On the highest peaks of the Appalachian Mountains, there are spruce fir forests, which are predomina
tely made up of Red Spruce and Fraser Fir (Smith and Nicholas 1998). In the past several decades sci
entists have been noticing an unusually large number of Red Spruce and Fraser fir dying, much more t
han what should be. This finding was a cause for concern, therefore, over the past two decades there
has been rigorous research done on these trees; and the more research that was done the more eviden
ce they found that linked air pollution with the mortality of these trees (Mello 1987). Air pollutio
n is the main reason for tree mortality among the Red Spruce and the Fraser fir. The onset of modern
air pollution has caused many problems for the trees in the form of acid deposition, changes in nut
rient ratios, and weakening trees to insect defoliation, as well as harsh weather conditions. The Re
d Spruce is an evergreen with a thick coat of dark green needles. The Red Spruce is named for its "c
ylindrical reddish brown cones" and can grow to be about one hundred feet tall. Its habitat is most
commonly the Appalachian Mountains of Western North Carolina, Eastern Tennessee and Southwestern Vir
ginia, at elevations of about 4500 to 6500, because it requires a cool and wet climate to survive. T
his tree was at one time a very valuable softwood because the paper industry and the construction in
dustry relied on it for timber and pulp to make paper (Mello 1987). The Fraser fir, also known as th
e southern balsam fir, is native to the high elevations of the Southern Appalachian Mountains (Wools
ey and Butcher 1998). These trees serve the important purpose of watershed protection, since "they h
old the shallow soil to the steep wet slopes." They are also grown and sold as Christmas trees, beca
use they hold their needles well and have a good shape and fragrance (Beck). The most important purp
ose of these two species of trees is that without them the upper third of some of the tallest mounta
ins in the Appalachians would be "bare, eroded rock" (Mello 1987). Normally the annual rate of morta
lity for these trees would be about 0.5% a year. However, recent studies have shown that the current
rate of mortality is three times the normal rate and in some areas the annual rate of mortality is
7% (Peters 1999). Besides the scattered skeletons of dead trees the most noticeable signs that these
trees are in decline is yellowing of needles, thinning of needles, deterioration of roots, and redu
ced growth (Backiel 1990). The decline and death of the Red Spruce and Fraser fir has increased as a
ir pollution problems have gotten worse in the past couple of decades (Mello 1987). The pollutants t
hat are affecting the trees are classified into two main groups: primary and secondary pollutants. T
he primary pollutants are gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and reactive hydrocarbons t
hat are released directly into the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels. One machine responsi
ble for contributing a large amount of nitrogen oxides and reactive hydrocarbons are "transportation
vehicles" (Backiel 1990). Secondary pollutants are formed in chemical reactions in the atmosphere i
nvolving the primary pollutants; the most common form of this is acidic deposition. Acidic depositio
n occurs when certain primary pollutants combine with elements in the environment and form acidic ga
ses. Then when they combined with water in the air it forms acid snow, acid fog or acid rain (Backie
l 1990). Much of these pollutants come from the Midwest and Southeast part of the Unites States and
are blown by prevailing winds into the Appalachian Mountains (Peters 1999). Bill Jackson, an air res
ource specialist at the National Forests in North Carolina, explained how these air pollutants get i
nto the mountains and kill the trees. He called this occurrence "air stagnations, which is when the
polluted air from other parts of the country comes into the mountains and becomes trapped here." In
the Appalachian Mountains, there is a great deal of precipitation, there is fog about 65 percent of
the days and there is annual precipitation of about 1900 to 2500mm. With so much precipitation, ther
e is lots of acid deposition, on the worst days in the Appalachians the acidity of the fog is about
that of vinegar (Beck). In his book Last Stand of the Red Spruce, Robert Mello explains how the acid
s in acid precipitation are formed: When sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, and nitrogen dioxide molecule
s mix in the atmosphere with water vapor and radical forms of water, many of them are oxidized, and
hydrolyzed into sulfuric acid and nitric acid. The chemical reactions that produce these highly corr
osive, colorless acids can occur not only in the atmosphere but also in the soils and on surfaces, s
uch as the leaves and needles of trees, wherever sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, and nitrogen dioxide
end up (Mello 1987). The different forms of air pollution can affect trees in a couple ways, through
the soil, and through the foliage. The acid, from acid precipitation, can seep into the soil and co
mbine with other chemicals in the soil, which causes the roots of the trees to be poisoned. When the
acid gets on the needles of these trees it "eats away the waxy coating that protects the needles fr
om drying out, and can strip away the proteins, sugars and amino acids" which the needles need to su
rvive (Mello 1987). Excess nitrogen can be absorbed through the needles of the trees directly from t
he air and then damage the respiration of the trees (Peters 1999). Acid deposition also affects the
soil by depleting it of nutrients, such as calcium and magnesium while increasing levels of aluminum
(Woolsey and Butcher 1998). Calcium and magnesium are vital for the healthy growth of the Red Spruc
e and the Fraser firs, without these two nutrients, the trees have difficulty transporting water and
nutrients (Lee 1995). Matt Peters explains in his essay, "Air Pollution and Forest Health: The Sile
nt Killer," how acid in the soil removes nutrients and releases aluminum: In the presence of low pH
(acidic) soils, this aluminum becomes cationically charged and is taken up into the trees roots. In
this form, it is toxic heavy metal. The acidification of soils also leaches out essential minerals a
nd nutrients important to the tree's survival, such as calcium and magnesium. Trees affected by acid
rain in this way may show reduced root growth, which reduces the ability of the tree to take up wat
er and tolerate drought (Peters 1999). Trees that do not receive enough nutrients from the soil beco
me more vulnerable to stresses such as disease, insects and freezing (DeHayes and Schaberg and Hawle
y and Strimbeck 1999). Air pollution not only lowers resistance the Red Spruce and Fraser fir have t
o insects but it can also make the foliage of the trees more attractive to insects. The extra nitrog
en in the needles raises the amino acid content, which makes the needles more appealing to insects (
Peters 1999). In 1957, it was discovered that the Balsam Woolly Adelgid had been introduced into the
United States from Europe (Ellis 2000). This small wingless insect has greatly damaged the spruce f
ir forests of the Appalachians. Bill Jackson gave details about how this bug was controlled for a nu
mber of years with strong insecticides, but then in the 1970s when the government quit spraying the
insecticide it allowed the insect population to explode which caused the trees to begin dying. The B
alsam Woolly Adelgid attacks the branches, twigs, buds, and mostly the stems of the trees. Once a tr
ee is infested with the Balsam Woolly Adelgid, the will usually die about two to five years later (B
eck). It has no natural predators and there has been no success in introducing predators, so the att
empts to control the population has failed (Smith and Nicholas 1998). The only thing that can reduce
d the population is extreme cold, about negative 30 degrees Celsius, but the temperatures in the App
alachian Mountains never get cold enough to affect this insects numbers (Lee 1995). Another way in w
hich air pollution's impact has led to the mortality of the Red Spruce and the Fraser fir is lowerin
g the tolerance to the cold, through the depletion of calcium from the soil which leads to calcium d
eficiency in the trees. Acid precipitation could "reduce the cold tolerance of foliage" just a few d
egrees and that would result in many more incidences of injury due to freezing. This kind of change
in cold tolerance explains the increase in incidents of freezing injury over the past several decade
s (DeHayes and Schaberg and Hawley and Strimbeck 1999). Another cause of the increase in freezing in
jury is that when some of the trees die it leaves others, that were previously unexposed, exposed to
the wind and snow and ice which damage the trees through freezing (Smith and Nicholas 1998). Burnin
g coal, which is used the most prevalently to create electricity, causes the majority of air polluti
on in the United States. In the summer air pollution gets worse because people use much more electri
city, because of air conditioner usage. Another contributor to the air pollution problem is automobi
les and power plant smokestacks (Smith 1999). People can help change the current situation by drivin
g their personal automobiles less. Instead, people should ride a bike, or walk, or take public trans
portation (Peters 1999). People can also try to use less air conditioning in the summer, by simply o
pening the window. Another remedy is to establish large "forest reserves where human activity" would
be limited so as to decrease the impact of human on the ecosystems (Peters 1999). The government ca
n also help by forcing polluters to substantially reduce their emissions by being stricter in their
enforcement of the Clean Air Act, and through the Environmental Protection Agency by "instituting to
ugher restrictions on automobile exhaust and power plant emissions" (Smith 1999). It is argued in th
e government among the policymakers that action on this issue should be delayed so more there can be
more research done on the problem so as to make the solutions more effective and more inexpensive.
However, others in the government say that delay can result in "irreversible and unacceptable damage
" (Backiel 1990). Nevertheless, at this point in time there is little being done about this situatio
n, which is largely due to "political pressure from profit driven corporations" who do not want acti
on taken due to the detrimental affects it would have on their profits (Peters 1999). There is a str
ong correlation between the decline of the spruce fir forests and the arrival of modern air pollutio
n (Mello 1987). This air pollution has affected the Fraser firs and the Red Spruce detrimentally in
many ways. It has taken nutrients from the soil, weakened the trees to other stresses, such as the B
alsam Wooly Adelgid and cold weather, it has slowly destroyed these trees through acid deposition. I
t would be a good idea for people to realize the harmful affects that using electricity and driving
their cars has on the environment. Once people realize this and begin using less air conditioning in
the summer and taking public transportation, which are just two of the many things that need to be
done, then maybe these trees will stand a chance of continued existence. highest peaks appalachian m
ountains there spruce forests which predominately made spruce fraser smith nicholas past several dec
ades scientists have been noticing unusually large number spruce fraser dying much more than what sh
ould this finding cause concern therefore over past decades there been rigorous research done these
trees more research that done more evidence they found that linked pollution with mortality these tr
ees mello pollution main reason tree mortality among fraser onset modern pollution caused many probl
ems trees form acid deposition changes nutrient ratios weakening insect defoliation well harsh weath
er conditions evergreen with thick coat dark green needles named cylindrical reddish brown cones gro
w about hundred feet tall habitat most commonly appalachian mountains western north carolina eastern
tennessee southwestern virginia elevations about because requires cool climate survive this tree ti
me very valuable softwood because paper industry construction industry relied timber pulp make paper
mello also known southern balsam native high elevations southern appalachian mountains woolsey butc
her these serve important purpose watershed protection since they hold shallow soil steep slopes the
y also grown sold christmas because hold their needles well have good shape fragrance beck most impo
rtant purpose species that without them upper third some tallest appalachians would bare eroded rock
mello normally annual rate mortality would about year however recent studies have shown current rat
e three times normal rate some areas annual peters besides scattered skeletons dead most noticeable
signs decline yellowing needles thinning deterioration roots reduced growth backiel decline death in
creased problems gotten worse past couple decades pollutants affecting classified into main groups p
rimary secondary pollutants primary pollutants gases such sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxides reactive hy
drocarbons released directly into atmosphere from burning fossil fuels machine responsible contribut
ing large amount nitrogen oxides reactive hydrocarbons transportation vehicles backiel secondary for
med chemical reactions atmosphere involving primary common form this acidic deposition acidic deposi
tion occurs when certain combine with elements environment form acidic gases then when combined wate
r forms acid snow acid rain backiel much come from midwest southeast part unites states blown prevai
ling winds into peters bill jackson resource specialist national forests north carolina explained ki
ll called occurrence stagnations which when polluted from other parts country comes becomes trapped
here there great deal precipitation percent days annual precipitation much precipitation lots worst
days appalachians acidity vinegar beck book last stand robert explains acids formed sulfur dioxide n
itric oxide nitrogen dioxide molecules atmosphere water vapor radical forms water many them oxidized
hydrolyzed sulfuric nitric chemical reactions produce highly corrosive colorless acids occur only a
lso soils surfaces such leaves wherever sulfur nitric oxide different forms affect couple ways throu
gh soil through foliage seep soil combine other chemicals which causes roots poisoned gets eats away
waxy coating protects drying strip away proteins sugars amino acids need survive excess absorbed th
rough directly then damage respiration peters affects depleting nutrients such calcium magnesium whi
le increasing levels aluminum woolsey butcher calcium magnesium vital healthy growth firs without nu
trients difficulty transporting nutrients matt explains essay forest health silent killer removes re
leases aluminum presence soils aluminum becomes cationically charged taken roots toxic heavy metal a
cidification soils leaches essential minerals important tree survival calcium magnesium affected rai
n show reduced root growth reduces ability take tolerate drought receive enough become vulnerable st
resses disease insects freezing dehayes schaberg hawley strimbeck only lowers resistance insects mak
e foliage attractive insects extra raises amino content makes appealing discovered balsam woolly ade
lgid been introduced united states europe ellis small wingless insect greatly damaged forests appala
chians bill jackson gave details controlled number years strong insecticides then government quit sp
raying insecticide allowed insect population explode caused begin dying balsam woolly adelgid attack
s branches twigs buds mostly stems once infested woolly adelgid will usually five years later beck n
atural predators success introducing predators attempts control population failed smith nicholas onl
y thing reduced population extreme cold negative degrees celsius temperatures never cold enough affe
ct numbers another impact lowering tolerance cold depletion leads deficiency could reduce tolerance
foliage just degrees would result many incidences injury freezing kind change tolerance explains inc
rease incidents freezing injury over several dehayes schaberg hawley strimbeck another cause increas
e injury some leaves others were previously unexposed exposed wind snow damage smith nicholas burnin
g coal used prevalently create electricity causes majority united states summer gets worse people el
ectricity conditioner usage another contributor problem automobiles power plant smokestacks people h
elp change current situation driving their personal automobiles less instead people should ride bike
walk take public transportation less conditioning summer simply opening window remedy establish lar
ge forest reserves where human activity limited decrease impact human ecosystems government help for
cing polluters substantially reduce their emissions being stricter enforcement clean environmental p
rotection agency instituting tougher restrictions automobile exhaust power plant emissions argued go
vernment among policymakers action issue should delayed research done problem make solutions effecti
ve inexpensive however others delay result irreversible unacceptable damage nevertheless point time
little being situation largely political pressure profit driven corporations want action taken detri
mental affects profits strong correlation between decline arrival modern affected firs detrimentally
ways taken weakened other stresses wooly weather slowly destroyed good idea realize harmful affects
using electricity driving cars environment once realize begin using less conditioning summer taking
public transportation just things need maybe will stand chance continued existenceEssay, essays, te
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