Science in the Arts
Science and Culture in the 18th Century:
Isaac Newton
Marek H. Dominiczak*
Isaac Newton (1642–1727) has a unique place in the
history of science. His theories replaced Aristotelian
mechanics and caused a paradigm shift in the outlook
on the workings of the universe. The emphasis he put
on experimental approach was essential for the transformation of natural philosophy into science (1 ).
Newton’s theory of gravity was universal in the sense
that it explained both common phenomena such as the
falling of objects and astronomical events such as the
movements of celestial bodies and comet trajectories.
Such wide application impressed not only his fellow scientists but also poets and philosophers, including the
greatest skeptic of all, Voltaire (1694 –1698). Voltaire, a
vocal advocate of Newton’s work, stressed how Newton
was able to address the fundamental issues during a time
when “it seemed to the wisest that it was temerarious even
to dare to think one could guess by what laws the heavenly
bodies move and how light works” (2 ).
Thus, Newtonianism, the concept that the universe was governed by rational laws, and that theories
need to be underpinned by experiments, became an
important part of Enlightenment thinking (3, 4 ).
Newton was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in
Cambridge from 1669 to 1701, and in 1696 became Warden, and then Master, of the Royal Mint (5 ). He also
served as president of the Royal Society in London from
1703 until his death, thus being in a position to influence
British and European science (6 ). Although universities at
the time were devoted to teaching, i.e., preserving the continuity of knowledge, societies such as the Royal Society
were “invisible colleges” devoted to discovery of new
knowledge, increasingly through scientific experiment.
These societies also provided a platform for sharing
knowledge and helped their members in attribution and
recognition of their discoveries. Newton (and the Royal
Society) got involved in a prolonged dispute with Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz concerning priority in the
invention of calculus (7, 8 ). Newton’s main works were
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, known as the
College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
* Address correspondence to the author at: Department of Biochemistry, Gartnavel General Hospital, Glasgow G12 0YN, UK. Fax ⫹44-141-211-3452; e-mail
[email protected].
Principia), published in 1687, and Opticks, published in
1704.
It is significant that Newton was also very much
involved in alchemy and theology. Although he was
wary of expressing his precise religious views—a wise
stance at the time— his theories accepted God’s providential role in nature. This undoubtedly facilitated
their acceptance, in contrast, for instance, with the materialist philosophical position of Baruch de Spinoza
(4 ). Thus Newtonianism was in fact a philosophicotheologico-scientific system of ideas, rather than a
body of exclusively scientific knowledge.
Therefore, although from our perspective Newton
is the epitome of an experimental scientist, he really
inhabits the “transitional period” when science was just
being separated from theology and alchemy not only in
publications but also in the minds of individuals involved in the process.
The image shown here (Fig. 1) is by a Venetian
painter, Giovanni Battista Pittoni (1687–1767), and was
created in collaboration with two other artists, Domenico
and Giuseppe Valeriani (9, 10 ). The figures in the painting are attributed to Pittoni. It is one of several paintings
of allegorical tombs of persons prominent in the history of
England, commissioned from Italian painters under the
patronage of Charles Lennox, the 2nd Duke of Richmond, by Owen Swiny (1676 –1754), a London theatre
impresario then living in Venice (11 ).
The painting was created in 1727–1730. In the picture, gods and ancient scholars gather around the imaginary tomb of Isaac Newton. The image harks back to the
fresco the School of Athens, painted by Raphael in 1510 –
1511 in the Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican (12 ).
However, here, in contrast to Raphael’s work, the focus is
not a scientific dispute, but the seminal experiment demonstrating the splitting of white light into different colors
with the use of a prism. Incidentally, the artist illustrated
the experiment quite inaccurately—note the wrong refraction angles (9 ). Thus the painting unwittingly also becomes a prototype of the distortion of science in the popular media. It would be classed as a historical, “learned”
image, containing antique elements and architectural detail, and projecting the artist’s knowledge of history and
antiquity. This type was the highest-ranked type of painting in the 18th century.
Clinical Chemistry 58:3 (2012) 655
Science in the Arts
France in 1720 — but like the other Venetians, received many foreign commissions. Domenico Valeriani
(died 1771) worked in Rome and Giuseppe (1708 –1762)
later in his career went to St. Petersburg.
The way the apotheosis of Newton is presented in
this painting by the mix of experiment, religion, and
classical past illustrates well the intellectual turmoil of
the 18th century, when both science and the arts were
being reconfigured for modernity.
Author Contributions: All authors confirmed they have contributed to
the intellectual content of this paper and have met the following 3 requirements: (a) significant contributions to the conception and design,
acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; (b) drafting
or revising the article for intellectual content; and (c) final approval of
the published article.
Authors’ Disclosures or Potential Conflicts of Interest: No authors
declared any potential conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments: The author thanks Jacky Gardiner for excellent
secretarial assistance.
Fig. 1. Giovanni Battista Pittoni, Domenico Valeriani,
and Giuseppe Valeriani.
Allegorical Monument to Sir Isaac Newton. Oil on canvas,
231.6 ⫻ 138.4 cm. ©Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.
Reproduced with permission.
In a wider perspective, the painting is an example
of Venetian rococo (13 ). The rococo style dominated
much of 18th century Europe. It emphasized playfulness and grace, and was decorative and theatrical as
opposed to the serious intensity of the preceding baroque. It fitted well into the rich Venetian tradition of
oil painting and sophisticated colorism.
There were a number of Venetian rococo painters
who specialized in historical images (13 ). These painters
were in high demand in Europe: even those who did not
work abroad received commissions from the courts in
England, Spain, Poland, and particularly Germany.
Works by Sebastiano Ricci (1659 –1734) were in demand
across Europe, and Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini (ca
1675–1741) created paintings of the country houses in
England. Another Venetian, Giambattista Piazzetta
(1683–1754), received commissions from Germany and
in 1750 became the first president of the Venetian Academy of Painting. Piazzetta was succeeded in this post by
the greatest rococo artist, Giambattista Tiepolo (1697–
1770) (14 ). Pittoni’s style was influenced by Ricci,
Piazzetta, and Tiepolo (13–16 ). He also succeeded
Tiepolo as president of the Academy in 1658. Pittoni
never left Italy— except for a possible journey to
656 Clinical Chemistry 58:3 (2012)
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DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2011.180810