Neurovascular Coupling During Cortical Spreading
Depolarization and –Depression
Leif Østergaard, MD, PhD, DMSc; Jens Peter Dreier, MD, PhD;
Nouchine Hadjikhani, MD, PhD; Sune Nørhøj Jespersen, PhD; Ulrich Dirnagl, MD, DMSc;
Turgay Dalkara, MD, PhD
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were already low, more than those with high pre-CSD velocity
and flux,20 again suggesting severe maldistribution of blood
flow among capillaries during CSD.
We recently showed that capillary transit time heterogeneity (CTH) reduces oxygen extraction efficacy, and thereby
limits the oxygen utilization that can be supported for a given
CBF and tissue oxygen tension (PtO2).22 Therefore, flowmetabolism coupling mechanisms would be expected to
adjust CBF and CBF responses to compensate for the reduced
oxygen extraction efficacy downstream, see Figure 1A.
Below, we describe this capillary dysfunction and its implications for net oxygen extraction and ATP production. We then
analyze how CBF would be expected to change to maintain
flow-metabolism coupling if CTH increases in relation to a
CSD and then remains high during the subsequent cortical
depression. Although changes in capillary patency/resistance
are likely to affect capillary flow patterns in the injured brain
(see Figure 1B), data regarding CTH during CSD are sparse.
The purpose of this report is therefore to present predictions
that can be tested in future experiments and clinical studies
to support or rule out CTH-related effects in the coupling
of CBF to tissue metabolism during CSD in the normal and
injured brain.
ortical spreading depolarizations (CSDs) are self-propagating waves of transient loss of neuronal transmembrane
ion gradients, followed by prolonged suppression of neuronal
activity (spreading depression). CSDs emerge spontaneously
in animal models of traumatic brain injury,1 subarachnoid
hemorrhage,2 and in focal ischemia3 where they are associated with infarct growth.4 In humans, CSDs have been demonstrated in traumatic brain injury,5 subarachnoid hemorrhage,6,7
and malignant hemispheric stroke,8 and they are believed to be
the brain mechanism underlying migraine aura.9
CSDs are associated with dramatic changes in cerebral
blood flow (CBF). During the depolarization phase of CSDs
induced in healthy and well-perfused brain tissue in animal
models, an early hyperemic response is observed, typically
followed by prolonged oligemia after the neuronal repolarization. Despite the initial CBF increase, tissue hypoxia may
develop in more distant territories of capillary supply.10,11
Similar CBF changes have been observed in patients with
migraine aura.12–14
In the injured brain, CSDs can be accompanied by severe
initial CBF reduction instead of a CBF increase during the
depolarization phase, termed spreading ischemia.15 When
this inverse hemodynamic response is observed, the energydependent recovery from CSD is delayed in a characteristic
fashion, indicating a severe mismatch between oxygen supply
and demand2 and a high risk of tissue damage.16 In rat and cat
models of focal ischemia, CSD-related CBF transients range
from monophasic, positive CBF responses in peri-ischemic
tissue, over biphasic transients in mildly ischemic tissue, to
negative CBF transients in more severe ischemia.17–19
During CSD in animal models, capillary flow patterns
become severely disturbed.10,20,21 The passage of a CSD causes
erythrocytes in some capillaries to reduce their speed, whereas
other capillaries reveal 4-fold increases in flow or higher.21
Flow cessations during CSD have been observed to affect
those capillaries, where pre-CSD erythrocyte velocity and flux
Predicted Changes in CBF During Episodes of
Increased CTH in Normal Brain
In the following, we assume that flow-metabolism coupling
adjusts CBF to meet the metabolic needs of tissue whenever possible. We therefore examine which compensatory
CBF changes are required to support various types of tissue
metabolism if some erythrocytes pass through the capillary
bed with flow velocities that are too high to permit complete
extraction of their oxygen load. Direct observations of cortical
capillaries in normal brain show that capillary flow velocities
are heterogeneous during rest, but homogenize during functional activation and the accompanying hyperemia.22 Such
Received November 10, 2014; final revision received March 16, 2015; accepted March 17, 2015.
From the Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience and MINDLab, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Denmark (L.Ø., S.N.J.);
Department of Neuroradiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark (L.Ø.); Center for Stroke Research and Departments of Experimental
Neurology and Neurology, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany (J.P.D., U.D.); Pathophysiology and Cognition Laboratory, Athinoula A. Martinos
Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School (N.H.); Department of Physics
and Astronomy, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark (S.N.J.); and Institute of Neurological Sciences and Psychiatry and Department of Neurology, Faculty
of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey (T.D.).
Guest Editor for this article was Malcolm Macleod, PhD.
Correspondence to Leif Østergaard, MD, PhD, DMSc, CFIN/Department of Neuroradiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Bldg 10G, 5th Floor,
Nørrebrogade 44, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark. E-mail [email protected]
(Stroke. 2015;46:1392-1401. DOI: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.008077.)
© 2015 American Heart Association, Inc.
Stroke is available at http://stroke.ahajournals.org
DOI: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.008077
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Østergaard et al Flow-Metabolism Coupling in CSD 1393
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B
Figure 1. A, The importance of capillary flow patterns (yellow arrows) for the efficacy of oxygen extraction. Intravascular colors indicate
blood saturation (red, fully oxygenated; darker blue, more deoxygenated) and surrounding darker blue colors indicate lower tissue oxygen
tension—adapted from Østergaard et al.23 Copyright ©2013, The Authors (see: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/). In
the resting, normal brain (top), erythrocyte velocities vary greatly among capillaries, with little oxygen being extracted from fast-flowing
blood.22 As cerebral blood flow (CBF) increases (right), capillary flow patterns homogenize in parallel.22 This phenomenon reduces the
functional shunting that otherwise occurs when erythrocytes pass through capillaries at short transit times. Although the mean transit
time (MTT) of blood through the capillary bed is related to CBF through the central volume theorem (MTT=CBV/CBF, where CBV is the
capillary blood volume), capillary transit time heterogeneity (CTH) indicates the distribution of capillary transit times relative to this mean
(eg, in terms of their standard deviation). Both MTT and CTH are measured in seconds, and the degree of functional shunting generally
increases as CTH approaches MTT.24 Bottom, Capillary dysfunction, characterized by elevated CTH relative to MTT, and failure of capillary flow patterns to homogenize during hyperemia. The conditions may be the result of pericyte dysfunction, changes in blood viscosity
or capillary wall morphology, or external capillary compression. These changes hinder the redistribution of blood across the capillary bed,
with less affected capillary paths tending to act as functional shunts for oxygenated blood. Biophysically, the only means of attenuating the accompanying oxygen loss is to reduce transit times across all capillaries, that is, to attenuate CBF and CBF responses.25 The
accompanying reduction in net oxygen supply reduces tissue oxygen tension as cells continue to use oxygen, increasing blood-tissue
concentration gradients and net oxygen extraction.25 With flow responses attenuated, oxygen extraction can be increased from the
30% of normal brain up to near unity, and normal brain function maintained although capillary dysfunction becomes more severe.25 It is
important to note that current state-of-the-art algorithms to generate maps of transit time-related metrics based on perfusion-weighted
magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography cannot distinguish changes in tracer retention caused by prolonged MTT (reduced
CBF) from changes caused by capillary flow disturbances (capillary dysfunction).25 The effects of CTH must therefore be separately modeled to ascertain whether clinical signs of ischemia are indeed caused by limited blood supply or by capillary dysfunction.26 B, The acute
changes in capillary morphology that accompany conditions in which CSD are common. In traumatic brain injury (TBI; i), massive swelling
of the perivascular astrocytic end feet (AE) and flattening or compression of the capillary lumen (L, indicated by red arrows) is observed.27
A cortical capillary (top) and a white matter capillary (bottom) from 2 TBI victims undergoing surgery.27 Reproduced from Bullock et al27
with the permission of BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. Copyright ©1991, British Medical Journal. In experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage
(SAH; ii), swelling of astrocytic end-feet (AE) and endothelial protrusions (arrows) are observed here as early as 1 hour after hemorrhage.28
Reprinted from Sehba and Friedrich28 with the permission of Springer Science and Business Media. Copyright ©2013, Springer-Verlag
Wien. Ischemia (iii) can cause pericytes to constrict and compress the capillary lumen. Top, A horseradish peroxidase (HRP)–filled capillary segment interrupted by a constriction, merged with an image that highlights pericyte α-smooth muscle actin in green (bar indicates
10 μm). Bottom, Multiple disruptions of a HRP-filled capillary, highlighting that pericyte constrictions may prevent reperfusion (no-reflow)
or disturb capillary flow patterns after recanalization (bar indicates 20 μm).29 Ischemia data were obtained in mice. Reprinted from Yemisci
et al29 with the permission of Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Copyright ©2009, Nature America, Inc.
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reductions of CTH would be expected to secure efficient oxygen extraction during hyperemia22 as illustrated in Figure 1A
(top right panel). A recent study suggests that both CBF and
CTH are indeed controlled by capillary pericytes during functional activation.30
Figure 2A illustrates how CBF must be adjusted to compensate for an increase in CTH to support a constant rate of oxygen metabolism. The figure also indicates the parallel change
in oxygen extraction fraction (OEF). We first consider a mild
increase in CTH, defined here as a CTH increase for which the
resulting OEF reduction can be compensated by an increase
in CBF.
A compensatory CBF increase shortens capillary transit
times, and thereby increases CTH-related functional shunting
of oxygenated blood. Hyperemia can therefore only compensate for mild increases in CTH. For higher CTH, attenuation
of CBF becomes mandatory to meet the metabolic demands
of the tissue.22,25 Note that an initial, transient hyperemia is
expected as CTH increases beyond the threshold at which
CBF starts to be attenuated.
A
B
C
D
Predicted Changes in CBF to Support
Increased Metabolic Demands When CTH Is
Elevated
Above, we considered how neurovascular coupling supports
resting brain metabolism as CTH increases. We now consider
how CBF must be adjusted to meet the additional metabolic
demands of functional activation or repolarization after CSD.
Figure 2C and 2D illustrates this for CTH increases to levels
below and above the threshold of flow suppression, respectively (compare Figure 2A and 2B).
Figure 2C shows how functional hyperemia is exaggerated during a mild increase in CTH: by definition, metabolic
needs can still be met by hyperemia alone, and larger CBF
responses hence compensate for the lower OEF. In Figure 2D,
CBF responses are illustrated both in the normal state and
after a moderate increase in CTH. Note how both baseline
CBF and CBF responses to certain metabolic challenges are
reduced after such a CTH increase. Note that flow suppression
is expected as a result of flow-metabolism coupling and therefore should depend on the rate of oxygen utilization in the
tissue. Accordingly, the suppression of activation-related CBF
is expected to occur at a lower CTH level than the CTH level
at which resting CBF must be suppressed. We review evidence
of this phenomenon in migraine below.
Observed Changes in CBF, Metabolism, and
Blood Oxygenation During CSD in Normal
Mouse and Rat Brain: Migraine Aura
Figure 3A shows typical CBF responses during the passage
of a CSD in mouse brain.31 Depolarization is accompanied by
a small increase, followed by a drop, in CBF. If we assume
that the long-lasting capillary flow disturbances caused by a
CSD10,20,21 give rise to elevated CTH during the course of the
initial depolarization, then the observed course of CBF changes
(a slight hyperperfusion followed by hypoperfusion) is consistent with the prediction in Figure 2D. The subsequent repolarization is energetically demanding, and the transient increase in
Figure 2. A and B, The changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF)
that must accompany mild (A) and moderate (B) capillary dysfunction to compensate for the changes in oxygen extraction
fraction (OEF) caused by the parallel increase in capillary transit
time heterogeneity (CTH). Mild capillary dysfunction is operationally defined by the property that the accompanying reduction in
OEF can be compensated by an increase in CBF alone, whereas
the CTH increase of moderate capillary dysfunction, by definition, exceeds the threshold for which flow suppression becomes
necessary to secure sufficient net oxygen extraction.25 The
horizontal dotted lines indicates this flow suppression threshold
(FST). We assumed that capillary flow disturbances, such as
those described at the onset of cortical spreading depolarizations (CSDs) in Refs. 10,20,21, develop over a brief period of time.
During an increase to moderate CTH (B), capillary dysfunction is
therefore initially mild according to the definition above, and transient hyperemia is therefore expected as CTH pass the threshold
of flow suppression (highlighted by red circles). C and D, The
modulation of CBF responses required to meet metabolic challenges before and after the onset of mild and moderate capillary
dysfunction, respectively. The equally sized gray boxes before
and after the increase in CTH are meant to illustrate how CBF
responses to a repeated stimulus are modulated to maintain flowmetabolism coupling. Note that CBF responses are amplified by
mild capillary dysfunction, but attenuated by moderate capillary
dysfunction, relative to CBF responses before the onset of capillary dysfunction. The larger gray box is meant to represent the
energy expenditure of repolarization, assuming that this occurs
immediately after a depolarization-induced increase in CTH.
Østergaard et al Flow-Metabolism Coupling in CSD 1395
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Figure 3. A, Recorded changes in electric potentials (top) and cerebral blood flow (CBF; bottom) in mice.31 Note the resemblance of the
CBF trace to the prediction Figure 2D, including signs of early hyperemia during the depolarization phase. Reprinted from Ayata et al31
with the permission of Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Copyright ©2004, The International Society for Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism.
B, The CBF responses to 2 subsequent cortical spreading depolarizations (CSDs) elicited in mice. Reprinted from Yuzawa et al11 with the
permission of Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Copyright ©2011, ISCBFM. Note that the CBF drop observed during the first CSD is consistent
with a compensatory vasoconstriction to compensate for a moderate increase in capillary transit time heterogeneity (CTH).10,20,21 Reported
changes in capillary flow patterns are long-lasting, and the attenuation of CBF would therefore be expected to outlast the subsequent
repolarization phase and be present at the time of the next CSD being induced. Indeed, CBF responses during 2 subsequent repolarizations seem identical, attributable to the metabolic demands of restoring membrane potentials. C and D, CBF changes during CSD in
mouse and rat, respectively.31 The dark gray boxes highlight the amplitude of CSD-related CBF changes in the 2 species, whereas the
light gray boxes highlight the amplitude and duration of CBF changes during the subsequent repolarization phase. Adapted from Ayata
et al31 with the permission of Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Copyright ©2004, The International Society for Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. As discussed in the text, the differences in CBF over time may be as a result of the extent of capillary flow disturbances (CTH)
induced by the CSD in the 2 species or to differences in their oxygen utilization during anesthesia. Note that the extent of CBF suppression after CSD (60% in mouse, 25% in rat) is reflected in the subsequent repolarization-related hyperemia. The CBF response in mouse is
attenuated and prolonged, consistent with a large and possibly critical CTH increase (see Figure 6), whereas the flow response in rats is
much less suppressed.
CBF in the mouse model of CSD indeed coincides with the restoration of membrane potentials, after which CBF returns to a
level consistent with high CTH, that is, continued capillary flow
disturbances. The prediction that CSD-related CBF-changes
are coupled—through CTH—to the metabolic needs of the tissue may help explain the distinct appearance of CBF response
to subsequent CSDs,11 elicited while CTH remains high; see
Figure 3B. Note that the shapes of the first and second CBF
response (here in mice) are nearly identical except for the CBF
drop during the first CSD, which we ascribe to neurovascular
coupling during a gradual increase in CTH.
The extent of CBF suppression required to maintain flow
metabolism during and after CSD is predicted to depend on both
CTH and oxygen utilization. The prolonged 60% CBF suppression after repolarization in mouse (Figure 3C) is therefore predicted to be the result of a pronounced increase in CTH after
CSD, high oxygen utilization in the anesthetized mouse brain, or
both. The 25% reduction in CBF before and after repolarization
in rat (Figure 3D),31 in turn, is predicted to reflect a more modest CSD-related CTH increase, a lower oxygen utilization in the
anesthetized rat brain, or both. During repolarization, the extent
of CBF suppression is expected to depend mainly on oxygen
extraction efficacy, and thereby the degree of capillary flow disturbance. In normal brain, an inverse relationship is therefore
expected between the amplitude of the CBF response during
repolarization and the CBF reduction before and after repolarization, as indeed observed in Figure 3C and 3D.31
The duration of post-CSD oligemia varies. This CBF reduction may reflect reduced cortical activity (see below), but may
also reflect adjustments of CBF and CBF responses to account
for prolonged capillary flow disturbances. This prediction is
consistent with findings that responses to increased CO2 levels, basal forebrain stimulation, and direct arteriolar application of vasoactive substances are reduced or disappear12
during post-CSD oligemia and that evoked PtO2 changes are
inversely correlated with the degree of baseline hypoxia.32 As
1396 Stroke May 2015
capillary flow patterns normalize, metabolic needs can be met
at a higher CBF for a given PtO2. Such indirect evidence of
improved capillary flow patterns was observed by Fordsman
et al who reported that blockage of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid synthesis ameliorated post-CSD hypoperfusion,
although having modest effects on the degree of hypoxia.32
These results are consistent with a role of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid in the capillary flow disturbances and neurovascular coupling after CSD, possibly through its action as a
powerful pericyte constrictor.30
Migraine Aura
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In patients with migraine aura, CBF responses to vasodilatory stimuli, such as CO2, are attenuated during the spreading
oligemia,12 consistent with neurovascular coupling during a
state in which CTH is elevated (Figure 2D). Hypoperfusion
typically persists as patients develop headache, until patchy
areas of hyperperfusion appear in previously hypoperfused
areas after 2 to 6 hours.33 The late hyperperfusion is consistent
with the CBF change predicted to occur as a large increase in
CTH resolves.
Blood oxygen level–dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging localizes brain activity via the accompanying reductions in blood deoxyhemoglobin concentration
[dHgb]. During functional activation, this effect gives rise to
increased signal intensity in activated brain areas compared
with resting conditions. Both increases in CBF and reductions
of OEF tend to reduce [dHgb], and small CTH increases
(Figure 2C) are therefore predicted to elevate BOLD signal
amplitudes for a given tissue metabolism. Conversely, reductions in CBF and elevated OEF (Figure 2D) both attenuate
BOLD signal amplitudes for a given tissue oxygen metabolism. Small increases in CTH would therefore be predicted
to increase both baseline BOLD levels and the amplitude of
task-related BOLD signal changes, relative to a condition of
normal CTH. As CTH increases further, flow suppression is
expected to affect task-related hyperemia (where metabolic
demands are higher) first, then the baseline BOLD amplitude.
Figure 4 illustrates how task-related BOLD changes observed
during the onset and early phases of migraine aura14 are
remarkably consistent with these predictions.
ATP Production at Elevated CTH: Differential
Effects of Capillary Dysfunction on Oxygen
and Glucose Extraction
After the initial, near-complete breakdown of ion gradients
during a CSD, large amounts of ATP are needed to reestablish
normal ion distributions.34 Figure 5 shows the course of CBF,
and the tissue levels of glucose and ATP, during the passage
of CSDs in rat brain.35 Autoradiographic measurements during CSD have revealed 100% increases in the uptake of glucose analogs into the affected tissue.38 These data are widely
interpreted as indicating a 100% increase in neuronal energy
turnover during the restoration of ion gradients after CSD. The
Figure 4. A, A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) slice oriented perpendicular to the calcarine fissure in a subject with inducible migraine
aura that affects the right hemisphere.14 B and C, Blood oxygen level–dependent (BOLD) signal changes to a visual stimulus (alternating, 32 second
epochs of radial flickering checkerboard vs black screen with a fixation point) recorded in single image voxels (brown arrows) within homologous
areas of the right (B) and left (C) occipital lobe during the onset of migraine aura (onset time indicated by white arrow). In the right hemisphere voxel,
note the initial increase in activation-induced BOLD signal amplitude (time period indicated by green line) followed by an increase in baseline BOLD
signal level (indicated by the left-most yellow line). These changes are consistent with a mild increase in CTH, in that both elevated cerebral blood
flow (CBF) and reduced oxygen extraction fraction (OEF; cf. Figure 2A) cause tissue deoxyhemoglobin levels to fall and, hence, BOLD fMRI signal
amplitude to increase. C, Simultaneous signal changes in the unaffected hemisphere: these illustrate typical signal fluctuations over time. Next,
coinciding with the onset of aura symptoms,14 stimulus-induced BOLD changes become attenuated (indicated by blue line)—and even disappear during the time period assumed to mark the passing of a cortical spreading depolarization and -repolarization.14 In B, note that BOLD signal
intensities during stimulus-off periods (indicated by the right-most yellow line) return to the baseline recorded at the onset of the imaging session.
Although stimulus-induced BOLD responses remain suppressed, consistent with either suppressed neuronal activation or moderately elevated
CTH, these findings do not support that resting CBF is suppressed to compensate for a moderate increase in CTH as defined in Figure 2B. D, The
stimulus-off BOLD signal intensities fell below preaura levels in areas V3a and V3 in the same subject, consistent with a larger (moderate) CTH
increase and flow-suppression. Signal source analysis revealed that the spreading BOLD changes had in fact originated in V3a in this subject,14
and our analysis thus suggests that the aura phenomenon arises under conditions with a more severe oxygen supply–demand imbalance than
observed as the wave subsequently spreads across the visual cortex. It should be noted that neuronal responses to the visual stimulus are likely
to be affected by the spreading depression of activity. It is therefore difficult to ascertain to which degree stimulus-induced BOLD responses are
diminished as a result of changes in neuronal or in capillary function, respectively. Adapted from Hadjikhani et al14 with permission of the Authors.
Copyright ©2001, National Academy of Science, USA. Authorization for this adaptation has been obtained both from the owner of the copyright in
the original work and from the owner of copyright in the translation or adaptation.
Østergaard et al Flow-Metabolism Coupling in CSD 1397
immediately after the passage of a CSD.40,41 Dynamic recordings of oxygen tension during CSD in animals show tissue
hypoxia, despite normal or elevated CBF,10,11,42 again consistent with the prediction that oxygen extraction for ATP production during CSD is limited by elevated CTH. Meanwhile,
reported increases in oxygen utilization of 70% during CSD42
are based on the assumption that oxygen metabolism can be
derived from simultaneous recordings of CBF and PtO2,43
but we now know that CTH must be known to infer oxygen
metabolism from such recordings.22 The rate of ATP production limits the rate at which neurons affected by the CSD can
repolarize, and the ratio between oxygen and glucose availability, on one hand, and the duration of repolarization, on the
other hand, can therefore elucidate the relative importance of
oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis for the rate of ATP
production during repolarization.44
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Elevated CTH in the Injured Brain: The
Effects of Preexisting Capillary Dysfunction
Figure 5. Dynamic changes in DC potentials, blood flow, and tissue levels of ATP and glucose during the passage of a cortical
spreading depolarizations (CSD) in rats.35 The CSD was elicited by
application of KCl to the occipital dura and DC potentials recorded
in the frontal cortex of the rats. The curves represent averages
from 6 animals (mean±SEM). Time intervals during which values
differed significantly from pre-CSD levels (horizontal dashed lines)
are highlighted by dots (•). The de- and repolarization phases are
highlighted by dark- and light-shaded boxes, respectively. Note
the dramatic decrease in tissue levels of ATP and glucose at the
time of CSD, whereas cerebral blood flow (CBF) remains unaltered.
Increases in capillary transit time heterogeneity (CTH) reduces the
apparent capillary surface area available for solutes to cross the
blood–brain barrier22,36 and more so for oxygen than for glucose.37
If capillary flow disturbances develop during CSD, the efficient
production of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation may therefore be
impaired, and glucose preferably converted to lactate instead, with
limited ATP yields. Adapted from Mies and Paschen35 with the permission of the publisher. Copyright ©1984, Elsevier Inc. Authorization for this adaptation has been obtained both from the owner of
the copyright in the original work and from the owner of copyright
in the translation or adaptation.
ATP production during the repolarization phase is, however,
heavily dependent on oxygen availability, keeping in mind
that a 100% CBF increase does not ensure a 100% increase in
tissue oxygen availability. Under aerobic conditions, one glucose molecule generates 29 to 30 ATP molecules by oxidative
phosphorylation, but if oxygen availability is limited, lactate
production yields only 2.
The extraction of glucose and glucose analogs in the brain is
limited by CTH, and efficient glucose extraction during hyperemia depends on homogenization of capillary transit times,39
similar to the properties of oxygen extraction.22 Elevated CTH
seemingly favors the extraction of glucose over oxygen,37 and
increases in CTH would therefore be expected to reduce ATP
yields from glucose metabolism, causing (1) conversion of
larger amounts of glucose into lactate, (2) relative ATP depletion, and (3) lower glucose and oxygen levels in tissue, consistent with the observations in Figure 5.35 Indeed, simultaneous
glucose and lactate measurements during CSD in normal brain
suggest a sharp increase in anaerobic glycolysis during and
In the injured brain, CTH may be elevated in the affected
tissue because of elevated intracranial pressure, astrocytic
end-feet swelling, pericyte constrictions, and so forth—see
recent reviews for evidence of capillary dysfunction in stroke,
aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage, and traumatic brain
injury.23,25,45 Flow suppression can only compensate for elevated CTH to a certain extent: We have demonstrated that a
CTH threshold exists for which the metabolic needs of resting human brain are met at negligible tissue oxygen tension.
Notably, the CBF value which optimizes oxygen extraction
at this CTH threshold is approximately the classical ischemic
threshold of 20 mL/100 mL/min.25 For even higher values of
CTH, and in cases where CBF is critically restricted after a
thromboembolic event, oxygen availability may therefore fall
below the metabolic demands of repolarization (see below).
Figure 6A indicates how the metabolic needs of brain tissue can be met at high CTH: resting CBF is suppressed and
OEF elevated. The left panel illustrates how repolarization
can still occur at the speed observed in less affected tissue. If
CTH is more severe (right panel), net oxygen extraction can
still be improved by reducing CBF to the threshold indicated
in the left panel, but it now limits the speed of repolarization.
Because we assume CBF to be coupled to the metabolic needs
of repolarization, the duration of the required CBF suppression
is predicted to correlate with the duration of repolarization.16 In
Figure 6A, we assumed that cortical electric activity remains
depressed (dark gray area) for some time after CSD (light gray
area). Note that the parallel reduction of metabolic demands is
predicted to cause a transient increase in CBF as flow-metabolism coupling in this case entails less suppression of CBF.
Figure 6B shows slow potential changes consistent with
CSDs in 2 aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients.15 The
upper traces show dynamic changes in CBF (as relative values),
whereas the lower traces show the CSD-induced depression
of spontaneous activity. The left panel illustrates a CSD with
normal hemodynamic response, whereas the inverse response
(spreading ischemia) is demonstrated in the right panel. Human
recordings suggest that PtO2 preceding spreading ischemia
can in fact be normal, low, or even high. PtO2 inevitably falls
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A
B
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C
Figure 6. In the injured brain, capillary transit time heterogeneity (CTH) is likely to be elevated in the affected tissue and therefore to
exceed the level associated with flow suppression. The early hyperemia indicated in Figure 2B is therefore not expected during the passage of a cortical spreading depolarizations (CSD) in injured brain tissue. A, left, A hypothetical condition in which CTH is increased to
the threshold at which repolarization begins to be delayed as a result of the resulting impairment of oxygen extraction. The timing of 2
metabolic challenges, functional activation and repolarization, are indicated by a small and large light gray box, respectively, below the
graph. Provided cerebral blood flow (CBF) is suppressed to optimize oxygen extraction at this CTH value, tissue oxygen tension (PtO2)
becomes negligible during repolarization when ATP needs are at their highest (by analogy, we have shown that a CTH threshold exists at
which suppression of CBF to the classical ischemic threshold optimizes net oxygen extraction at zero tissue oxygen tension to meet the
metabolic needs of resting brain25). Right, The consequence of even higher CTH. Although net oxygen extraction can still be increased
by reducing CBF, oxygen availability now limits the speed of repolarization. Because repolarization is delayed as CTH exceeds the critical threshold illustrated in the left panel, we refer to the energetic needs of repolarization as supercritical relative to the oxygen supply
permitted by CTH and CBF. For simplicity, we assumed that CTH levels are dominated by disease changes in A, and hence ignored any
additional CTH changes in relation to the CSD. B, The dynamic changes in CBF and spontaneous electric activity in relation to CSDs in 2
subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) patients.15 Slow potential changes (SPC) served as a direct extracellular (EC) electrocorticographic index
of CSD in these patients. CBF was recorded with laser-Doppler flowmetry, which only measures relative changes. Thus, it cannot be
decided whether baseline CBF preceding the CSD was mildly decreased, normal, or even increased in either of the 2 examples. Note that
the CSD on the left induced a normal CBF response, whereas the CSD on the right induced an inverse response. Brain tissue was not
severely ischemic in the 2 cases before the CSD, as indicated by the spontaneous neuronal activity in the lowest traces. The CBF trace
after the inverse hemodynamic response (pre- and post-SPC CBF levels are compared by horizontal red line) is indeed consistent with
less CBF suppression during the period of less electric activity, and hence reduced metabolic demands. Adapted from Dreier15 with the
permission of Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Copyright ©2011, Nature America, Inc. C, left, Colors indicate flow changes relative to baseline
(set to 0 second) according to the color scale in the lower left. The dashed line in the image at 220 seconds indicates the area recruited
into the infarct after the passing of the CSD. OEF indicates oxygen extraction fraction. Adapted from Kumagai et al18 with the permission
of Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Copyright ©2011, ISCBFM. (See text.) Authorization for this adaptation has been obtained both from the
owner of the copyright in the original work and from the owner of copyright in the translation or adaptation.
dramatically during spreading ischemia, whereas it seems to
increase during the normal hemodynamic response.16
We speculate that the increase in CBF (indicated with an
arrow) after repolarization reflects reduced metabolism as a
result of the suppressed spontaneous electric activity.
Figure 6C shows sequential laser speckle contrast images
(left) obtained in a rat model of focal ischemia, demonstrating the CBF responses to a CSD propagating from severely
ischemic tissue outwards into less affected tissue.18 The time
courses (D, K, Q and V) illustrate the characteristic transition from positive to negative and prolonged CBF responses
in relation to CSD passages, according to the postocclusion
CBF reduction.18,19 Note that CBF remains low after the CSD
in the most severely ischemic tissue (labeled V and highlighted by a red circle), unlike the pattern in the right panel
of Figure 6B. The corresponding tissue (within the dashed
Østergaard et al Flow-Metabolism Coupling in CSD 1399
line) was recruited into the infarct core after the CSD passage. Studies of focal ischemia in both rats and cats confirm
that such persisting hypoperfusion after CSD is associated
with high risk of tissue injury.17–19 Recent studies have demonstrated that ischemia and oxidative stress are sources of
prolonged pericyte constrictions29,30 (Figure 1B). By this
mechanism, waves of spreading ischemia might hinder (no
reflow) or disturb (increase CTH further) the subsequent
recovery of tissue perfusion and thereby add to the metabolic
derangement of penumbral tissue. Dynamic imaging of CBF
and capillary flow patterns during spontaneous CSDs in periinfarct tissue may prove useful for studying this phenomenon
in animals. Meanwhile, microvascular flow disturbances can
be imaged in acute human stroke and related to subsequent
infarct growth.26,46
Discussion
Downloaded from http://stroke.ahajournals.org/ by guest on June 15, 2017
CSD-related changes in CTH would change oxygen extraction efficacy, and our analysis suggest that flow-metabolism
coupling would alter CBF in ways that mimic the apparent
supply–demand imbalance observed during CSD and subsequent repolarization. Simultaneous recordings of CBF, CTH,
and tissue oxygen tension during CSD and repolarization are
needed to examine whether these predictions are true.
Our analysis of CBF and BOLD recordings during migraine
aura suggest that this phenomenon is associated with dysfunctional capillary flow control. Such dysfunctions may exist
interictally, affecting CTH and brain oxygenation between
attacks. Indeed, migraineurs with visual aura show elevated
interictal BOLD responses to visual stimulation, but normal
resting CBF, comparing to both migraineurs without aura
and controls.47 This could indicate that migraineurs with aura
have normal CTH during rest, but fail to homogenize their
capillary flows fully during functional activation where metabolic demands increase. Our analysis shows that the ability to
homogenize capillary flow patterns may prove critical for tissue survival in relation to CSDs in injured tissue. If this ability is impaired in migraine with aura, patients would indeed
be vulnerable to CSDs during ischemic events as proposed
by recent studies in animal models with migraine mutations.48
Given the recent demonstration that pericytes actively control
capillary diameter during functional activation30 and that pericyte function is impaired by ischemia and oxidative stress,29,30
we speculate that further studies of this cell type may improve
our understanding, not only of migraine with aura, but also of
the elevated stroke risk associated with these conditions.
It is important to note that existing studies of spreading
ischemia can be interpreted in 2 radically different ways. The
current view is that spreading ischemia represents a dysregulatory process in which the normal hyperemic response is
disturbed by elevated potassium levels and reduced levels of
NO.15 This view is supported by observations that red blood
cell products—which include potassium and oxyhemoglobin,
a powerful NO scavenger—induce vasoconstriction in isolated arteries49 and cause spreading ischemia with deleterious
tissue outcome after topical application in tissue with normal
or slightly reduced CBF.15 Indeed, administration of vasodilators cause spreading ischemia to revert to a more physiological CBF response, shortening the energy-dependent recovery
from CSD.2,50 The view presented here proposes that abnormal flow responses partly reflect compensatory changes to
optimize oxygen extraction in tissue affected by severe capillary dysfunction. Molecules the size of hemoglobin undergo
rapid perivascular clearance,51,52 during which they must pass
through the narrow capillary basement membrane where pericytes are located. Here, CTH would be expected to change
as pericytes react to potassium, NO, and a range of vasodilators in much the same way as vascular smooth muscle cells.53
Because blood flow changes are closely coordinated across
the microvasculature54 and can be initiated at the level of capillary pericytes,30 the 2 scenarios are therefore difficult to disentangle with current experimental evidence. Tissue injury is
clearly imminent when spreading ischemia is observed, but
in conditions where this devastating phenomenon occurs, it
is unclear whether therapies that restore large vessel patency
and normal CBF also improve clinical outcome if they fail
to restore capillary flow patterns in parallel.23,25,45 Therefore,
we propose that both the proximal (resistance) and capillary
vascular segments must be considered to understand the metabolic derangement in cortical spreading ischemia, for example, by parallel CTH, CBF, PtO2, and CSD recordings.
Acknowledgments
We thank Cenk Ayata, David Boas, and Sava Sakadzic for comments
and suggestions to the article and for providing us with Figure 3B. L.
Østergaard and S.N. Jespersen thank Thorbjørn S. Engedal, Rasmus
Aamand, Jakob U. Blicher, and Maryam Anzabi for fruitful discussions on the capillary dysfunction concept in relation to cortical
spreading depolarizations.
Sources of Funding
The work was supported by grants from the Danish Ministry of Higher
Education and Science (MINDLab), the Danish National Research
Foundation (CFIN), and the VELUX Foundation (ARCADIA) to L.
Østergaard and S.N. Jespersen, from the German Research Council
(DR 323/5-1 and DR 323/6-1), Era-Net Neuron 01EW1212, and the
German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (01EO0801 and
01GQ1001C) to J.P. Dreier, and from the Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey (113S211) to T. Dalkara.
Disclosures
None.
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Key Words: capillaries ◼ cortical spreading depression ◼ migraine aura
Downloaded from http://stroke.ahajournals.org/ by guest on June 15, 2017
Neurovascular Coupling During Cortical Spreading Depolarization and −Depression
Leif Østergaard, Jens Peter Dreier, Nouchine Hadjikhani, Sune Nørhøj Jespersen, Ulrich Dirnagl
and Turgay Dalkara
Downloaded from http://stroke.ahajournals.org/ by guest on June 15, 2017
Stroke. 2015;46:1392-1401; originally published online April 16, 2015;
doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.008077
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