502533
research-article2013
JAR29610.1177/0743558413502533Journal of Adolescent ResearchFidzani and Read
Article
Identity Expression and
Bedroom Personalization
by Urban Adolescents in
Botswana
Journal of Adolescent Research
2014, Vol. 29(6) 691­–715
© The Author(s) 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/0743558413502533
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Lily C. Fidzani1 and Marilyn A. Read2
Abstract
Identity expression through the design of urban adolescents’ bedrooms
in Gaborone, Botswana, was the focus of this qualitative study. Interviews
were conducted to determine the manner in which decorative and
personal items played a role in identity exploration and expression. The
findings indicated a clear interplay between personalization and identity
formation for adolescents. Identities expressed through personalization of
bedrooms were private self, gender identity, age identity, family/social identity,
and relationships; past, present, and future roles/identities; and religious identity.
In addition to these, boys clearly expressed sport identity, self-image, creative
self, and achievements through their bedroom personalization. A model is
presented that illustrates the interplay between personalization and identity
formation.
Keywords
personalization, identity development, bedrooms, adolescent positive
development, possessions
1University
2Oregon
of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
State University, Corvallis, USA
Corresponding Author:
Lily C Fidzani, Department of Family & Consumer Sciences, University of Botswana, Box
70319, Gaborone, Botswana.
Email: [email protected]
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Introduction
Adolescents often seek a place they can withdraw to, either alone or with
people they are close to, in an effort to make sense of their social lives and
the transitions they experience. One such significant place for adolescents
is their own bedrooms. The bedroom is described as a favorite private place
for adolescents where, to some extent, they are able to exercise free choice
of personal things to have and to display. Previous research has investigated the function of bedrooms (Abbott-Chapman & Robertson, 2001;
Bovill & Livingstone, 2001; James, 2001), personalization of bedrooms,
and gender preferences on decorative items by adolescents (Kamptner,
1995; Omata, 1995).
However, there was a gap in the literature that focuses on understanding
how personalization of bedrooms by adolescents is used in identity formation
and expression. This study investigated how personalization of bedrooms by
urban adolescents in Gaborone, Botswana permits self-experimentation and
self-expression during Erikson’s identity versus role confusion developmental stage. Erikson’s identity exploration and expression dimensions were
applied to the adolescents’ descriptions of their bedroom décor and possessions. Because the bedroom is a vital place for adolescents, the researchers
examined whether personal and decorative items play a role in exploring and
coping with the challenges of adolescence. Previous studies do not indicate
specifically which design features, decorative items, and personal items are
commonly required or used to explore and express identity. The main research
questions were as follows:
Research Question 1: What items are important to adolescents for identity exploration and commitment?
Research Question 2: What types of identities are expressed through the
bedroom and its contents?
Background
Studies of Adolescents’ Bedrooms in the Developed World
According to Steele and Brown (1995), we create our own place by what we
bring to it because possessions do not exist independent to us. The bedroom
allows adolescents to experiment with their possible and real self. Western
adolescents’ bedroom spaces are used for leisure and recreational activities
(Abbott-Chapman & Robertson, 2001; James, 2001), media use (Bovill &
Livingstone, 2001), and territorial use (Omata, 1995). Omata (1995) found
that Japanese adolescents prefer the bedroom as a social and private place
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for safe seclusion, where they can withdraw and contemplate as a process of
self-construction. The adolescents used their rooms to be alone for complete
isolation from others and to think about important personal issues. Bedrooms
allow Finnish adolescents to deal with positive and negative experiences
such as clearing one’s mind, dealing with threatening and negative experiences, disappointments and rejections, conflicts and arguments, or positive
and supportive experiences (Korpela, 1992). Australian (Abbott-Chapman
& Robertson, 2001) and European adolescents (Bovill & Livingstone, 2001)
were found to spend at least half of the time they were at home in their bedrooms with girls spending more time there than boys. Australian girls used
their bedrooms for various leisure activities such as exercising, lying or
relaxing on the bed, writing, talking on the phone, reading books and magazines, listening to music, and/or watching television. The bedroom provided
a safe get away from public scrutiny and ridicule by peers for the girls
(James, 2001).
Bedroom personalization is not only about arranging furniture and displaying possessions, but also having personal possessions, “which affords
privacy, refuge, security, continuity, a medium for personalization and selfrepresentation, and a venue for regulated social interactions” with individuals
(Gosling, Craik, Martin, & Pryor, 2005, p. 52). James (2001) found that
Australian girls used memorabilia items showing their past and present personalities that were child-like and adult-like illustrating their transitional
stage. For example, they had adolescent-like items such as pictures and wall
posters of pop-culture stars as well as child-like items such as teddy bears,
trophies, and frilly bedspreads. European adolescent’s bedrooms were well
equipped with media items including computers, radios, television/computerlinked games, and so on. Such media enriches their development and provides various opportunities and different types of leisure activities. The
media products were used to express individual and collective styles (Bovill
& Livingstone, 2001).
Kamptner’s (1995) findings suggest that treasured possessions were not
just passive objects for 14- to 18-year-old high school American adolescents’
but that they had important meanings for them. Treasured possessions had a
utilitarian meaning by having a functional property, providing independence,
and filling a need; social meaning by presenting interpersonal qualities and
family ties that are a reminder of special people; memory meaning by representing a specific place or person; enjoyment meaning by providing good
feeling, comfort, and relaxation; intrinsic quality meaning providing irreplaceability, uniqueness, and style properties of possessions; and self meaning which expressed personal history and represent the owner. The use of
childhood possessions was found to decline with age, yet still had psychological meaning for females (Kamptner, 1995).
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Research shows that adolescent girls spend more time in their bedrooms
than do boys. For girls, this is a period of emotional and physical turbulence
whereby the bedroom is a safe place to deal with changes that are happening,
such as body image and personality dimensions (James, 2001). James (2001)
found that Australian girls avoided general activity or going to public places
because they believed others ridiculed and scrutinized their physical appearance. The bedroom provided a place of refuge to freely express their emotions compared with publicly displaying their emotions and facing potential
criticism. To boys, bedrooms were simply used to “waste” free time (James,
2001; Omata, 1995). Jones, Taylor, Dick, Singh, and Cook (2007) found
that American eighth- and ninth-grade (13- to 15-year-olds) adolescents differed on preferences of bedroom design and contents. Boys preferred more
masculine designs, more sports-related items, and more construction and
building activities while girls had a mixture of feminine and masculine items
(Jones et al., 2007).
Taylor (2005) examined American adolescents’ development and how it
relates to bedroom design choices in terms of influences, preference interaction, activity, and acceptance. Girls participated more in buying bedroom
items than did boys. There was a greater variety of decorative items in the
girls’ bedrooms than those in the boys’ bedrooms. Developmental differences, in relation to pubertal status and grade level (eighth and ninth grade),
were identified for both sexes in terms of functional and personal item preferences of decorative items. This implied that adolescents’ developmental
stage/level influenced choices made for bedroom decoration. The design of
the bedroom and activity was found to be influenced mainly by friends,
whereas parents were not associated with many preferences.
In a study on American adolescents’ bedrooms and identity developed
from media use, Steele and Brown (1995) found that media in the adolescents’ bedroom formed an important part of their daily life. Their daily interaction with the media shapes their identity and what they want to be as they
continually construct their identity. Media allows them to find their place in
the larger culture. Gender and race influenced the selection of media by the
adolescents. For example, boys preferred sports-related media over other
types of media. Interacting with their media allowed them to have or apply
lived experiences that are close to their reality. Larson (1995) found that
Western (European American) adolescents increasingly prefer solitary use of
media especially in their bedrooms. This behavior is part of exploring their
private and/or possible self. The majority listen to music privately and have
televisions in their bedrooms for solitary viewing, which gives them personal
choice of what they watch. The media in the bedroom is also used to deal
with and meet the emotional needs such as being in a depressed state, or coping with anxiety or stress.
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Adolescents’ Bedrooms in the African Home
In Africa, home is the central place of socialization whereby gender roles,
social and economic skills, functions and/or activities are observed and
learnt. Home space was and is divided according to gender and generation of
the household (Chipeta, 2005). Spaces and areas where women and men
spend time is an indicator of power, roles/activities, social relations and interactions. Specific spaces have fixed boundary markers that define who should
or should not be in a certain place. Chipeta (2005) found that Malawian girls’
use of and access to the space, especially in urban areas, was based on household chores they performed. Adolescent girls are not permitted to enter their
parents’ bedroom especially when the father is present (Chipeta, 2005).
Spatial relations are important for maintaining age and gender appropriate
behavior that is, displaying expected behaviors in a specific space or place. In
an African compound, the use of domestic space includes “basic manners as
who sits where (on the floor, on a stool, on a chair), who eats when, with
whom, and where, who does which chores” (Pellow, 1992, p. 190). For
example, men sit on a chair or stool and women sit on the floor on a mat.
According to Kayongo-Male and Onyango (1986), in Africa, “pre-colonial housing was better adapted to family needs and related well to local
environmental problems and resources” (p. 36). In the rural Setswana context, a family compound (known as lolwapa) consists of several separate
individual (or nonattached) units/houses that serve different functions, for
example, kitchen, bedroom, living room, and so on. The compound served
functional and social purposes, which reflected traditions and customs, for
example, farming and family event activities such as weddings. A typical
urban low-income and middle-income house in Botswana consists of a sitting
room, a kitchen, a bathroom, and two bedrooms (Grant & Grant, 1995;
Larsson, 1988).
In a study of four villages in Botswana, Larsson and Larsson (1984) found
that the traditional items or furniture in the children’s or adolescent’s bedrooms included ox-hides or woven grass mats. Traditionally, children commonly slept on the floor using the mats while adults slept on wooded beds
that were folded away during the daytime. Other furniture included wooden
and hide seat chairs. Later modern elements were added such as wooden
beds, wardrobes, and trunks to store clothes. In terms of the sleeping arrangements, young children (below 6 years) slept with their parents in the same
house/bedroom (which was a separate unit and allocated as a bedroom). In
preadolescence, the girls and boys slept in a separate house/bedroom normally with an older person (e.g., a grandmother). During adolescence, boys
and girls usually slept in separate bedrooms either single or mixed gender
depending on availability of rooms. In Botswana and Malawi, in rural areas
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and low-income housing in urban areas, bedrooms were generally shared
with siblings and cousins as part of the collectivist culture (Chipeta, 2005;
Larsson, 1988; Larsson & Larsson, 1984).
Modernization, a reduction in the size of families, the change in the
composition of families, and the movement from a collectivist style of living to an individualistic style of living have changed how space is used,
sleeping arrangements, and bedroom furniture, particularly in urban areas
in Botswana where some children find themselves having their own bedrooms (Gwebu, 2003).
The Current Study
Socialization of Adolescents in Botswana
The Setswana culture is the dominant culture in Botswana. It defines a child’s
expectations, child-rearing practices, expected values, and beliefs. Cultural
expectations determine daily-living practices (e.g., chores), interactions with
others (peers and elders), interactions with objects around them, and their
home environment. Like most African cultures, the Setswana culture is characterized by the collectivist practices including socialization. Besides the parents and peer groups, in Africa, socialization is the responsibility of the whole
community (any adult), older siblings, and grandparents (Nsamenang, 2002);
hence the saying—It takes a village to raise a child.
According to Nsamenang (2002), in the African context there are clear
differences in socialization or cultural experiences between rural and urban
adolescents as a result of dissimilar opportunities, practices, and perceptions
by the adolescents. In Botswana’s rural areas, children and adolescents
largely spend time with parents at home and learning necessary skills by
observing, imitating, and participating in cultural activities and chores. In
urban areas, the role is mainly left to schools and house helpers and the children are excluded from parents’ work because it is located outside of the
home (Losike-Sedimo, Mbongwe, & Kote, 2010). In transitioning to adulthood, African adolescents are an active agent as they construct and modify
social identities according to cultural scripts and demands at different developmental stages. In the African context, a full adult status is not attained until
one is married with children (Nsamenang, 2002).
However, the individualistic culture is quickly becoming common in
Botswana especially in urban areas due to the collapse of the extended family
and modernization. Most African cultures, including Botswana, now grapple
with behavioral change and acculturation experienced by adolescents as a
result of colonization, modernization, commercialization, mass media, and
global culture that are overlapping with the traditional cultural experiences
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(Losike-Sedimo et al., 2010; Nsamenang, 2002). Hence, the study examined
how urban adolescents were constructing and expressing their own identities
through their personal spaces (bedrooms) and items.
Conceptual Framework
Personalization and identity concepts were used to develop the framework
for this investigation. Personalization contributed to understanding the
importance of the bedroom and its contents in identity development, identity
expression, and social well-being of the adolescents. The concept of identity
gave insight into how the quest for personal meaning influenced and was
influenced by personalization of bedrooms.
Personalization of space. William James (1981) discussed the use of physical
objects and materials people possess as a dimension of describing the self. He
refers to that type of self as a material self. Through material possessions and
objects around them, people express and communicate who they are to themselves and other people as a commitment to that identity (Weigert, Teitge, &
Teitge, 1986) and, hence the act of personalizing. According to Marcus and
Sarkissian (1984), personalization of space is the modification of or addition
to the interior or exterior environment of a house (or place) by resident(s) to
give it meaning. People need to give their dwellings a touch of uniqueness
that indicates, “this is mine; it is a reflection of me/my family; and I/we are
worthy and unique beings” (Marcus & Sarkissian, 1984, p. 63). People also
personalize the physical environment in order to define and express a sense
of territory and increase a sense of privacy (Marcus & Sarkissian, 1984).
Identity. Erik Erikson’s (1963, 1968) psychological approach with emphasis
on the adolescence stage of identity versus role confusion was used as a guide
to better understand the identity formation process. Erikson considered the
process as always changing and developing as the individual’s circle of significant others widens. He, however, left out the role of the physical world in
identity formation, that is, the place in which socialization takes place. Consequently, we developed a model to guide our research that illustrates the
interaction of the two concepts (see Figure 1).
Research Methods
A qualitative research design approach was used for an in-depth understanding of what specific identities adolescents develop through their bedroom and
its contents. Personalization was achieved by adding decorative and personal
items that were self-made and/or ready-made possessions. Renovations done
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Adolescence
Identity vs. Role
Confusion
interaction
with place
Personalization
of Bedrooms
Identity
Exploration
Identity
Formation
Identity
Struggles
Exploration +
Engagement
(through personal and
decorative items, and
socialization)
(Exploration and
Experiment with
Self)
Engagement
Identity Indicators
or Outcomes
Outcomes
Identity Change
Identity Expression
To Self and Others
(past, present, and future)
Figure 1. Bedroom personalization and identity formation.
to the bedroom, such as painting walls and changing finishes (wall, floor, and
ceiling), were considered to be part of the personalization process. We used
a narrative identity approach (Kroger, 2004) to determine how personalization promoted identity development. Narratives made it possible to capture
aspects of changing identity.
Participants
Fourteen (7 females and 7 males) adolescents were purposively selected from
three local secondary schools in Gaborone, Botswana to participate in this
study. They met the following criteria (a) not sharing their bedroom and (b)
aged 14 to 18 years. School standing was from Form 4 to Form 5. The majority (12 of 14) of the participants lived in houses owned by their parents and
most (10 of 14) lived in the medium-cost type of housing with four participants living in high-cost housing. The income for parents of 11 participants
was above Pula 10,000.00 (1 USD = Pula 6.50) per month. The disposable
monthly incomes for 56.6% of households in 2001 in Botswana as a whole,
was more than Pula 1,000 (Central Statistics Office, 2002). The 2002/2003
Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) estimated the national
mean monthly household disposable income for the country of Botswana to
be Pula 2, 425. The average monthly household consumption expenditure in
the cities/towns was Pula 3, 237 compared with Pula 2, 085 and Pula 868 for
urban villages and rural areas, respectively. Therefore, the families in our
study were considerably wealthier than the average family in Botswana.
Instruments
Three instruments administered in English (English is one of the official languages in Botswana) were used to collect data. A questionnaire was used to
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collect demographic data and background information of the participants.
Demographic questions gathered information such as gender, age, type of
housing, and home ownership. Background information included sharing status, bedroom items, redecoration period, and bedroom use. An observation
checklist was used to note the contents of the bedrooms (e.g., furniture and
furnishings) and finishes used. The semistructured questions, which guided the
in-depth interviews, focused on interior design elements and decorative items
that facilitated identity formation and expression. The three grand questions
were as follows: (a) “Who are you when you are in your bedroom?” (b) “What
is the meaning of the decorative and personal items?” and (c) “How important
are the decorative and personal items in your bedroom in expressing you?”
In qualitative research, authenticity is attained by giving fair and honest
accounts of social events (Neuman, 2006); hence, true descriptions about adolescents and their interactions with the bedrooms were presented. Credibility
was achieved by persistent observations and use of multiple methods of collecting data such as interviews, observations, and photographs of the natural
setting, that is, adolescents’ bedrooms. Member checks, which involve selection of some members from the group where information was originally collected to establish credibility, were also done through two members to confirm
the analytic categories, interpretation, and conclusions made as a true representation of the adolescents’ social realities (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).
Data Collection Procedure
The duration of the data collection period was 6 months. Gaining entry and
establishing trust and rapport was important for participants and parents who
may have trust issues with a stranger visiting their homes. After identifying
adolescents in schools, we requested permission from parents through telephone to (a) conduct interviews in private to allow adolescents freedom to
express themselves, (b) observe adolescents’ bedrooms, and (c) allow their
child to take photographs of their bedroom. Participants were clearly asked
not to change bedrooms design and decoration for our sake before data collection as it would distort their current attitudes, meanings, and identity connected to the bedroom and its contents. We initiated bedroom tours by asking
adolescents to describe them from wall to wall, center of the room, followed
by floor and ceiling. Face-to-face interviews began by asking students to
describe the meaning of bedroom contents. Probing questions were then
asked where necessary to clarify the responses. Participants borrowed a digital camera to take photographs of items that best expressed their identities.
Each observation/tour and interview took no more than 60 minutes. The discussions were recorded with a digital audio recorder and note taking was
done in case of recording errors.
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Data Interpretation
Recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and two copies were made
for analysis. Narratives were analyzed qualitatively by coding and identifying emerging themes from transcribed interviews and field notes (Neuman,
2006). In initial coding, common patterns and similarities from raw data were
underlined by carefully reading all notes in search for emerging themes.
Axial coding further reduced initially assigned codes by organizing and linking common ones to discover key analytic categories. In selective coding,
previously identified themes were merged to reduce them. Quotations from
raw data were identified to support final coded themes and interpretations we
made. Pseudonyms were used when presenting findings of the study.
Findings
Taking control of the bedroom and personalization allowed the adolescents
to explore and experiment with alternative selves or possible identities, try
out various life roles, rethink, and make life decisions and choices.
Personalization promoted exploration and feedback of who they were and/or
wanted to be, and supported personal goals and interests. The possible identity themes that emerged from the findings were private self, gender identity,
age identity, family/social identity, religious identity, past, present, and future
roles/identity, sport identity, creative self and achievements, and self-image
and self-presentation.
Emergent Themes
They express me! The objects and decorative features identified that best
expressed the self were colors (color schemes of walls, bedding, and furniture), beds, novels, Bible, stuffed animals/toys, and bedding. Other self items
were photographs and posters even though they were restricted by parents.
Participants who were mostly satisfied with how they had decorated their
bedrooms and had more liberty were more out-spoken and confident in communicating how personalized bedrooms represented the self. Taking control
of the bedroom allowed them to fully focus on exploring and expressing their
various identities. Personalization promoted exploration and feedback of
who they were and/or wanted to be, and supported personal goals and interests. Boi (girl, 17 years old) explained,
. . . my bedroom is the only space that I have in the house and it is the only space
that can express me. It is not like in the living room. I cannot go to the living room
and say let’s do this but in my room I can do that. I can express myself in my room.
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Types of Identities Expressed
Private self. All the participants indicated that the bedroom and its contents
represented the private self. The bedroom gave them an opportunity to be
away from others, thus the preference not to share. It provided an opportunity
to be free and privately experiment with other selves. Items such as heavy
and/or dark curtains provided some of the female participants the privacy
they needed. Tebogo’s (girl, 15 years) bedroom allowed her to be different
from her public self:
. . . my room is my personal space. I don’t want anybody in my space . . . even
though I am an extrovert, I am a person who likes to make noise and being around
people I am the loudest person ever. When I come to my room it is my moment to
quiet down, be alone and just keep quiet for once.
Kago (boy, 18 years old) clearly explained the reason for personalizing his
bedroom:
. . . because you have to have your own sort of identity. If it was just a plain room
it wouldn’t show who I am. It will be just like a place where anybody can be but
when you come here and you see the way I have put it up that means it is showing
who I am and not who another person is. It is just the sense of creativity and I am
showing who I am through the decoration I have put because it shows my identity
as I am, you know . . .
Gender identity. Gender identity was mainly expressed through use of color in
the bedroom, mainly represented on walls and bedding. The girliness was
described by Boi, “I love color obviously. I am a girly person so yeah pink
will do it for me. This one (cream white color on the wall) is too neutral for
me.” The purple color scheme demonstrated Tebogo’s gender identity formation process from exploration during childhood with her parents’ choice of a
pink bedroom to commitment she made during adolescence through a purple
color scheme. She said,
Ok first I will talk about the purple. You see there is pink and there is blue. These
colors have been stereotyped as pink for girls and blue for boys. Now when I was
growing up, when I was 6 to 7 I had a very pink room. It contradicted my
personality because I was never girly-girly. It is something that I just can’t do. I
spent most of my time with my father; I go camping, I go hunting, I go fishing . . .
I just did all these outdoor activities with my dad . . . So pink for me contradicted
the fact that when I was a kid I really believed that I was a boy. I had my hair cut
short and I wore these baggy pants. I will show you the photo (laughing). So for
me, as I grew older purple struck a chord as a mixture of the girl me and the boy
me. It has always stuck with me because I was really able to be girly and then as
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I grew up I shredded off the boy me. I am not a complete tomboy now . . . now for
me purple is like an in-between; in between pink and blue.
For Kabelo (boy, 17 years old), gender identity was represented in the
posters he had.
Well I like cars and I want my boys or my peers to know that I like cars because it
is like a norm for a boy teenager to like cars otherwise it will be weird not knowing
anything about cars.
For Modise (boy, 16 years old), the color blue represented his gender identity as a boy because “normally girls will go for pink and boys go for blue.”
Other participants indicated that blue was their favorite color but not because
it is related to boys. The disagreement was stated by Gaone (girl, 16 years
old) when she explained her favorite blue color. “I think that is rubbish
because color is just color. It is what appeals to you and what you like.” After
probing on the meaning of color, some males revealed a liking for pink and
other bright colors. The meaning of color was more for enjoyment and selfimage rather than representing gender.
We identified other traditional gender items that expressed gender identity
in the bedrooms. Feminine items found were stuffed animals, colorful cushions, tiaras, jewelry, and jewelry boxes. Masculine items included sport
memorabilia (e.g., medals, trophies), exercise equipment, artwork, designer
clothing and footwear, and PlayStation®. Gender-neutral items included
electronics, vanity dressing tables, furniture, religious items, trophies/medals, posters, and room finishes. There was an absence of Setswana cultural
items as part of the decoration (e.g., baskets, pottery, tapestry, animal skin
products, and other traditionally inspired art work and crafts), except for use
of earthy colors, which are typical in Setswana decoration of houses.
Age identity. When asked why their bedrooms were different from childhood
bedrooms, they indicated that it was because they were growing up. Certain
items and changes symbolized commitment to their age, growth, and development. Some of the childhood items were retained as a reminder of the
childhood memories and identities (e.g., stuffed animals and car toys). The
most significant changes made were removing some of the toys, stuffed animals, cartoon beddings, and cartoon curtains. Gaone said, “from those girl’s
magazines the stuff that I want to find out is on how I can maybe decorate my
room, maybe change it in a way that will be more comfortable and suit me,
age appropriate and stuff.” Dintle (girl, 18 years old) removed childhood
items in her bedroom as a commitment to her new age identity.
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Well, I think I am growing up, so I don’t need to be playing with dolls. Because
when I was young I used to sleep on a cot and these little beds. I used to have this
little curtains and little teddy bears, yeah those kinds of things. Now it has just
changed. My bed, my curtains, my dolls are not here anymore, my dolls, my
treasured little things . . . We had to sell some of these things because I am growing
up. I can’t have cartoon Barbie (bedding) and sleep on it.
The new color scheme, change of furniture, new bedding (without cartoon
characters), and need for bigger closets and beds was also an indication of
their development. Bigger beds were mentioned by eight participants who
were still using single beds. Even though they were comfortable, they were
considered not to be age appropriate. The rest of the participants were happy
and felt grown up with their double beds. Thabang (boy, 14 years old), who
had a double bed, explained the reason for removing his single bed and cartoon bedding from his bedroom:
I had this small bed, single bed . . . I had Bob the Builder® and Spiderman®
bedding. I was getting older and older and the Spiderman were getting too boring,
they are just for kids now. They are up there in my closets . . . I grow up and mature
and these baby things I throw them away or I give them to my little sister.
Family/social identity. Family photographs and items bought for them by family members were a symbol of family bond and family ties and, thus, represented social identity and nature of relationships with parents. The
involvement of parents was an indication of the socialization process, social
influence, and the social world, which is an important part of identity formation. For all the participants, mothers mostly dictated what was appropriate
and were more involved in purchasing bedroom items they treasured. For
some, friends influenced design choices. Good communication lines were
observed between parents and participants who indicated satisfaction and
self-representation in the bedroom decoration. Social relationships, enhanced
by parents’ support in personalizing bedrooms, were important in making
commitment to established identity. Tebogo talked about a Trophy Poem
bought by her father titled “Your Dreams are Precious” that represented personal relationship, love, and attachment toward him:
My dad is my number one person. I really want to make him happy . . . the poem
that I got from my dad, the moment I read it I think “man you have to work harder
because your dad is counting on you . . . ”
Filial and religious values influenced the manner in which many of the
participants designed their bedrooms. The values were critical in listening to
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their parents when they were asked to remove some items that went against
their family values. Modise talked about the note he was asked to remove
outside his door, which was initially influenced by friends, “For example, I
used to have the sign ‘Modise’s Room’ outside (the door) and ‘No Girls
Allowed’ so, they felt that it is not really friendly to the family so they told
me to remove it.” The Do Not Smoke posters encouraged Thabang to respect
his family values and “ . . . not to do these things in my room but to do them
anywhere else.”
Religious identity. Most of the participants mentioned expressing their religious
identity through some of the bedroom items. The Bible was an important item
that communicated religious identity. Other items were religious posters and
Rosaries. The Bible in Boi’s bedroom represented her Christian identity:
It is my place (bedroom) of comfort. It is where I go when I need space and I need
to be alone or because I am a Christian when I feel I need time alone with God, this
is where I come. I meditate here every day . . . My Bibles are there. I feel like my
Bible guides me a lot. It helps me through difficult situations. It always makes me
feel better when I read it.
The Bible expressed Modise’s religious identity, “because it is sign of my
religious beliefs. I am a Christian, so I am big believer.” Modise’s religious
beliefs influenced how he behaved and decorated his bedroom. His religious
values influenced the simplistic and clean design in his bedroom. He said, “I
am good behaved person. I wouldn’t start putting funny signs outside my
room, the door. Obviously I would not put some funny pictures as well so I
just want to put something simple yet detailed.” Thabang added that “ . . . my
Bible there, you know, I am a Christian. I sometimes go to church on
Sundays.”
Past, present, and future roles/identity. Although the participants made a commitment to growing up, they still retained some items that represented their
childhood and past identities. Childhood items were important in synthesizing and integrating earlier identification into new ones. Stuffed animals were
the main items that represented past identities and roles for girls. Dintle’s
teddy bear represented her past childhood identity. “It has always been there
ever since I was young and there is this other teddy bear, the pink one, it has
always been there ever since I was a little baby.” Gaone added,
. . . Like I said I have one from when I was a kid. The stuffed animals and the tiara
show gore (that) I am still a child at heart . . . They just remind me of who I am and
where I am coming from.
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Kago kept a childhood Barney® bag he used in Kindergarten as a memory
of his childhood and his childhood place, the U.S. Photographs on the wall
displayed who he was, is, and would be. They showed his life journey from
childhood at different ages, places, and countries with family and friends. He
said,
They are very important because they mold who I am. They make who I am and
what I am. They show different parts of my life and yeah different journeys I
have been through . . . the pictures of me in kindergarten with friends, most of
them we are still friends . . . they show a trail of where I am from and where I am
right now.
Personalized bedrooms permitted them to question, explore, and express
their present interests, ideas, goals, and beliefs. Gaone changed her childhood
bedroom to express her current identity.
What is different? Yo a lot! Like, for instance I didn’t have posters when I was a
kid. I didn’t have so many books. I had toys. I didn’t have books and magazines,
. . . I had like Barbies®, no mirrors no chairs. Just the small chair for kids; that’s
all I had. I didn’t have magazines I didn’t have pictures of myself. I was just a kid
. . . It expresses who I am now and where I am coming from. So it’s better to move
with the times. So to make it more me now not me when I was a kid.
The main current role or identity they were expressing was not only of a
student, but of a dedicated student. The student identity was expressed by
participants who were more involved and free to personalize their bedrooms.
It was expressed through school books, timetables on the wall, book shelves,
and study tables in their bedrooms. The study table was discussed as an
important item that supported them to carry out their student role efficiently.
The report card Tebogo put up on the wall above the Poem Trophy illustrated
her role as a hard working student:
Ok my study books because that is what my life is about, studying. Yes, I have to
work harder than anyone else . . . I like my study table because I study a lot. When
I was younger I didn’t have a study table and I studied on my bed so that put a real
strain. You will be studying the next thing you are sleeping so now I can stay up
longer and study in a more comfortable position.
Boys were well established to chosen future roles and identities that they
started developing and exploring in their bedrooms. Kago was committed
to his future career through books he was reading and posters of politicians.
He said,
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I want to do Political Science and Political Analysis le bo (and) Human Rights
Law, so mostly people who are very influential in politics or something they are an
influence to me. Like the book I am reading about Magang (a local Political figure
in Botswana) . . . So everything in there is on politics. He is not there (pointing to
Barack Obama’s poster) just because everybody loves him just because he is the
first US Black president; for me it is for the political side . . . you don’t find
pictures of strange people except for Obama because that is the reason for having
him . . .
Modise’s art work represented his future role and identity.
My art work as well. As I have said, it shows gore (that) I really have great
ambitions. It is just something I have to keep and cherish up until in the future . . .
in order for me to know what the future has in store for me.
Technological items allowed three male participants to explore potential
future career identities or roles. Kabelo (boy, 17 years old), Tumo (boy, 17
years old), and Thapelo (boy, 18 years old) wanted to venture into music
production; therefore the computers provided the opportunity to explore and
develop that role. Kabelo said, “I am into music production now . . . It (computer) keeps me here even after hours. After midnight I am always staring
either watching movies on the PC or making music.”
Sport identity. Sport was an important part of only the male participants’ identity because it defined who they were. Sport identity was expressed through
posters and technological items such as computers, televisions, and video
games. Posters on Kabelo’s wall and his special green soccer boots expressed
his interests and identity as a sport person. His computer and watching soccer
games on it was important in improving his football skills. “Nowadays I
don’t really watch movies that much. I only watch them when we have a holiday but just making music and watching soccer games to perfect my skill. I
normally watch soccer videos on my PC.” Posters were used to express
Kago’s identity as a sports person. His passion for rugby was displayed
through displayed rugby posters.
First thing when you enter my bedroom on the front door is the rugby poster . . .
Most presumably it would say here is a rugby player . . . As you can see on one
side (of the wall) is a bunch of rugby posters for the Springboks and Botswana
Rugby team. I play rugby and I play for the under 18 for Botswana . . . posters of
rugby showing off what my personal interest is and what I like to do.
Thabang and Modise had trophies and medals, respectively, that represented their interests in soccer. For Kabelo and Thabang, displayed green
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Nike® soccer boots and favorite soccer team shirts were an indication of their
interest and infatuation with soccer. Thabang, who was being modest about
his soccer skills, said,
. . . my new soccer boots (green boots placed on the side table). That is how I get
a picture of my bedroom, with my new soccer boots . . . My soccer trophy shows
gore (that) I think I know soccer. Yes I like soccer . . .
Creative self and achievements. Most of the male participants discussed their
creative self and achievements in music, art, and sports which were displayed
through trophies, medals, designer soccer boots, pieces of art work, music
produced, and displayed awarded certificates. Electronics, such as televisions
and computers, were important in perfecting and expressing their skills.
Thapelo, Thabiso (boy, 15 years old), and Kabelo discussed their creativity
and achievements in music. Thapelo proudly shared the CD he produced.
Kabelo was committed to his music and expressed his identity as a music
producer:
. . . The computer, it expresses my interests in music, even the surround system
which is linked to the computer . . . yeah as well as the headset or headphone which
got the mike (microphone). It shows that I am producer or DJ yeah either way . . .
Thapelo had a poster of a musician who was an influence on his interests
and venture in music. “That poster over there has something to do with music
ya ga (of) Jubejube (musician). Gape (Also) the way he has influenced me in
the sense that he was a young guy who made in music.” He described himself
as a “very artistic person.” Modise described his medals and art work, which
were the best part of his collection, as “a symbol of my achievements, my
hard work . . . as a symbol of what I am able to do.” His medals represented
and expressed his identity as an athletic and a soccer player. The art work on
the wall described him as an artist. “ . . . My art work as well. As I have said
it shows gore (that) I really have great ambitions. I like art . . . ”
Self-image and self-presentation. Self-image and self-presentation to others
was important to male participants. Looking good and smelling good was
imperative to them. The items in the bedroom were also important to express
identity and interests for others to better understand who they were. Friends
and peers were the main social group they wanted to relate to via identity
expression. Modise explained the reason for decorating his bedroom rather
than leaving it plain. “I think it is because people can also see and admire
your things so that they can have a better picture of you.”
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The designer clothes and perfumes were essential in displaying self-image
and self-presentation to others. It was important to always look smart and be
well dressed to impress, express, and present a certain image to others. The
vanity table and perfumes were essential for Thapelo to keep an image of a
well-groomed person who loves himself. Thabang’s perfumes, shoes, and
shiny watches were important in presenting an image of a clean person to
impress friends, “ . . . I like to keep myself clean . . . I like smelling good, I
like wearing shiny things . . . ” Kabelo, who didn’t like to follow trends, used
his clothes to represent his uniqueness. His exercise equipment was to impress
the girls, whereas the computer and music system were used to impress the
boys. He said,
. . . I really like my clothing. It really reflects who I am, the person that I am . . I
like dressing formally, like you can see those ties over there . . . I like to be
unique… almost every person who is my age at the moment got a pair of Air
Forces but I decided to take these ones because I don’t being like any other person.
I like being unique. Even these soccer boots, they look weird (referring to green
Nike® soccer boots) they look like some snake. What I like them is that they are
unique. You will never see them anywhere again because of the color . . . I want to
show my friends who I really am because out there they know me as someone who
really like his clothing who likes himself so I wouldn’t want them having a wrong
impression about who really am I.
Two participants used for member check (one boy and one girl) confirmed the absence of cultural items in their bedrooms. Dintle simply didn’t
like them. Traditional items were considered not to be “cool” by peers or
“embarrassing,” hence not having them in the bedroom. Other reasons presented were to impress others (with Western-style items), and modern lifestyles. They reported that culture was experienced in other ways such as
traditional music, food, poetry, colors, cultural readings, and clothes. These
items were easy to share in privacy only with peers who appreciated them.
However, they both clearly emphasized the importance of their culture.
Kabelo indicated that cultural influence from his parents, who emphasized
appropriate “cultural beliefs, customs, and tradition” on the restrictions
they applied on him, was necessary to mold him into a typical Motswana
child. Kabelo said, “ . . . it does not mean we don’t value our culture.
We do, but we befriend people who don’t care about culture and it is
embarrassing.”
Identity struggles. Female participants with less personalized bedrooms tended
to indicate struggles with their identity. They found it difficult to communicate their identity, especially future selves, because they struggled with career
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choices. Lebo had put posters and graphics that were important in constructing and exploring her interests in graphic design. Although personalization
was critical to exploring her possible career as a graphic designer, other factors were a constraint in committing to her career choice. When probed further, she explained the crises she was experiencing, “ . . . I used them like as
an inspiration. Not too sure now because I struggle with art and with doing
logo designs and graphic designs and things. So I decided that it is not my
thing.”
Two participants found it difficult to express themselves because their
bedrooms were heavily influenced by parents; hence, they considered the
items to be unrepresentative of who they were. The unwanted items and lack
of making decorative choices hindered self-exploration for them. Dintle was
not happy that her bedroom did not express who she was, especially that her
friends’ bedrooms were nicer than hers. She explained that she did not like
the wall colors, bedding, old-fashioned curtains because they were her mother’s choice but not hers. She said, “right now it doesn’t express anything
about me because it is not my choice for my room to be this way. Some of
these things are not really my choice.” The walls were bare (no posters or
pictures) because her mother didn’t want her to get them dirty. The bedroom
only had a bed and a small table but she wished for more personal items if she
was allowed. Dintle said, “I will buy a bedroom suite, change the curtains to
pink because that is my color, change the colors of the wall, and doing a little
bit of decoration, changing here and there.” She indicated struggling with
career choices despite her completion of high school.
Discussion
The study investigated whether personalization of bedrooms by urban adolescents in Gaborone, Botswana permits self-experimentation and identity
exploration by applying Erikson’s identity formation. The main finding was
that personalization of bedrooms allowed the adolescents to explore and
express their identities.
Objects and possessions used for personalization of bedrooms were more
important for identity exploration rather than basic functional purposes.
However, utilitarian or functional aspects of the bedroom items supported
activities that provided feedback on who they were and what they could do,
which is similar to Kamptner’s (1995) findings. The items served as tools to
accomplish tasks and roles they needed to explore and to express their identities. Wallendorf and Arnould’s (1988) found that selection of favorite objects
was not based on their functionality or performance but on personal memories and symbolic meaning. They found that favorite objects provided cues
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for self-expression and self-concept aspects such as age, gender, and cultural
background.
According to Berzonsky and Kuk (2000), engaging in more self-exploration
prepares individuals in undertaking more in self-directed tasks and manners.
Different identities expressed through bedroom items were identified. The
freedom to personalize bedrooms allowed for exploration and more connection with their identities, that is, where they are coming from (past roles/self),
where they are now (current roles/self), and where they are going in life
(future roles/self; Kleine, Kleine, & Allen, 1995).
The adolescents had discarded childhood and past identifications by getting rid of the related items. However, some of the childhood items were kept
as representation of their past identity. Such items are a way of “storing the
memories and feelings that attach our sense of past” (Belk, 1988, p. 148).
According to Kroger (2004) childhood items are important in synthesizing
and integrating earlier identification into new ones; hence retained childhood
items gave the adolescents a sense of understanding of who they used to be
and who they are now.
Most of the items in the adolescents’ bedrooms represented current roles/
identities. The main current role/identity was of being a student. Other current roles/identities they expressed were family/social identity, religious
identity, gender identity, and age identity. Although some of the adolescents
had already started exploring future roles, identity struggles for such roles
was common among those with less personalized bedrooms attributed to lack
of exploration through personalization; hence they focused more on current
roles.
An obvious absence was lack of cultural identity because of missing cultural items. Cultural identity in this case refers to Setswana culture because
they are Batswana children. Preference of Western-style (European and
North American influence) items was confirmed during member check. It is
possible that through extensive use of Western-style items adolescents were
integrating and/or developing new cultural identities (Wallendorf & Arnould,
1988). Alternatively, use of Western materials might be part of the identity
struggles because they are still exploring and establishing who they are amid
a multicultural exposure and the situation might be temporary. Mass media,
social relationships outside family, and intercultural exposure might play a
role in adopting new cultural identities (Kroger, 2004; Wallendorf & Arnould,
1988). It was confirmed during member check that cultural items were shared
privately with peers in order to avoid possible criticism of their preference
over Western items which were popular among the adolescents. Currently,
cultural (Setswana) items (e.g., baskets, pottery, tapestry, animal skin products, grass or hides mats, and traditionally inspired art work and crafts) seem
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Fidzani and Read
Identity
Formation
Adolescence
Identity vs. Role
Confusion
•
•
•
•
•
Goals
Interests
Values
Beliefs etc.
Influences e.g.
peers, family,
religion/culture
interaction
with place
Personalization
of Bedrooms
(Exploration and
Experiment with
Self)
Exploration +
Engagement
(through personal and
decorative items, and
socialization)
Identity
Exploration
Identity
Struggles
Engagement
Identity Change
Identity Expression
To Self and Others
•
•
Provided and Indicated:
• Creativity
• Sense of Security
• Sense of Identity and Self
Expression
• Place Control
• Social Links / Ties
• Goal Achievement
•
•
Outcomes
Outcomes
•
•
•
•
•
(past, present, and future)
Private Self (e.g. heavy curtains)
Social Identity – family, friends, and
romantic relationships (e.g. pictures,
items from others etc.)
Past, Current & Future Roles/Identity
(e.g. childhood items, hobby tools,
posters, books, etc.)
Religious Identity (e.g. Bible, pictures,
paintings, images etc.)
Gender Identity (e.g. color choices,
gender specific gender items etc.)
Age Identity (e.g. bed, bedding, stuffed
animals etc.)
Sport Identity (e.g. posters, medals,
clothing, sport memorabilia etc.
Self Image (e.g. clothing, shoes,
jewelry etc.)
Achievements and Creativity (e.g.
trophies, medals, sport memorabilia,
certificates etc.)
Figure 2. Bedroom personalization and identity formation interplay.
to serve a more decorative purpose rather than a functional one especially in
homes in urban areas, hence the surprise in still not finding them in the
bedrooms.
Model of Bedroom Personalization and Identity Formation
The findings are summarized in a model (Figure 2) demonstrating the interplay of personalized bedrooms and developing and expressing identity.
Adolescents’ goals, values, interests, and need for identity exploration and
expression were highly influential on how they interacted with and personalized their bedrooms. Identity determined activities and personal/decorative
items to put or remove at specific times of identity changes. Through the
items, adolescents were able to discard some of the past identities/roles,
express current identities and explore future roles as part of identity development. Identity expression and personalization are intertwined because they
are indicators and outcomes related to our creativity, sense of security, social
ties, goal achievement, emotional bond, and place control.
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To ensure positive identity development, a large degree of support and
flexibility by parents on personalization of bedrooms by adolescents is crucial. Parents’ involvement and encouragement in the personalization process
can be vital in keeping up with and knowing their children’s interest, goals,
values they can nurture and foresee the crises they are experiencing. Supported
personalization can be a foundation for building positive parent-child relationship that will allow parents to assess and discuss with the adolescents
what they see in the bedrooms to better understand them.
Context and Limitations
The main context that may have affected the findings was that participants
may not have had the liberty to purchase their favored decorative items.
Choices were mainly affected by parental control and parental preferences
rather than by money. The context was true more for girls than boys. Girls
wanted to please their parents by accepting their choices. The boys felt more
in control of how they decorated their bedrooms with few exceptions of
agreeing to remove things that were not friendly to the family. Cultural experiences of the adolescents provided context on how they interpreted the
meaning and value of personalization items. The outcomes may be different
in another culture. The small sample size and the significant wealth of the
families were limitations of this study.
Future Research and Recommendations
Future research should investigate personalization by sharing adolescents
and capture how individuals with different personalities, interests, and goals
explore and negotiate who they are in a shared space. A longitudinal study
may bring better insight into whether personalization changes with identity
or vice versa. In future, personalization by low-income adolescents should be
investigated to determine whether they personalize their bedrooms similarly
or differently from middle-income adolescents. Future research can clarify
and answer the following questions: How do sharing adolescents manage
personalization and negotiate identity exploration? How do parental restrictions on personalization of bedrooms hinder identity formation? Can we
determine adolescents’ psychological status by studying their personalized
bedrooms? What is the impact on the adoption of new and different lifestyles
and/or cultures on adolescents from native nations on identity formation and
exploration? Clearly the design of adolescent’s bedrooms is a rich and informative area for study related to the expression of their personal identities.
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713
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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Author Biographies
Lily C. Fidzani, PhD, is an interior design lecturer at the Department of Family and
Consumer Sciences, University of Botswana. Her research interests are in human
behavior in different built (interior) environment. The focus is on the impact of housing and interior environments, personalization, and design on human development,
children and adolescents places.
Marilyn A. Read, PhD, is an associate professor of interior design in the School of
Design and Human Environment at Oregon State University. She investigates the
impact the designed environment has on children’s perception, preference, and behavior. Her research has focused specifically on color, form, and ceiling height in children’s environments.
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