Assessment and management of the environmental health hazard
related to volcanic degassing in Vanuatu
External counterparts:
Dr Shane Cronin
Ms Rachel Crimp
Institute of Natural Resources, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North, Massey University New Zealand
[email protected]
Vanuatu counterparts:
Department of Geology Mines and Water Resources
Ministry of Health – Public Health Department
Office of the WHO representative in Vanuatu
Malampa Provincial Council
Ambrym Area Councils and Area Health Officers
Background and problem identification
Volcanic activity of Yasur volcano on Tanna Island and Marum and Benbow craters on Ambrym
Island has been semi-continuous for as long as records have been kept in Vanuatu (Eissen et al.,
1991). Acid rains and vegetation damage are reported from periods of elevated volcanic ash and
gas emissions from both volcanic areas (eg. Eissen et al., 1989; 1990). However, little attention
has been paid to any long-term impacts on human health in the populated areas surrounding the
two volcanoes. A report from the provincial community health office responsible for Tanna in
1999 stated that the activity of the volcano was adversely affecting human health, buildings, fruit
trees, food crops, the water supply and the environment in general. This led to a request from the
Vanuatu Minister of Health to the World Health Organisation Regional Office for the Western
Pacific to investigate the impact of volcanic gas and ash on the inhabitants of Tanna and
Ambrym. Up to 7369 inhabitants on Ambrym and 25 840 on Tanna are potentially affected by
semi-continuous volcanism. (National Statistics Office, 2000).
The three major areas of potential chronic human health impacts from volcanic activity include
respiratory problems, particularly silicosis (Buist et al., 1986; Baxter et al., 1999; Allen et al.,
2000), psychological stress (eg., Shore et al., 1986), and chemical impacts of gas or ash (e.g.,
Giammanco et al., 1998).
Here the latter type of these three impacts is considered, since the basaltic nature of the Yasur and
Ambrym activity implies low potential for silicosis (cf., andesitic-rhyolitic ash falls; e.g., Baxter
et al., 1999), and the semi-permanent, low-level activity is less likely to induce high levels stress
compared to isolated large eruptions. Analysis of literature and experience from other recent
volcanic eruptions (e.g. in Iceland, Thorarinsson; 1979; Chile, Arya et al., 1990; and New
Zealand, Cronin et al., 1998; 2003) indicates that fluoride and to a lesser degree sulphur inputs to
the environment were most hazardous to human and animal heath. While in some cases these
affects were acute (e.g. Iceland, and Ruapehu), leading to immediate deaths of grazing animals,
in other instances the effects were chronic, manifesting over a long period of exposure (e.g. in
Chile; Arya et al., 1990). Such chronic effects related to long-term F exposure have long been
the focus environmental studies of industrial pollution, particularly from aluminium smelters and
fertiliser works (e.g. Agate et al., 1949; Sidhu, 1979; Kierdorf et al., 1996; Cronin et al., 2000).
Volcanic gases comprise (in decreasing order of abundance) H2O, CO2, SO2, HCl, NH4+, H2S, HF
and a few other minor constituents (Symonds et al., 1994). Their main hazards include
1
respiration and skin problems in humans along with acidic burning of plants, and corrosion of
metal structures. Gases often combine with water in the atmosphere to cause acid rains. In Java
in 1979, an eruption in the Dieng mountains released CO2 and H2S gases which moved downslope to kill 145 residents and 4 rescue workers (Giggenbach et al., 1991). In 1986, over 1700
people were killed by sulphurous and CO2 gases emitted from Nyos crater in Cameroon
(Giggenbach et al., 1991). Grazing animals have been affected by volcanic ash and gases in past
eruptions in Iceland (50-70% of livestock killed and 10 000 people died in the resulting famine in
1783 Oskarsson, 1980), Chile (Arya et al., 1990) and New Zealand, (Cronin et al., 1998; 2003).
In all cases Fluoride appeared to be the toxic component, with secondary elements such as excess
S and Se possibly having an additional effect.
Gas samples collected in 1988 from Yasur contained SO2, and HCl, with an estimated discharge
rate of between 400-800 tonnes of SO2 per day (Nairn et al., 1988). Sampling in 1990 suggested
that the SO2 emission rate was very high compared to other Vanuatu volcanoes at 1200 ± 600
tonnes per day, causing extensive damage to downwind gardens and coffee plantations (Eissen et
al., 1990).
Ambrym volcano has two continually active vents near its centre. In 1979 gas and ash, combined
with rain, caused extensive pasture and crop burning in a 90 km2 area (Mcfarlane, 1979). In
addition, the local population suffered gastric upsets and burning of the skin by contact with the
acid rainwater. Acid rains also caused vegetation burning during a more energetic phase of
activity in 1989 (Eissen et al., 1989). In 1997 rainfall was measured with a pH of 2 near the
crater, and pH 4 several kilometres away (Vetch and Haefeli, 1997).
Past investigations of volcanic impacts on health have almost exclusively concentrated on acute
impacts, or the impacts of one-off eruptions. The situation in Vanuatu more unusual, in that large
subsistence-based communities live their entire lives directly adjacently to constant volcanic
activity. Their water supplies, crops, air and livestock are all subject to contamination from this
activity. On the islands of Ambrym and Tanna, parts of the population live under ash falls at
times on a daily or weekly basis, and many live almost permanently under gas plumes. Since
medical records and medical investigations on these islands have only been rudimentary, there it
is not known whether long-term impacts on health occur.
Our overall aim is to investigate whether this long-term exposure to volcanic degassing leads to
chronic health impacts, and, if so, to recommend measures by which these impacts can be
mitigated or at least minimised.
Recent related work
In response to a request from the Office of the WHO representative in Vanuatu, Don Shanks
(WHO, Suva), in cooperation with Shane Cronin (INR, Massey University, New Zealand) carried
out a preliminary sampling program on Tanna and Ambrym in October-November 1999, in order
to determine the chemical impact of volcanism on a variety of environmental elements including
food crops and water supplies. Waters on Tanna were also re-sampled in April 2001.
2
From this preliminary survey (Cronin and Sharp, 2002, Intl. J. Environmental Health 12, 109123) the following conclusions were reached:
1. Tanna
- Drinking water samples lay within “normal safe” drinking water ranges for
chemical contaminants, with F between 0.05-1.05 mg/L and SO4 (sulphate)
between 0.8 and 54 mg/L
- Food crop leaf F concentrations lay between 6.3 and 16.2 mg/L, at the middle to
high end of the normal average range for plants (c.f. Brewer, 1966; Robinson,
1978).
- Rib bones and teeth of a cow were high in F, containing 936 and 842 mg F/kg (dry
weight), respectively. Normal whole bone F concentrations range between 300600 mg/kg, with teeth containing around half these levels (Underwood, 1981).
Both bone and teeth representing a long-term accumulative store for F. By
comparison, chronic fluorosis symptoms were noted within around 50% of a
population of central European wild deer that had similar F concentrations in bone
and teeth to the Tanna samples (Mean 883, SD 444 mg F/kg; Kierdorf et al.,
1996).
- Fresh volcanic ash samples from 1994 and 1999 contained 178 mg/kg total F, 8.79.2 mg/kg of which was in water-soluble form.
2. Ambrym
- Drinking water samples were significantly higher in F than Tanna, with F between
1.08-2.8 mg/L and SO4 between 6 and 16 mg/L. For comparison, above 1.5 mg/L
mottling of teeth can occur, skeletal fluorosis may be observed at values of 3-6
mg/L, and total intake of 20-40 mg of F per day over long periods can result in
crippling skeletal fluorosis (WHO, 1970; NRC, 1977).
- Fresh volcanic ash samples from 1999 contained 281 mg/kg total F, with 43.6
mg/kg in water-soluble form
It appears that Ambrym is a more fluoride-rich system than Yasur, which is consistent with the
significantly higher F concentrations in drinking water on Ambrym. Not only is the total fluoride
higher in the Ambrym ash sample, but also the difference is 5 fold for water-soluble levels. Most
water-extractable F appears highly soluble, being released in a single leaching experiments, and
is probably contained within CaSiF6 and NaF salts (e.g. Öskarsson, 1980). A component of more
slowly but still short-term available F is also indicated in further successive leaching experiments,
and this may be contained within CaF2 and/or Al-F compounds. From other volcanic systems it
has been recently recognised that a significant proportion of insoluble F is also digestible and can
cause fluorosis in animals (e.g., Ruapehu, Cronin et al., 2003).
A further follow-up study of drinking waters in West Ambrym as well as waters from Gaua and
Ambae islands was carried out in March 2002 (Cronin et al., 2002). Ambrym roof-fed drinking
waters ranged between 0.21-2.2 mg F/L (two samples from 11 over WHO limit of 1.5 mg F/L),
piped supplies 2.1 and 6.7 mg F/L, a stream sample at 2.8 mg F/L and rainwater collected within
7 km of the crater, 33 mg F/L. Sulphate contents ranged between 1.4 and 28 mg SO4/L, with
highest levels in piped water supplies (sourced from surface waters). The samples were collected
in a relative lull in activity, with only gas plumes being released from the central vents.
Compared to the 1999 survey, when ash falls were occurring, the 2002 samples from the same
sites were around 50% of their 1999 values.
These results indicated that, despite a lull in ash production, drinking waters in many locations
were still high, and that piped supplies and surface waters had by far the highest F levels in 2002.
The rainwater sample collected 7 km from the crater showed that rain is definitely scavenging F,
and that this is the way in which roof-fed supplies are impacted. Such variability in small roof3
fed rainwater tanks is to be expected as a function of varying wind and gas/ash dispersal
directions and variations in ash output. The streams and springs seem to be in comparison less
variable and consistently high in F and SO4 concentration.
The samples from Gaua Island collected from the central lake (which likely influences ground
and surface water discharge of the entire island) contained between 0.11-1.7 mg F/L, but very
high sulphate, 670-770 mg/L. Concentrations from Ambae, are extremely high in the crater lake
(47 mg F/L, 3200-12000 mg SO4/L), but low in the lakes used for water supply in E Ambae
(0.08-0.18 mg F/L, 2.6-14 mg SO4/L).
4
Objectives
The results of the above reported recent studies, point to several challenges in environmental
health management on several of the volcanic islands of Vanuatu, particularly Ambrym. The
preliminary nature of this work so far requires a rigorous follow-up program in order to
characterise and quantify the environmental health risks present, and then devise methods by
which these can be alleviated.
We propose a three-phase work program toward solving these volcano-environmental health
issues in Vanuatu:
1. Establishing human dose rates of health-significant elements (particularly F)
sourced from volcanic activity on Ambrym.
2. Quantifying through a dental survey the local health problems related to volcanic
inputs (especially F) to the environment on Ambrym.
3. Researching and recommending appropriate and practical hazard mitigation
strategies, particularly for ensuring safe rural water supplies.
This work will be carried out partly as a Masterate of Science program undertaken at in the
Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University. A student has been identified as being
particularly appropriate to undertake this work. Ms Rachel Crimp is a practising Registered
Nurse and a BSc(Earth Science) Graduate, and is currently in the process of completing the first
year of her MSc studies. Ms Crimp is a particularly suitable student to undertake this work since
she has a great deal of experience in children’s and general health care.
1. Elemental dose rates for local populations – background characterisation
By comparison with global climatic effects of volcanism, local ecosystem impacts are more
poorly understood (e.g. Baxter, 1990). Volcanic gases react rapidly with the ash particles of a
volcanic plume and especially atmospheric water to form acidic aerosols (e.g. Rose, 1977). Gas
compounds enter surrounding ecosystems through ash fall, dry gas deposition, aerosol deposition
and rainfall, where they impact on soil fertility, plant and water compositions (Cook et al., 1981;
Cronin et al., 1997; 1998), animal health (Arya et al., 1990; Thorarinsson, 1979; İskarsson,
1980; Cronin et al., 2003), and human health (Giammanco, 1998; Cronin and Sharp, 2002;
Delmelle et al., 2002).
The fate of potentially harmful volcanic elements in the local ecosystem will be assessed with
respect to calculating dose rates for children and adults living in affected areas. Water supplies,
foodstuffs and air samples will be collected and analysed, particularly in respect to Fluoride.
Dietary information will be collected by interviews in villages to establish accurate dose-rate
information.
2. Environmental health impacts – proposed Masterate program
The objective of this part of the program is to quantitatively assess the health impacts related to
volcanism on Ambrym and Tanna. It is known from the preliminary studies in the area and
environmental health problems from other volcanic areas (e.g. Thorarinsson, 1979; Delmelle et
al., 2002; Cronin et al., 2003) that F is likely to be the most hazardous element in Vanuatu.
Secondly, elements such as S (e.g. Delmelle et al., 2002), and Se (e.g. Cronin et al., 1998) may
also be significant health hazards.
5
While the Cronin and Sharp (2002) study considered human and animal health symptoms in a
cursory fashion, what remains necessary is a controlled survey of the local population. Impacts
of the element F, if present, can be quantified readily by simple and non-invasive survey
methods. Fluorine occurs throughout bones, teeth, soft tissue and fluids of animals and humans.
In humans it is rapidly digested in both the stomach and small intestine (Nopakun and Messer,
1990; Cerklewski, 1997), and is excreted primarily in urine (NRC, 1974) as well as being
deposited in bone and teeth (Dean, 1936; Thylstrup et al., 1978). Impacts of low doses of F that
can be measured in humans by non-invasive means include:
1. Urine F concentrations. Urine is the major excretion path of F, and urine concentrations
reflect short-term variations in dietary F intake, along with plasma and saliva (e.g.
Grimaldo et al., 1995; Binbin et al., 2004).
2. Concentrations of F within hair, plus finger and toenails reflect longer term, but recent
exposure.
3. Tooth surface appearance. Levels of F too low to produce skeletal changes can already
lead to impacts in tooth enamel (Dean, 1936). Levels of 1-2 mg F/L in drinking waters
lead to a chalky mottling, staining, rapid tooth wear and roughening of enamel in an
increasing percentage of the population depending on increasing F water levels (e.g. van
der Merwe et al., 1977). Additional F dietary or respiratory intake could exacerbate these
effects in parts of Vanuatu. Important to note, is that these effects are found primarily
within teeth developing at the time of exposure.
Of these, it is proposed that method 3. be applied, since this will offer a rapid, low-cost and
accurate evaluation of the prevalence of fluorosis around the island. Obtaining samples for
methods 1. and 2., along with transporting and analysing them would involve a great deal more
expenditure and organisation (including more difficulty in gaining approval of local communities
to participate in the studies.
With higher F doses, concentrations within bones and teeth increase, doses of 3-6 mg F/L in
waters can lead to skeletal fluorosis, decrease in activities of various enzymes (Sievert and
Phillips, 1959) other impacts such as loss of appetite and resulting lack in energy (Walton, 1988).
Intakes of 20-40 mg of F per day (taking water, food and air into account) over long periods can
result in stronger forms of skeletal fluorosis.
As a further analogy to humans in the volcanic affected areas, more invasive surveys can be
undertaken for animals living in the same area, particularly pigs that live within and near
villages. For these animals, bone and teeth samples would be an effective method to examine
overall environmental F exposure animals throughout their period of life (Underwood, 1981).
3. Developing hazard mitigation strategies
The third and overarching aspect of this work will be to develop mitigation measures that are
commensurate with the technology and resources available in-country, and focused in the highest
need areas. This part of the study will primarily focus on methods for protecting water supplies
from volcanic, particularly F contamination. This will include the characterisation and
identification of appropriate alternative water supplies (e.g. ground water, alternative stream
catchments) for areas such as Sanesup village, Ambrym, where Cronin et al. (2002) measured 6.7
mg F/L in the piped water supply. In addition, low-cost and low-technology F-adsorption
systems will be reviewed from other parts of the world (e.g. Zevenbergen et al., 1996; PiñónMiramontes et al., 2003), and recommendations made for development and installation of such
village-based systems, using locally available volcanic soil media. Coupled with this, fledgling
water quality monitoring systems being developed in Vanuatu will be supported by the
recommendation of appropriate methodologies for F monitoring in key water supply areas.
6
Proposed activities and methods
Ambrym is chosen for this study, because recent work (Cronin and Sharp, 2002; Cronin et al.,
2002) has established that it is the system with the potentially highest rates of toxic element (in
this case F) release. Results from Ambrym will provide a baseline to determine whether studies
of other islands in Vanuatu are required.
1. Elemental dose rates for local populations
1.1 Quantification of volcanic element inputs on the island will be carried out by setting up an
array of up to 30 sampling stations at various locations around the island and varying
proximity to the vent areas. At each sampling station, either low-cost passive diffusion gas
samplers (e.g. Delmelle et al., 2002), or simply moist membrane dry-gas deposition plates
along with rainwater collectors, and volcanic ash-collection containers will be set up. The
locations will be chosen depending on current wind directions and in relation to villages
sampled for other parts of the overall study. A sampling regime (Table 1) will involve two
periods of sampling during (once in each of the rainy and dry seasons), each of one-week
duration.
1.2 Quantification of volcanic inputs into the biosphere (Table 1) will be carried out by the
systematic sampling of leaf and root material from common types of plants (both food crops
and non food crops) in the areas where the gas/rainfall sampling sites are established. The
human part of the ecosystem will be analysed from the results of part 2) of the overall study,
outlined below. In addition, swine and cattle rib bones and teeth will be collected from these
sites where available, in combination with the sampling strategy for part 2. Thirdly, moist
surface soil samples will be collected from each of the sampling localities, since soil is
identified as one of the most important stores of pollutant F (e.g. Cronin et al., 2000). In
addition, volcanic soil may also be used within low-cost village water filtration systems (e.g.
Zevenbergen et al., 1996) and the analyses will enable characterisation of local soils for this
purpose.
1.3 Quantification of volcanic inputs into the hydrosphere. This will be carried out by analysing
stream waters in the vicinities of all sampling stations (Table 1). Streamflow into the sea is
probably one of the major routes of element loss from the ecosystem.
1.4 Interviews with villagers at sampling sites used in part 2 will be used to develop dietary
intake rates of foodstuffs and water. In combination with chemical analyses, intake rates of
potentially harmful elements will be calculated as a baseline comparison with the results of
the dental and other health surveys undertaken in part 2.
7
Table 1: Sampling regime to characterise ecosystem element cycling and human dose rates of
volcanic-gas-derived elements on Ambrym Island.
Material
Inputs
Dry gas
Rainfall
Optimal1
sample
number
Analysis
Method
Reason
30 sites, 2
periods of 1
week
5 sites
F, S, Cl
Collection on moist
membrane, analysis by Ion
Chromatography
ICP-MS
Identify rates and variability of gas
input to environment
Full elemental
scan
30 sites, 2
periods of 1
week
F, S, Cl, pH
5 sites
Full elemental
scan
As many of
the 30 sites as
possible
F, S, Se,
soluble and
total
Methods reported in Cronin
et al., (1998) and Cronin and
Sharp (2002)
In conjunction with above, identify
rates and variability of volcanic input
to environment
30 sites, 3 per
site
F, S, Se
Methods reported in Cronin
et al. (1998) and Cronin and
Sharp (2002)
30 sites, 1 set
for each
animal per
site
F
Method reported in Cronin
and Sharp (2002)
Soil
30 sites
F, pH, S in:
soil solution,
water
extractable
and total
values
Methods described in Cronin
et al. (2000)
Identify content of possibly harmful
input elements entering the biosphere,
either direct to leaves or through roots.
Input into human dose-rate
Identify long-term accumulation and
uptake of F in monogastric villagedwelling animal and grazing ruminant.
Also input into human F dose-rate
calculations
Identify soil available contents of
potentially harmful elements and
assess local soils as possible water
treatment filters
Hydrosphere
Stream waters
30 sites
F, S, Cl
Ion Chromatography
5 sites
Full metal
scan
ICP-MS
Volcanic ash
Biosphere
Plant leaves
and root crops
(food crops and
others)
Swine, Cattle,
Fowl, bones,
and flesh
Rain-gauges or similar
system closed to
evaporation; analysis by Ion
Chromatography
ICP-MS
Identify other potential harmful or
significant element inputs
In conjunction with gas, identify rates
and variability of volcanic element
input to environment
Identify other potential harmful or
significant element inputs
To identify proportion of element entry
into hydrosphere and variability of
inputs
Identify outflow of other potentially
harmful elements
1
Note that the optimal sample number is unlikely to be reached in the case of volcanic ash rainfall and animal
samples.
8
2. Dental heath and associated F-survey on Ambrym
2.1 Review current studies on incidence rates and symptoms of low-level chronic fluorosis and
assemble reference materials to aid dental diagnoses. In conjunction with local health
officers, decide upon one of the most locally applicable, numerical dental-fluorosis
classification systems, based on Dean’s scale (Dean, 1934; WHO, 1987), or one of the
alternative systems (e.g. Thylstrup and Fejerskov, 1978; Horowitz et al., 1984).
2.2 In conjunction with local health officers, Malampa Provincial Council, Ambrym Island area
councils and local village leaders, design an appropriate survey regime for Ambrym. The
proposed sampling program takes into account the distribution of population on Ambrym into
three geographically separate populations, with the western population receiving regular
inputs of gas during trade-wind dominated periods. A geographic spread has been selected to
determine the most hazardous areas and the natural variation present on the island. The
proposed survey villages are listed in Table 2 with methods in each village outlined in Table
3. It should be noted that due to the strong prevalence of traditional beliefs on Ambrym that
careful negotiation will be required before surveys can be carried out in many of the villages
and changes in this list are highly probable.
Table 2: proposed target villages for the Ambrym environmental health sampling program,
demographic data sourced from Wallez (2001).
Village
Water supply
Total
Population
Population
<15 yrs
West Ambrym
Fali
Wuro
Lolibulo
Pelipetatkever
Emeltungan
Baiap
Borehole + rain
Pipe 1 (from stream)
Rain water
Rain water
Rain water
Borehole + rain
146
154
77
51
65
302
57
52
43
25
29
135
Sesevi
Sanesup
Port Vato
Lalinda
Panlenum/Maranata
Pipe 1 + rain
Pipe 2 (from stream)
Pipe 3 (from stream)
Pipe + Rain water
Rain water
351
117
199
345
104
162
56
85
151
44
East Ambrym
Endu
Asse
Paamal
Toak
Sahuot
Taviak
Pipe 4 (from stream)
Pipe (from stream)
Pipe (from stream)
Pipe (from stream)
Rain water
Pipe (from stream)
211
110
96
228
60
100
71
49
40
85
22
39
North Ambrym
Faramsu
Ranon
Linbul
Magam
Wou
Vanjevere
Konkon
Pipe 5 (from stream)
Pipe 6 (from stream)
Rain water
Rain water
Rain water
Rain water
Rain water
70
155
200
184
63
110
60
29
66
80
73
25
51
20
Past water analyses
Nov 99, rain tank, 2.8
Nov 99, rain tank, 2.45
Mar 02, rain tanks, 0.26, 1.1
Mar 02, rain tank, 0.58
Mar 02, rain tank, 1.1, pipe, 6.7
Mar 02, rain tanks, 0.5, 0.94
Mar 02, rain tank, 2.2, pipe, 2.1
Nov 99, rain tank, 1.08
9
Table 3. Proposed sampling and survey methodologies at each site in Ambrym, note that the
analyses listed in (B) overlap with those samples collected for completing part 1 of the study.
Method
(A)
Dental survey
Optimal1
sample
number
Target group
Analysis required
Aims (note, many of these will
be achieved only by comparison
between sites)
Visual inspection and
rating on numerical
scale
Visual inspection and
rating on numerical
scale
Identify low level current or
recent F excess in diet/water
Children
developing
second teeth
Adults
20
All systems
present
1-4 depending
on village
F, Cl, SO4
Identify current water supply
status
Pigs:
Cartilaginous
bone
Pigs within
village
2-5
(depending on
availability)
F
Identify long term and average
excess F intake for monogastric
animal in village
Cattle:
Cartilaginous
bone
Cattle nearby
2-5
(depending on
availability)
F
Identify long term and average
excess F intake for grazing
ruminant
Grown food
sources
Root crops and
leaf vegetables
3-5 depending
on what is
locally grown
F, Se, S
Identify other dietary sources of
F and additional risk elements
(B)
Drinking water
10
Identify past F excesses in
diet/water
1
These numbers are likely to be influenced by the number of children present and their age distribution, in some
cases it is likely that larger numbers will be examined if the village organises all children to be present. In all cases
supplementary data including ages and other health issues (such as incidence of asthma and gastric upsets) will be
collected. For pig and cattle samples, messages will be delivered a few weeks prior to the visit to collect rib-bones of
animals slaughtered for normal purposes during this period.
3. Identification of appropriate mitigation strategies
3.1 Assess the current local efforts toward drinking water monitoring across all relevant
government departments and suggest an appropriate and sustainable local monitoring
strategy.
3.2 Review international literature on low-cost technologies for filtration/adsorption of F from
water supplies, particularly methods involving low volume-throughputs and using volcanic
soil/sand adsorption. Using this information and details of the soil samples collected locally,
devlop an appropriate design for village-based F adsorption systems that can be constructed
from locally available materials at low cost.
3.3 From a compilation of the environmental chemistry surveying data of Part 1, define a policy
for sourcing the safest water supplies on Ambrym and other islands in Vanuatu.
10
Expected Outcomes
Development and humanitarian
A series of reports aimed at Vanuatu Government agencies and their development partners will
support the following expected outcomes.
•
•
•
•
•
An assessment of the environmental health hazard facing inhabitants of Ambrym Island,
including a dose-rate and impact relationship
A benchmark survey report of levels of volcanic contaminants in the human ecosystem on
Ambrym, to be used for comparison in future intensifications of volcanism and for longer
term environmental health analyses
A benchmark methodology, detailed in reports to the Vanuatu Government to facilitate
follow-up in-country based studies
Training and development of government and provincial health officers in the
identification and survey for environmental F symptoms
Recommendations and methodologies to reduce impacts of volcanic-derived elements on
human health
Scientific
At least two international peer-reviewed scientific articles are expected to result from this study,
covering part or all of the following expected outcomes.
•
•
•
A world-first assessment of local volcanic-gas-derived element human dose rates, coupled
with their impacts on health in the absence of industrial pollution
An indication of the rates and variability of volcanic element input and impact on the
environment through analysis of short, medium and long term inorganic and organic
storages
Benchmark levels of environmental F and its relationship to symptoms in humans and
animals
11
Organisation plan
The project will be carried out under the overall management of Dr Shane Cronin who will work
in conjunction with the Vanuatu Ministry of Health as well as other relevant government agencies
and the Malampa Provincial Council. Ms Rachel Crimp (MSc Student) and Mr Mike Bretherton
(Technician, specialist in F-analyses) will undertake dental survey and laboratory analytical
work, respectively, under the supervision of Dr Cronin. Three visits will be made to Vanuatu
during an 18 month period (Table 4).
Table 4. Organisation plan and milestones for Project completion
Project
stage
Period, Parts of
months program
1-18
involved
Staff involved1
Activities
Milestones
Prep.
1-3
SJC, RCrimp,
MOH
Review of background information
for chronic fluorosis diagnosis and
designing a survey template
Establishment of statistical details
for sampling methods
A review report with an illustrated
survey template for use in the field
Briefings of national-level
stakeholder groups and assessment
of efforts in various groups toward
drinking water quality monitoring
All stakeholder groups briefed and
committing human resources to
program
Report of status of drinking water
quality monitoring
Confirmation of Vila-based staff
availability to assist
Agreement on dates of visit and
confirmation of logistics (transport,
local counterparts and lodging)
1-3
A report outlining minimum
sampling strategy required for
varying degrees of confidence
Contact by letter, fax and telephone Agreed dates for visit 1 in return
MOH and other relevant agencies letter from MOH
to arrange timing of visit 1
Contact through MOH and directly Messages to Ambrym villages
to Malampa Provincial Council to warning of survey and requesting
arrange visit and pre-collection of collection of animal bone and teeth
rib and teeth samples from swine
samples
and cattle
Visit 1
Port
Vila
3
4 days
1-3
SJC, RCrimp,
MOH, Provincial
Health Officers,
nominated
technical officers
Arrangement of visit details and
permissions with Malampa
Province Council and Ambrym
Area Councils
Visit 1
Ambry
m
3
10
dayss
1-3
All field party
Briefings with Area Councils in
each of the three Areas (W, E, N)
1
SJC, RCrimp,
Area Council rep
2
All field party
Setup of gas, rain and ash
monitoring stations and sampling
plan according to Table 1
Carrying out of sampling plan
according to Table 2 and 3
3
SJC, Technical
officer, province
health officers
All field party
Carrying out of drinking water
analysis from villages visited in
above activities
Final briefings with Area Councils
to report initial findings and allay
any anxiety caused
SJC, RCrimp,
MBretherton
Arrange commercial laboratory
Report on analysis of all samples
analysis of relevant samples and
Preliminary model development for
carry out others according to Table main elements
1
1-3
Analysis 4-12
1
1
All groups informed, villages again
informed, and permission to
proceed
Stations set up and collected after
one week
All villages visited samples
collected and survey completed
(approx 1.5-2 weeks)
Water samples analysed using new
and existing equipment in Vanuatu
Meeting records and approvals from
Area Council to continue study
12
Visit 2
Port
Vila
12
4 days
2
SJC, RCrimp,
MBretherton
3
SJC, RCrimp,
MBretherton
1-3
1-2
Visit 2
10 days 1
Ambrym
Analysis 13-17
2
Analysis of relevant samples
according to Table 3 and statistical
analysis of survey data
Compare quality control water
analyses with those collected in
Vanuatu
Report on survey findings with
statistics
Preliminary risk assessment report
Report comparing results and
recommending improvements
SJC, RCrimp
Briefings of results to date with
cooperating agencies
All agencies briefed and agreeing to
be involved further
SJC, RCrimp
Arrangement of field logistics for
second visit
Confirmation of Vila-based staff
availability to assist
Agreement on dates of visit and
confirmation of logistics (transport,
local counterparts and lodging)
SJC, student and
Area Council
Set up of second-stage gas, water
and ash monitoring stations, and
collection of additional other
samples if required
Revisit to villages to inform of
results and follow up on results of
the first visit
Collection of second set of samples
after 1 week of exposure
2
All field party
1-2
SJC, RCrimp,
MBretherton
All villages revisited, additional
data collected if required
Analysis of new set of samples
Report of new sample results
Modelling of volcanic element
ecosystem cycles
Report and scientific article on
volcanic element impacts on local
ecosystem element cycles
Report and scientific article on risk
assessment of volcanic inputs to the
environment
Report and scientific article on
human impact results and
benchmark indicators
Report on recommendations to
reduce volcanic related
environmental health risks
Further analysis of environmental
data in relation to health results
Visit 3
18
4 days
1-3
SJC, RCrimp
Final briefings and reporting of
results to cooperating government
agencies in Vila
Acceptance of final reports by
cooperating agencies
Wrapup
18
1-3
SJC, RCrimp
Final wrap up of matters arising in
visit 3, preparation of final report
and submission of scientific
publications
Final report submitted to funding
agency
Publication of scientific results
13
Budget
Item
Both years
(US$)
Subtotal
(US$)
2400
1440
1200
480
600
3600
2160
1800
960
1200
9720
400
0
400
400
Analyses Part 1
Contribution to analytical
costs
4000
3000
7000
7000
Part 2 additional analyses
Contribution to analytical
costs
2000
1000
3000
3000
3000
3950
3000
3950
6000
7900
13900
16950
17070
Travel
NZ-Vanuatu
Per diem (2 pers) Port Vila
Per diem (2 pers) Ambrym
Internal flights (3 pers)
Boat and 4WD transport
Unit cost
(US$)
600/pax
120/day
30/day
160
60/day
Equipment
Rain/gas samplers
MSc Scholarship
Professional time (incl
overhead)
Total (US$)
$1975/wk
Year 1
(US$)
Year 2
(US$)
1200
720
600
480
600
34020
14
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Research 121: 271-291.
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16
CURRICULUM VITAE OF DR SHANE CRONIN
Present position: Senior Lecturer
Present employer: Massey University
Present work address:
Soil and Earth Sciences Group/Fertiliser and Lime Research Centre
Institute of Natural Resources
Ph:
06 3569099 x 7207
Private Bag 11 222
Fax: 06 3505632
Palmerston North
Email: [email protected]
Academic qualifications:
1991
BSc. Earth Science
1992
BSc.(Hons) - 1st Class
1997
Ph.D. Earth Science
Massey University
Massey University
Massey University
Years as a practising researcher: 8
Honours/distinctions/membership of societies, institutions, committees:
2004:
Keynote Lecturer to the 17th Australian Geological Congress
2000:
Alexander von Humboldt Research Fellowship (Germany)
1998:
Hochstetter Lecturer, Geological Society of New Zealand
W. Pullar Award for the most meritorious publication of 1996-7 in
tephrochronology research, Geological Society of NZ.
M.L. Leamy Award, for the most meritorious publication in New Zealand soil
science for 1998, NZ Society of Soil Science.
Royal Society of N.Z. Travel Award
1997:
N. Z. Science and Technology Post-Doctoral Fellowship (3 yrs).
Claude McCarthy fellowship to visit Mexico.
Member of: the Technical Advisory Group to the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission,
Geological Society of New Zealand, New Zealand Soil Science Society, International
Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI).
Expert Member of the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network of IAVCEI (specialisation
Fluoride)
Professional positions held:
2004-:
Senior Lecturer and Volcanic Risk Programme Leader, Institute of Natural
Resources, Massey University
2003-2004: Lecturer, Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University
2001-2003: Scientist, Abt. Vulkanologie und Petrologie, GEOMAR Forschungszentrum, Kiel,
Germany
2000-2001
Research Officer, Massey University
1997-2000
NZ Science & Technology Post Doctoral Fellow, Massey University and the
South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, Fiji.
1995-1997
Research Assistant, Massey University
Present research/professional speciality:
Research experience in: volcanology, petrology, tephrochronology, Quaternary geology,
environmental chemistry, soil science, risk management and community development studies.
Undertaken research projects in: New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu,
and Iceland
17
Number of refereed publications:
Number of significant publications not included in the above:
31
35
Selected Major Publications (in the last five years)
Cronin, S.J., Ferland, M. A., Terry, J. P. 2004: Nabukelevu volcano (Mt. Washington), Kadavu –
a source of hitherto unknown volcanic hazard in Fiji. Journal of volcanology and
geothermal research 131: 371-396.
Cronin, S.J., Gaylord, D.R., Charley, D., Wallez, S., Alloway, B., Esau, J. (in press) Participatory
methods of incorporating scientific with traditional knowledge for volcanic hazard
management on Ambae Island, Vanuatu. Bulletin of Volcanology.
Cronin, S.J., Neall, V.E., Lecointre, J.A., Hedley, M.J., Loganathan, P. 2003: Environmental
hazards of fluoride in volcanic ash: a case study from Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 121: 271-291.
Petterson, M.G., Cronin, S.J., Taylor, P.W., Tolia, D., Papabatu, A., Toba, T., Qopoto, C. (2003)
The eruptive history and volcanic hazards of Savo, Solomon Islands.
Bulletin of
Volcanology 65: 165-181.
Cronin, S.J., Sharp, D.S. (2002) Environmental impacts on health from continuous volcanic
activity at Yasur (Tanna) and Ambrym, Vanuatu. International Journal of Environmental
Health Research 12: 109-123.
Cronin, S.J., Neall, V.E. (2001) Holocene volcanic geology, volcanic hazard and risk on Taveuni,
Fiji. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 44: 417-437.
Cronin, S.J., Bebbington, M., Lai, C.D. (2001) A Probabilistic assessment of eruption recurrence
on Taveuni volcano, Fiji. Bulletin of Volcanology 63: 274-289.
Cronin, S.J., Neall, V.E. 2000. Impacts of volcanism on pre-European inhabitants of Taveuni,
Fiji. Bulletin of Volcanology 62: 199-213.
Cronin, S.J., Neall, V.E., Lecointre, J.A. and Palmer, A.S. 1999. Dynamic interactions between
lahars and stream flow: a case study from Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand. Geological
Society of America Bulletin 111: 28-38.
Major achievements in commercial, social and environmental areas
- Programme Leader of 6-yr $4.25 million NZ Foundation for Research Science and
Technology, Public Good Science and Technology Program “Learning to Live with Volcanic
Risk” (2004-2010).
- Leader of 5 developmental projects in the area of volcanic risk management in Fiji, Tonga,
Samoa, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, for NZODA, UNDP, and SOPAC.
- Leader of an ongoing UNESCO-South Pacific program (2000-present) in disaster
management education for rural communities in the developing nations of Fiji and Vanuatu.
Demonstration of relationships with end-users.
- Closely cooperated with industry and regional authority user groups to develop FRST-PGST
research program aims for “Learning to live with Volcanic Risk” program.
- Repeatedly consulted in the areas of emergency management, risk management and resource
management in the SW Pacific by user groups such as NZAid, Shell Intl. Renewables,
SOPAC, UNDP, and the US Army.
- Experienced in close interaction with politicians, senior civil servants and diplomats of
Pacific Island Countries. I have successfully completed projects and maintained good
relationships with user groups during violent civil unrest in the Solomon Islands and Fiji.
- Leader of rapid-response programs to answer urgent end-user requests, such as: animal health
impacts of the 1995 Ruapehu ash falls, and damage and health impact assessment of the June
2003 eruption of Lopevi Volcano in Vanuatu.
18
Curriculum Vitae of Ms Rachel Crimp
Present work address:
Soil and Earth Sciences Group/Fertiliser and Lime Research Centre
Institute of Natural Resources
Ph:
06 3569099
Private Bag 11 222
Fax: 06 3505632
Palmerston North
Email: [email protected]
Academic qualifications:
1991
BSc. Earth Science
1992
Diploma in Nursing
1993
Registered professional nurse
Massey University
Wellington Polytechnic School of Nursing
University of the State of New York, USA
Years as a practising researcher: 1
Professional positions held:
2004-:
Masters of Science Student, Institute of Natural Resources, Massey
University
2003-04
Registered Nurse (Agency) - Paediatric Ward Derby Regional
Hospital, Western Australia, Australia
2002
Registered Nurse (Agency) - Paediatric Ward, Mt Isa Base Hospital
Queensland, Australia
2001
Registered Nurse - Paediatric Ward, Katherine District Hospital
Northern Territory, Australia
1999-2000
Registered Nurse - Paediatric Ward, Healthcare Hawke’s Bay
Hastings, New Zealand
1999
Registered Nurse (Agency), Waiouru Army Base Hospital
Waiouru, New Zealand
1995-98
Registered Nurse - Paediatric Ward, St Bartholomew’s Hospital
London, England
1993-95
Registered Nurse - Paediatric Ward, Kenepuru Hospital, Porirua,
New Zealand
1993
Registered Nurse - Casual Pool, Kenepuru Hospital, Porirua,
New Zealand
1993
Registered Nurse/Carer, Manawatu Nurses Bureau, Palmerston
North, New Zealand
Present research/professional speciality:
Environmental Health
Conferences/other training attended
1998
ENB 998: Teaching and Assessing English National Board, England
1999
Hauora Tangata: Trends in Maori Health (200 level paper)
Massey University, New Zealand
Nov 2001
Communication Counts (1 day conference), Darwin, Australia
Mar 2002
Indigenous Child Health (2 day conference), Coolangatta, Australia
2002
Greek Language – Level I, Athens Centre, Greece
Oct 2003
Association for the Welfare of Child Health (2 day conference), Sydney, Australia
2003
Greek Language – Level II, Athens Centre, Greece
19
Achievements in social and cultural practice
The attainment of nursing registration in New Zealand includes being deemed ‘culturally
safe’. This refers to the student having an understanding of the importance and impact of
culture, and cultural history, to health and well-being.
All the hospitals I have worked in have had a predominantly multicultural client group:
-
Kenepuru Hospital in Porirua served a somewhat lower socio-economic community, with
a high Pacific Island and Maori population
Healthcare Hawke’s Bay’s District Hospital served mainly New Zealanders of Maori and
Pakeha (NZ European) descent
St Bartholomew’s Hospital in London received patients from the east end, many of these
being immigrants from Bangladesh and other countries outside the UK
Katherine, Mt Isa and Derby Hospitals in Australia are situated in outback towns; the
catchment areas cover hundreds of square kilometres to include the isolated Aboriginal
Communities whose people make up the majority of inpatients in these hospitals
20