects of environmental
and social sustainability
Stage Four: Objective
C Outcome 5:
Content
Respond to and
compose texts
-express considered
points of view and
arguments on areas
such as sustainability
and the
environment
accurately and
coherently in speech
or writing with
confidence and
fluency
Stage Five: Objective
C Outcome 5:
Respond to and
compose texts
- formulate, develop
and express their own
ideas and beliefs
creatively,
thoughtfully,
positively and
confidently on issues
such as sustainable
patterns of living
130
Mathematics
1
1
0
0
N/A
Science
27
15
3
9 (mostly nonspecific)
Stage One: Earth and
Space:
identify some actions
which could be taken to
care for and use water
sustainably, eg turning
off dripping taps and/or
taking shorter showers
History
6
4
plus 2 together
(see example)
0
0
N/A
131
Stage five statistics
and Probability:
analyse a variety of
data displays used in
the print or digital
media and in other
school
subject areas, eg
share-movement
graphs, data displays
showing sustainable
food
production (Problem
Solving)
Stage Four: Living
World:
describe how
scientific knowledge
has influenced the
development of
practices in
agriculture, eg animal
husbandry or crop
cultivation to improve
yields and
sustainability, or
the effect of plantcloning techniques in
horticulture
Stage Four: Depth
Study 5-the Asia
Pacific World:
The way Polynesian
societies used
environmental
resources (sustainably
and unsustainably),
including the
extinction of the moa
in New Zealand, the
use of
religious/supernatural
threats to conserve
resources, and the
exploitation of Easter
Island's palm trees
(ACDSEH068)
Science and Technology k-6
Mathematics K-6
HSIE K-6
0
0
15
0
0
14
0
0
1
PDHPE K-6
Creative Arts K-6
Languages K-10
0
0
0
0
0
0
Dance
Drama
0
1
0
0
Primary School K-6
0
0
0
0
0
Did not analyse
High School 7-10
0
0
0
1
132
N/A
N/A
Content Overview —
Subject Matter: Stage
Three: students will learn
about: ecologically
sustainable development
of environments
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Values and Attitudes
the contribution of
drama and theatre
to enriching and
N/A
N/A
sustaining cultures
and societies.
Music
Visual Art
Photographic and Digital
Media
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Values and Attitudes:
ethical and
environmentally
sustainable
photographic and
digital media
practices.
Visual Design
2
1
0
1
N/A
Values and Attitudes:
ethical and
environmentally
sustainable visual
design practices.
Aboriginal Studies
3
3
0
0
N/A
Students learn to:
analyse the
contribution of
Aboriginal
technologies to
tourism, trade and
the Australian
economy through
avenues such as
ecotourism and
environmentally
sustainable industry;
use electronic
communication
133
including the internet
to find information
Commerce
1
0
1
0
N/A
Cross Curricular
Content:
Environment
Students investigate
the impact on the
environment and
different
communities of
business and
commercial activities
and decisions.
Students develop an
understanding of
ecological, personal
and social goals and
investigate strategies
to protect the
environment and
move towards a more
sustainable society.
Geography
30
26
1
3
N/A
Stage Four:
They are able to
discuss the
134
Science
3
2
0
1
Mathematics
English
History
Work Education
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
PDHPE
0
0
0
0
N/A
135
implications, evaluate
the sustainability and
suggest alternative
strategies for the
future use and
management of
global environments.
Stage Five Outcome
5.11 Essential
Content: discuss
strategies used to
balance human
activities and needs in
ecosystems with
conserving,
protecting and
maintaining the
quality and
sustainability of the
environment.
N/A
N/A
N/A
Students learn to:
demonstrate an
understanding of the
importance of
reporting
mechanisms in
relation to
accountability and
sustainability
N/A
Technology (7-8)
Languages
Elective technology units
Subject
ELA 20
(Identified to be in the
subject area of
science)
0
Did not analyse
Did not analyse
Number of times in
context of
environmental
A Whole ELA is
dedicated to
environmental
sustainability:
ELA 20: “The student
acts for an
environmentally
sustainable future”
0
0
0
N/A
ACT Curriculum
Number of times in context of other
(elaborate)
N/A
Example (Primary)
TBL factors are considered in the context of
 20.LC.3 some effects
learning about “The student Understands
of human action on
World Issues and Events” “the student designs
natural environments
makes and appraises using technology” “The
(e.g. land clearing, air
student understands and applies the inquiry
and water pollution)
process”, “The student understands and applies
scientific knowledge” “The student understands
about Australia and Australians” and “The
student understands world issues and events.”
but are not explicitly stated-it is just noted
these link to the ELA “Student acts for an
environmentally sustainable future” and the
focus is more on TBL than just environmental
with these links
Example (High)
 20. EA.5 how
countries work
together to protect
the environment.
Queensland Curriculum
General Comment:
 Mostly environmental & resource focused, however, small references to TBL approach
Subject
Number of
times
sustainability is
Number of
times
environmental
Number of times
other &
environmental
136
Number of
times other
only
Example (Primary)
Example (High)
referenced
only
Early Years Curriculum
(Prep)
The Arts
HPE
Languages
Studies of Society and the
Environment
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
3
There is a whole
learning
statement area
on sustaining
environmentssee example.
Years 1-9
0
0
0
3
Technology
1
0
0
137
Children think and
enquire by:
• investigating features
of, and ways to sustain,
environments.
0
0
0
3
N/A
N/A
N/A
End of Year five: Ways of
Working: reflect on and
identify personal actions
and those of others to
clarify values associated
with social
justice, the democratic
process, sustainability and
peace
1 (TBL)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Place and Space by
end of year nine:
Governments and
communities need to
balance economic,
social, political and
environmental
factors through
sustainable
development,
consumption and
production
e.g. resource use and
environmental
impacts; logging and
the survival of small
communities
dependent on that
industry.
EL by the end of year
seven: Technology as
a human endeavour:
Product design and
production decisions
are influenced by
specifications,
constraints and
aspects of
appropriateness
including functions,
aesthetics, ethics,
culture, available
finances and
resources, and
sustainability
e.g. menu design is
influenced by type of
cuisine, cultural theme
and cost.
Business
3
0
Years 8-10
1 (see example)
D & T (yrs. 8-10)
7
3
2 (TBL focused)
138
2 (-financial,
ethics, people
etc.)
N/A
Year Ten Business:
Consumers and
government expect
businesses to act
responsibly by making
informed decisions
and using business
practices that are
socially, ethically,
economically and
environmentally
responsible and
sustainable
2
N/A
Year 8 & 9 Processes
and Techniques:
Investigate design
situation
requirements,
considering concepts
such as ergonomics,
safety, sustainability
and production.
Rationale:
Investigate design
situation
requirements,
considering concepts
such as ergonomics,
safety, sustainability
and production.
Home Economics
1
1
0
0
N/A
Home Economics LSSG
& K&U examples:
Sustainable energy
solutions, inductive
cooking
I & CT
1
0
1 (TBL)
0
N/A
Assessment
Investigative analysis
involves research
assignments, reports
or system evaluations
that:
 analyse sustainable
practice, ethical
principles and their
139
I & CT
1
0
1 (TBL)
0
N/A
impacts on society,
culture, the
economy, and the
environment
Assessment
Investigative analysis
involves research
assignments, reports
or system evaluations
that:
 analyse sustainable
practice, ethical
principles and their
impacts on society,
culture, the
economy, and the
environment
P-10
ATSI Languages
0
0
English
Mathematics
Science
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
Australian Curriculum Subjects
0
0
0
0
0
0
140
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Year Seven:
2.2 Achievement
Standards
They analyse how the
sustainable use of
resources depends on
the way they are
formed and cycle
through Earth systems.
History
4
4 (two
together)
0
0
N/A
Year 8 History:
The way Polynesian
societies used
environmental
resources (sustainably
and unsustainably),
including the
extinction of the moa
in New Zealand, the
use of
religious/supernatural
threats to conserve
resources, and the
exploitation of Easter
Island‘s palm trees
(ACDSEH068)
141
South Australia Curriculum
General Comment:




Mostly mentioned in science and society & environment. These were mainly environmental focused.
In science, it is mainly environmental issues, however linked with sustainability of ‘life on earth’ which could suggests other areas of
sustainability
Also mentioned in Design and technology, however, this focus was either non-specific, related to resources, or social, economic and other.
HPE-small mentions
Subject
The Arts
D&T
Number of
times
sustainability
is referenced
0
57
Number of
Number of times
times
other &
environmental
environmental
only
0
0
8
16 (it is usually
social and
environmental
that are linked)
0
33 (lots of
general, nonspecific
examples
N/A
Strand Making: end of year six
selects appropriate equipment
and materials needed to make
and tune a wind chime which is
durable, produces a pleasant
sound, is environmentally
sustainable, and can be easily
maintained.
N/A
Strand Designing:
evaluates and revises a
selection of their designs in
the light of opinions they
have gained from others,
including ideas about social
and environmental
sustainability
English
HPE
0
5
0
3
0
0
N/A
Strand: Health of individuals and
communities:
recognising how local
communities contribute to the
health of their members, and how
natural and social environments
influence health. Students gather
information on local community
N/A
Strand: Health of individuals
and communities:
explains the value of natural
environments to self and
communities by regularly
visiting them, and considers
how they can contribute to
the sustainability of these
0
2
Number of
times other
only
142
Example (Primary)
Example (High)
Languages
Mathematics
Science
Did not analyse
0
0
72
30
0
32 (Note that most
of these are
examples where
environmental
issues have been
referenced in
order “to maintain
life on earth” and
as such have been
placed in this
category-but are
predominantly
environmental
concerns-(see
example)
0
143
health concerns and consider
sustainable practices for the
health of future populations. They
become aware of the world of
work and options available to
them in the health, recreation and
sport industries
environments
N/A
R-2: Strand Earth and Space:
2.1 Expresses ideas about changes
that occur in their local
environment, and considers
implications for sustainable
environments.
N/A
Senior Years: Strand Earth
and Space
5.1 Researches and analyses
contemporary theories about
geological features, such as
plate tectonics, and
investigates their effects on
sustaining life on earth.
Society and the
Environment
79
56
Of these it is
referenced
twice in one
explanation
four times.
(see second
eg.)
17 (mostly social
and
environmental)

6
considering social justice,
ecological sustainability
and democratic process
when evaluating historical
material and predicting
futures
Middle years: strand time
continuity and change:
appraises how further change
could take into account
sustainability and fairness for
all.
Ecological sustainability such
as: environmental
stewardship and
conservation; a commitment
to maintaining biological
diversity; and a recognition of
the intrinsic value of the
natural environment. These
values contribute to learners’
understanding of how
ecological sustainability can
be achieved, in ways that
redress environmental
damage caused by past and
present generations and
safeguard the inheritance of
future generations.
144
Victoria Curriculum F-10
General Comment:





Civics and Citizenship- environmental & some TBL. With TBL, most emphasis given to environmental, but the impact of environmental on
social, economic and in some places, cultural.
Economics, obviously a focus on economic sustainability, however, this is often closely associated with issues of environmental, and
some social/cultural issues.
Geography, environmental and resource use, also social and cultural, but not as much as environmental & resource.
History, world sustainability issues-environmental focused. (small mentions)
Science environmental, resource use-ie water, energy etc.
Subject
Civics and Citizenship
Number of
Number of
Number of
times
times
times other &
sustainability environmental environmental
is referenced
only
14
8
5
Number of
times other
only
Example (Primary)
Personal and Social Learning
1
Level 5 learning focus: Students
understand the ways in which
Australian citizens are influenced
by and can influence local, state,
national, regional and global
decisions and movements,
including issues of sustainability.
145
Example (High)
Level 9 learning focus:
Students evaluate the role
of the Australian
Government in the global
community including
Australia’s role in the
United Nations, through
contexts such as
government responses to
environmental concerns
such as global warming or
other issues of
environmental
sustainability, natural
disasters, peacekeeping
operations, world poverty
and national and global
security issues.
HPE
Interpersonal
Development
Personal Learning
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
The Arts
English
The humanities (1-4)
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
Economics
3
0
3 (TBL)
N/A
N/A
N/A
Discipline Based
N/A
N/A
Level one and two Learning
Focus:
Students are introduced to the
concept of resources and their
management, and begin to
understand how resource use
reflects community
interdependence and economic
sustainability. They begin to
understand how local resources
are used to make products which
meet local people's needs and the
needs of people in other places.
They also begin to understand
that resources from other places
may be used to make products
locally to meet their needs.
N/A
146
Level ten standards:
They explain the
development of a
multicultural society and
the values necessary to
sustain it.
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Level 9 & 10:
Students investigate the
relationship between
economic growth,
ecological sustainability and
the standard of living, and
explore what it means to be
an ethical producer and
consumer. They begin to
reflect on the role of values
in the economic decision
making of producers,
consumers and
governments.
Geography
11
7
0
4 (nonspecific see
eg)
147
Level 6 learning Focus:
At Level 6, students identify and
describe Australia’s significant
natural processes. They describe
the reaction of people to these
processes including the
management of natural disasters.
Level 10: At Level 10,
students describe how
markets, government
policies, enterprise and
innovation affect the
economy, society and
environment in terms of
employment, economic
growth, the use of
resources, exports and
imports, and ecological
sustainability.
Level 9 & 10 learning focus:
Students investigate and
learn to evaluate the impact
and/or effectiveness of
development-related
projects, policies and
strategies (such as large-
They compare the various ways
humans have used and affected
the Australian environment.
Students recommend ways of
protecting environmentally
sensitive areas in a sustainable
way.
History
4
2
Plus 2
together
0
0
N/A
Languages
Mathematics
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
N/A
N/A
148
scale water projects,
tourism, the use of foreign
aid, social reform and
population control) on
physical and human
landscapes, locally,
nationally and globally. They
apply their knowledge and
understanding to provide
explanations and justify
recommendations about
local, national and global
situations related to
development, and their
impact on living standards.
They reflect on plans of
action and past actions,
considering the value
positions underlying them,
including a commitment to
the principles of
sustainability.
Level 10 Content
Descriptions:
developments in
technology, public health,
longevity and standard of
living during the twentieth
century, and concern for
the environment
and sustainability
N/A
N/A
Science
0
0
0
Thinking Processes
Communication
Design Creativity and
technology
IC&T
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
N/A
0
0
0
N/A
Interdisciplinary Learning
0
N/A
0
N/A
0
N/A
0
0
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Additionally, as can be seen from the above tables, the subjects which sustainability appears are overwhelmingly in the humanities, in particular geography,
or HSIE (or variations on that subject name). It also appears in the sciences, with this usually being in relation to using/managing earth’s resources, as well
as environmental aspects of the earth. This further suggests it is an environmentally focused issue.
149
Appendix G: Sustainability in Policy
State/Territory
ACT
NSW
List of Policies/Plans relating to Sustainability by State/Territory
Policy
Comment
Educating for a
 This statement provides a nationally agreed description of the nature and purpose of
Sustainable Future: A
environmental education for sustainability through all years of schooling, including a vision and a
National Environmental
framework for its implementation.
Education Statement for
 A focus on environmental sustainability to enable achievement of sustainability in other areas.
Australian Schools
 Link: http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/1b93d012-6dfb-4ceb-a37f209a27dca0e0/files/sustainable-future.pdf
People, Place,
 A policy that identifies the Government’s commitment to sustainability in the ACT, goals and ways
Prosperity:
it will occur.
The ACT’s sustainability
 Has a TBL approach throughout.
policy 2009
 Link:
http://www.cmd.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/119730/people_place_prosperity.pdf
The Canberra Plan:
 Sets out the goals and visions for Canberra. Includes sections on sustainability-Considers all areas
Towards our Second
of sustainability, however, there is an emphasis on environmental.
Century
 Link:
http://www.cmd.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/120217/canberra_plan_text_V5.pdf
Learning for
 This plan aims to develop capacity for people to be informed and active participants in achieving
Sustainability: NSW
sustainability. It is aimed not just at education in schools, but at a broader level, for
Environmental Education
anyone/organisation/group, whose work relates in some way to sustainability-including policy
Plan 2007-2010
level, businesses, schools, etc.
 Environmental sustainability is the underpinning purpose to the plan. Where other areas of
sustainability are considered, they are always linked to environmental sustainability, and usually,
environmental sustainability is the way to achieve sustainability in other areas.
 Link:
https://www.centennialparklands.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/32215/NSW_Government
_-_Learning_for_Sustainability.pdf
150
Environmental Education
Policy (for Government
Schools)



Implementing the
Environmental Education
Policy in your School



NSW Government
Sustainability Policy



VIC
Looking Ahead DEECD’s
Environmental
Sustainability Strategy

This Policy aims to encourage students’ understanding of the environment as an integrated
system, and develop attitudes and skills to achieve ecologically sustainable development (see pg.
9). It is based on Agenda 21 from the UN’s Earth Summit in 1992. It focuses on change in
curriculum, management of resources, and management of school grounds. Schools need to make
an environmental management plan to focus on these areas and incorporate the principles of
ecologically sustainable development.
Focused on environmental sustainability, and resource management/use.
Link: http://www.namoi.cma.nsw.gov.au/environmental_education_policy.pdf
This support document has been developed to assist teachers to implement the mandatory
Environmental Education Policy for Schools. It provides guidelines and examples of how schools
can implement the policy and develop ecologically sustainable initiatives. It provides examples of
how the plan can be integrated with the curriculum. Identifying links to HSIE, Science and D&T
units specifically, however, it also gives examples of how it can be integrated across other
curriculum areas. Uses the Principles of Education about, for and in the environment, with more
emphasis on education for the environment. (For definitions etc.-based on the above document
Environmental Education Policy)
Primarily environmental, but some small recognition of TBL.
Link:
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/env_ed/assets/pdf/eeimplementdoc.pdf
Identifies strategies the Government will implement for sustainability in water and energy use,
reducing emissions, waste and fleet management, and purchasing to lead by example in these
areas.
Environmental and resource use based focus
Link:
http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/government/NSWGovSustainabilityPolicy.pdf
A policy for all the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development in Victoria, not just
schools. In recognition of the need to act for a more sustainable future, particularly as the
department has an influential role in the community. It outlines initiatives both as a Departmental
level, and school level, particularly the ASSI at a school level. It has a particular focus on
151
SA
South Australia Strategic
Plan
QLD
Statement on
Sustainability for all
Queensland Schools
“Enough for all Forever”
Earth smart
Environmental
Sustainability Strategic
Plan 2008-2012




environmental and resource management.
 Focuses on environmental sustainability. While it recognises other aspects in the definition, and
that environmental influences other aspects, the focus is mainly environmental.
 Link: https://www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/edulibrary/public/schadmin/environment/lookahead.pdf
 The strategic plan for South Australia provides a vision and direction for the future of the state.
Within it, there is acknowledgement of sustainability in all areas, particularly social, however there
is a larger focus on environmental sustainability, with a section on ‘our environment’ that focuses
on sustainability.
 Big focus on environmental however other areas as well.
 Link:
http://saplan.org.au/media/BAhbBlsHOgZmSSIhMjAxMS8xMS8wNC8wMV8wMl8xNF8yMjNfZmlsZ
QY6BkVU/01_02_14_223_file
 A one page statement on what sustainability is, and what their approach to sustainability is,
including what it values. It is based on that agreed for the United Nations Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development.
 TBL approach.
 Link: http://education.qld.gov.au/publication/production/reports/pdfs/statement-onsustainability-all-qld-schools-enough-for-all-forever.pdf
QLD Department of Education, Training and the Arts Strategic Plan in relation to environmental
Sustainability outlines goals to reduce our ecological footprint (resource based), educate for
sustainability, and care for the natural environment.
Focused on environmental aspects.
Education-mostly through ASSI.
Link: http://deta.qld.gov.au/publications/strategic/pdf/earthsmart.pdf
152