Northeastern Political Science Association
Montesquieu's Complex Natural Right and Moderate Liberalism: The Roots of American
Moderation
Author(s): Paul Carrese
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Polity, Vol. 36, No. 2 (Jan., 2004), pp. 227-250
Published by: Palgrave Macmillan Journals
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Number2 * January2004
Poity * VolumeXXXVI,
Montesquieu's Complex
Natural Right and
Moderate Liberalism:
The Roots of American Moderation*
Paul Carrese
U.S. AirForceAcademy
on Montesquieu's
TheSpirit
of
Thediversity
intwentieth-century
scholarship
and balforcomplexity,
Lawshelpsto confirm
hisown appreciation
synthesis,
and practice.Thisis theoverlooked
ance in bothpoliticaltheory
meaningof
thekeyto hislabyrinthine
masterwork.
Hisliberalism
"moderation,"
soughtto
ofpoliticsand theequilibrium,
ormoderation,
dimensions
capturethemultiple
ofbalin natureand humannature.Moderation
informs
hisconstitutionalism
individual
interest
and
anced powersbutalso a naturalrightencompassing
forfellows.Readingthe entirework,as Montesquieu
humanesympathy
and complexity
provideits veryplan and
requests,revealsthatmoderation
to itsbalancingofphilosophy
coherence-from
itstitle,
to itssix-part
structure,
andpolitical
modwithhumaneletters.
Hisnaturalright
emphasizestranquillity
modernliberalism
withclassicaland medievalelements.
eration,tempering
and oftheindividual
and social
ofsuchalternatives,
Montesquieu's
synthesis
ofournature,
on recentliberaltheory
and its
dimensions
also lendsperspective
BothRawlsianand communitarian
concerns
are better
servedbya tradicritics.
tionoftheory
thatcomprehends
both,and whichbetter
capturesthecomplexity
ofAmerican
political
thought.
ofPolitical
Scienceat theU.S.AirForceAcademy,
Paul Carrese,a professor
is
authorofTheCloaking
ofPower:Montesquieu,
and
the
Rise
of
Judicial
Blackstone,
ofChicagoPress,2003)and co-editor,
Activism
withRobert
Faulkner,
(University
ofJohnMarshall's
TheLifeofGeorgeWashington:
Edition
forSchools(LibSpecial
Fund,
2000).He canbe [email protected].
erty
De I'Esprit
ofAnglo-American
des Lois (1748)engageda variety
Montesquieu's
scholarsin thetwentieth
drawn
to
its
views
on
human
constitunature,
century
tionalpolitics,
and liberalism,
and a healthy
interest
continues
amongscholars
inpapersdelivered
*Thisessayoriginated
atthe1999and2000American
Political
ScienceAssociation
a draft
was presented
attheHarvard
Political
Comments
atthesesessions,
meetings;
Colloquium.
Theory
andbythereviewers
forPolity,
haveimproved
theargument
I develophereseveral
themes
substantially.
inTheCloaking
mentioned
ofPower:Montesquieu,
andtheRiseofJudicial
Activism
Blackstone,
briefly
ofChicagoPress,
2003).
(University
228 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
RIGHT
as complicated
orconvoluted.'
Thediversity
ofviewsin
undaunted
byitsreputation
thisrediscovery
confirms
belief
thatcomplexity
wasa conMontesquieu's
indirectly
forpoliticaltheoryand practice-indirectly,
structive
since particular
principle
scholarsor schoolstendto minesome one elementof hisphilosophy
without
wholeMontesquieu
intended.
Notenoughcreditis givento the
seeingthelarger
of "moderation"
whichhe elaborated
hisphilosophy
ofcomprinciple
through
andequilibrium,
thekeytohislabyrinthine
masterwork.
Thelong-criticized
plexity
ofTheSpirit
ofLaws seekstomodify
liberalism
themulticomplexity
bycapturing
ofhumanity
farious
andpolitics,
of
butnotbyeschewing
universal
reality
principles
ofdiverse
didthink
natural
particulars.
Montesquieu
justicefora sociology
analytical simplicity
hadslighted
themultiple
dimensions
ofhumanaffairs
andtheequiinforms
hisconstitutionallibrium-the
moderation-in
Thisideaobviously
things.
ismofseparated,
balancedpowers,buthe also arguesthatmoderation
defines
and
The
laws
of
our
nature
balance
interest
natural
individual
preservation
right.
evenwhileprudent
withhumanesympathy
forone'sfellows,
judgment
recognizes
intherequirements
inparticular
ofnatural
circumstances.
variation
political
right
oftheWestern
Thisviewblendedsomemainphilosophical
alternatives
tradition,
to
dimensions
of
and
the
individual
and
social
our
nature,
tempered
sought capture
andrevolutionary
claimsofearly
Understood
someofthemoreabstract
liberalism.2
in thisway,Montesquieu's
on recentliberal
also lendsperspective
philosophy
and
its
both
Rawlsian
and
viewsin a
communitarian
critics,
theory
grounding
viewofhumannature
andpolitics.
Thedeeperaimsofcontemporary
antibroader
of
andindividualist
but
also
communitarfoundationalist
liberalism,
contemporary
servedbya tradition
ianideasofcivicdutyandcommunal
moralidentity,
arebetter
the
oftheory
thatcomprehends
bothkindsofconcerns,
andwhichbetter
captures
of
American
political
complexity
thought.
Montesquieu's
complexconceptionof naturalrightin lightof
Examining
ofmoderation
or
themesthroughout
TheSpirit
ofLaws confirms
thata principle
Hismodern
balanceanimates
hisphilosophizing
andadviceongoodgovernment.
andhisviewofnatandmedieval
liberalism
someancient
incorporates
principles,
We shouldextend
or
cannot
be
to
Locke.
uralright
reduced Hobbes,Spinoza,
sincehiscomplex
recent
of
and
Smith
to
their
French
predecessor,
analyses Hume
to
and
informed
their
efforts
blend
philosophy
Enlightenment counter-EnlightenThisapproachalsoclarifies
was theforemost
mentprinciples.3
whyMontesquieu
andCeasercitedbelow.Ingeneral
1. See,e.g.,theworksbyBerlin,
Oakeshott,
Arendt,
Shklar,
Pangle,
inMontesquieu's
Rahe
ScienceofPolitics,
ed. Carrithers,
see DavidCarrithers,
Mosher,
"Introduction,"
viewsinthatcollection.
MD:Rowman
& Littlefield,
2000),andtherangeofscholarly
(Lanham,
in"'Internal
andComRestlessness':
2. AlanGilbert
Individuality
emphasizes
philosophical
complexity
inMontesquieu,"
anddoesnot
22 (1994):45-70,
butheseesa Hegelian
Political
synthesis
Theory
munity
viewofnatural
discussMontesquieu's
right.
Univer3. See Charles
ofEnlightenment
AdamSmith
andtheVirtue
(NewYork:
Griswold,
Cambridge
ofReason(NewHaven:YaleUniversity
DavidHumeandtheProblem
sityPress,1999),andJohnDanford,
PaulCarrese 229
of theAmerican
Declaration
and 1787
influence
upon theframers
philosophic
who blendedliberalism
andmodernrepublicanism,
as wellas clasConstitution,
andclassiccommonlaw.4Suchmoderation
or balsicalphilosophy,
Christianity,
ofAmerican
ancepervades
American
constitutionalism
andshapesthecomplexity
and publicpurposeslifeand thought,
and principle,
pluralism
blending
rights
oneeleeventhough
distinct
orpolitical
schoolsofscholarship
emphasize
practice
mentofAmerica's
at theexpenseofothers.Montesquieu's
character
continuing
reexamination
of
influence
influential
orderrecommends
political
upona globally
he foundfundamental
forhumanity
theconceptsofmoderation
andnatural
right
andpolitics.
Thisphilosophy
ofmoderation
andcomplexity,
developedover31 Booksand
intheSpirit
and
605chapters
ofLaws,tendstopullscholars
towardeither
brevity
the
whole
to
a
more
view
one
simplicity-reducing
sympathetic that
element--or
to
of
risksconvolution.
andcomIndeed, graspMontesquieu's
melding individual
classical
and
modern
natural
and
universal
truth
and
natural
munity,
rights,
right
see
to
his
one
must
broader
dimensions
of
moderation.
context,
particular
principle
inhisconceptofa "spirit"
ofpolitics
Foremost
herearethecomplexity
inherent
and
in thesix-part
the largermeaninginherent
of thework.Its frequent
structure
recourse
to poetry,
andblending
ofNewtonian
witha statesman's
perdynamics
in
of
both
flux
and
reveal
a
further
coherception
principle
stabilitypolitics,
bringing
ence to a vastlandscapeofobservations.
ambitions,
Montesquieu's
philosophic
and hisfundamental
influence
uponmodernliberallife,can onlycometo light
oftheseand otheraspectsofhisworks.Understanding
his
exploration
through
at
also
us
to
our
attempt philosophical
stepoutside contemporary
complexity helps
debatesin political
to testwhether
modesof political
theory
today'sdominant
servetheirstatedaims.Theinward-looking,
anti-foundationalist
theory
effectively
stanceofRawlsian
liberalism
oroftheories
ofdeliberative
andthesimdemocracy,
stanceofcommunitarian
theories
thatseekcivicpurposeandcomskeptical
ilarly
tostandards
ofnatural
munalmeaning
without
recourse
wouldbenefit
from
justice,
a morebalanced,
andgrounded,
ofliberal
rediscovering
republicanism.
philosophy
2 vols.(NewYork:
Press,1990);see alsoPeter
1966)I,Preface,
x; seealso
Gay,TheEnlightenment,
Knopf,
332.
II:325-26,
4. See DonaldLutz,"TheRelative
ofEuropean
Writers
on LateEighteenth-Century
American
Influence
Political
Political
ScienceReview78 (1984):189-97;
JamesMuller,
"TheAmerican
American
Thought,"
in TheRevivalofConstitutionalism,
Framers'
Debtto Montesquieu,"
ed. Muller
of
(Lincoln:
University
"ANewConstitution
Nebraska
Judith
fora NewNation,"
inRedeeming
Press,1988),87-102;
Shklar,
AmericanPolitical
ed. Hoffman
andThompson
ofChicagoPress,1998),158-69.
Thought,
(Chicago:
University
as an incoherent
ofviews,"see IsaacKramnick,
"TheGreat
5. FortheAmerican
"plethora
founding
National
William
and MaryQuarterly,
3dseries45 (January
thatthe
Discussion,"
1988):3-32.Arguments
American
isprincipled
include
JamesStoner,
Common
Law andLiberalTheory:
Coke,Hobbes,
amalgam
andtheOrigins
ofAmerican
Constitutionalism
PressofKansas,1992),especially
at
(Lawrence:
University
andHansEicholz,
ofIndependence
Sentiments:
TheDeclaration
andtheJefferson176-96,
Harmonizing
Peter
ianIdea ofSelf-Government
(NewYork:
Lang,2001);see alsonote47,below.
RIGHT
230 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
I. Complexityand Spiritin Montesquieu'sPhilosophy
requiresgrasping
Montesquieu's
political
philosophy
whythe
Understanding
The
in
both
of
of
structure
and
is
and
complexity Spirit Laws,
argument,deliberate,
formorethanrhetorical
oraesthetic
work
The
has
been
as
criticized
incopurposes.
herent
sincepublication,
initsfirst
tolerance
forcomplicentury
although
greater
ledtoitsenormous
catedworksofphilosophy
andletters
influence
andwideaudiofEnlightenment,
ence.D'Alembert,
theencyclopedist
defended
theSpirit
ofLaws
thatone "mustdistinguish
disorder
from
realdisorder"
andthat
apparent
bynoting
is notobscurity."6
Thisadducesrhetorical
reasonsfora strat"voluntary
obscurity
butMontesquieu
himself
defends
hisworknotas esoteric
butas
egyofesotericism,
a complex
wholerequiring
a careful
He beginstheworkbyasking
readers
reading.
to"approve
orcondemn
thewholebook,andnotsomefewphrases,"
that
warning
ofthetruths
willnotmakethemselves
feltuntil
after
oneseesthechainthat
"many
After
linksthemtotheothers."7
thefamousanalysis
oftheEnglish
constitution
he
thanhis
deeper,or morereform-oriented,
signalshisaim to provokethoughts
wordsaloneconvey:"onemustnotalwaysso exhausta subject,thatone leaves
fora readertodo,"sincereaders
mustnotonlyreadbut"think"
(11.20).A
nothing
Noticehelateraddedisevenbolderinthisvein:"I havehadnewideas;newwords
havehadtobe foundornewmeanings
giventooldones."8
Whilemuchcan be learnedbycontextualizing
theSpirit
ofLaws inrelation
to
FranceortheEnlightenment,
thathis
Montesquieu
eighteenth-century
emphasizes
liesintheworkitself;
hisdialectical
willnot
moreover,
meaning
largely
philosophy
from
followEnlightenment
modesofdeduction
axiomatic
In thePrefprinciples.
ace he insists
thathis"genius"matchesthatofprevious
evencomphilosophers,
his
to
that
of
artists-the
of
master
Ovid;the
paring ingenuity
metamorphoses,
the
the
inventor
Daedalus;
and,
227;
epicpoetVirgil;
painter
Corregio
(Epigraph,
to
natural
or
law
in
Book
natural
231). Montesquieu's
Preface,
1,
approach
right
understood
as a standard
andlaw,resemofjusticebywhichtomeasurepolitics
bles as muchMontaigne's
as Cartesian,
deductive
rationalcomplexhumanism
6. D'Alembert,
in(Euvrescompl&tes
de Montesquieu,
ed. Masson(Paris:
"Elogede Montesquieu,"
DavidLowenthal,
"BookI ofMontesquieu's
TheSpirit
ofLaws,"American
xvii-xviii;
Nagel,1950-55),
PobliticalScienceReview53 (1959):485-98at485-86;
ThomasPangle,
ofLiberalism
Montesquieu's
Philosophy
of
ChicagoPress,1973),11-12.
(Chicago:University
7. De lEsprit
desLois,Preface,
in(Euvrescompl&tes,
2 vols.(Paris:Gallied.Caillois,
Pliade edition,
2: 229.Subsequent
references
areparenthetical,
mard,1949-51),
partoftheworkandpageinthePliciting
I havechecked
adeedition.
TheSpirit
oftheLaws,ed.Cohler
etal. (NewYork:
Cammytranslations
against
ofThomasNugent
1949[17501),
often
Press,1989)andthetranslation
(Hafner,
bridge
University
usinga
moreliteral,
precise
rendering.
in1757),2: 227-28.
8. Avertissement
de lAuteur,
Author's
Later
henotedthat
PerNote,(first
published
andmorals,
toa tale,andtolinkthewholebya
sianLetters
(1721),sought"tojoinphilosophy,
politics
chainthatissecret
unknown."
"SomeReflections
on thePersian
Letters"
and,insomefashion,
[1754],in
1: 129.
(Euvrescompl&tes,
Paul Carrese 231
theblendofancient
ism.9ThePreface
andBookI together
introduce
andmodern
in politics
and whichinform
itsspirit.
ideashe discerns
Theaim is to moderate
forpolitical
to establish
newfoundations
earlymodernefforts
philosophy
upon
ina stateofnature.LikePlato,Aristotle,
abstract
and
analysesofmanand right
afterhim,Montesquieu
the
Cicero,and Tocqueville
graspsnatural
right
through
ofhumanexperience,
foundbothinourlikely
condition
and
complexity
primitive
in large,complicated
to someone
societies.
Manystudiesreducehisphilosophy
or school,or,at theoppositeextreme,
earliermodernphilosopher
arguethathe
and historicism,
invented
natural
Theone
practically
sociology
right.'0
eschewing
The
overlooks
insistence
in
of
Laws
his
his
Spirit
upon
philoapproach
opening
the
his
while
other
overlooks
that
sophicoriginality,
earlypronouncement philos"hisownnature"
ophycan helpmanto discover
despiteerroneous
philosophies
thatobscureit(Preface,
viewfinds
230;cf.29.19).A morepromising
Montesquieu
tomodern
and
aspectsofAristotelian
purposes,
adapting
usingancient
philosophy
ina conception
modern
sourcestoforge
a newscienceofpolitics."I
Thisisevident
ofnatural
foundnotonlyintheearlycontractarian
butthroughout
right
analysis
with
His
thework,a method
thatitself
linksnatural
right complexity. viewofnatuhis
a
work
thatbeginsandendswithVirgil
ralright
unfolds
and
throughout epic,
human
in
to
a
manner
as
much
indebted
the
tradition
as
to
affairs
epic
grasps
ofnature
andpolitics
isthephilosopher-legHobbes.Theheroofthisinvestigation
whowatchesovermankind
abouthowtomoderislator
byinculcating
prudence
ate politics
andmakeitmorehumane(Preface;
1.1;24.10).
As noted,whilesomefindTheSpirit
ofLaws incoherent
or historicist,
others
of
Some
Descartes
or
reduceitto a foundational,
analytical
principle.
presence
but
of
Hobbesexistsin Montesquieu's
one
its
aims
is
to
capaciousphilosophy,
modern
The
the
excesses
of
earlier
fact
that
rationalist
he
temper
philosophy.
on moderation
untilBook29,neartheendofthereader'slong,
reserves
remarks
butrespect
notconfusion
fortheworld'scomplexcomplicated
journey,
suggests
I
it
forth
work
onlytoproveit:the
ity:"I sayit,and seemstome havebrought this
ofmoderation
thepolitical
spirit
good,likethe
oughtto be thatofthelegislator;
ofLaws.The"laws
ofournature"
inBook
andnatural
lawinSpirit
9. Montesquieu
blends
natural
right
ofHobbesandLocke;inBook26 he usestheterms
I invoke
thenatural
yetmodify
right
interchangeably
inthetitle,
is a kindofloi (750);26.6usesdroitnaturel
butloi
(chs.1,3, 5, 6, 7). In26.1droitnaturel
lawin26.3includes
anddroit
inthebody(755,757).Natural
defense"
and"natnaturelle
naturel
"natural
isa right
defense
uralmodesty"
(see 719;compare6.13).
(752;see also26.7),butin 10.2and24.6natural
andKingston
findsociology,
communitari10. Asnotedbelow,Rousseau,
Arendt,
Manent,
Hulliung,
andZuckert
at thecoreofMontesquieu's
Lowenthal,
anism,oranti-foundationalism
philosophy;
Pangle,
find
andCourtney
find
Grotius
andmodern
natural
law.See alsoMark
Hobbes;Waddicor,
Tuck,
Waddicor,
ofNatural
and thePhilosophy
Law (TheHague:Martinus
1970),16-17foranother
Montesquieu
Nijhoff,
ofscholarly
viewson Montesquieu.
typology
ofclassicalthought,
see someappropriation
11. Asnotedbelow,Aron,
andGilbert
Cohler,
Mansfield,
les lois,la liberte
he is "anancient
la nature,
andforGoyard-Fabre
Montesquieu:
amongthemoderns;"
universitaires
de France,
(Paris:Presses
1993),343.
RIGHT
232 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
chasmoralgood,is alwaysfoundbetweentwolimits"
(29.1,865).Montesquieu
andmodernpolitical
as "legislators,"
tisesbothancient
after,
philosophers
shortly
theworkhe
forsuccumbing
totheir
andprejudices"
(29.29).Throughout
"passions
ofreality
andtheneedfora dialectical,
balinsists
upontheirreducible
complexity
Theprinciple
ofhisphilosophy,
thusservesas a nonancedjudgment.
moderation,
forcomplexity.2"
oftheSpirit
ofLaws
a marker
Theseconcluding
maxims
principle,
warnabouttheinhumanity
of reducing
aboutpolitical
and moralmoderation
to singular,
foundations.
Thisdisposition
humanphenomena
produced
simplistic
inBook11thattheEnglish
from
derived
their
constitution
the
thestriking
argument
a system
ofequilibrium
andliberty
devised"intheforests."
This
medieval
Germans,
everdevised-praised
forsecuring
theliberalaimsofindividual
bestgovernment
orscience
notbyphilosophy
andtheruleoflaw-was achieved
tranquillity,
liberty,
ofhumanneedsandaspirations,
and
butthrough
a commonsenseunderstanding
ofmodofhowtoachievethemingivencircumstances
(11.6,11.8).A philosophy
inthehistorical
Booksthat
eration
also explains
hisodd use oftheterm"theory"
law thatredefines
medievalFranco-Gothic
a
close thework,a journey
through
to Books30,31). Montesquieu's
obvioflaws"(titles
philosophy
proper"theory
marked
andanti-Scholastic
views
bynon-teleological
ouslyis modernandliberal,
inintellectual
theruleoflaw,faith
ofnature
andmorals,
andbyindividual
rights,
histhree
toleration.
mainworksandreligious
andpolitical
Nonetheless,
progress,
PersianLetters
andphilosophical
thepoeticandphilosophic
(1721),thehistorical
on theRomans(1734),andhiscomplexmasterwork--comprise
a
Considerations
of
the
distortion
caused
insisto
artificial
rationalism,
by
reality
singleproject temper
orclarity.13
tenceupondemonstrability
in theSpirit
moderate
of
To graspthecomprehensive,
attempted
philosophy
rationalist
Laws one mustmovebetweenpartandwhole,betweentheseemingly
and prudence
accountofall lawinBookI andthehistorical
particularity
empha-
ThePrince(NewYork:
FreePress,1989),214ff;
alsoRaymond
12. See Harvey
Mansfield,
Aron,
Taming
inSociological
Les etapesde la pens&esociologique
tr.
1967),MainCurrents
(Paris:Gallimard,
Thought,
Judith
1968[19651),
Howard
andWeaver
27-35,
56-57,
60;Pangle,
271-73;
(NewYork:
Philosophy,
Penguin,
ComOxford
Press,1987)85,91;AnneCohler,
Shklar,
(NewYork:
Montesquieu's
Montesquieu
University
PressofKansas,1988),
andtheSpirit
ofAmerican
Constitutionalism
(Lawrence:
Politics
University
parative
66-97.
see nos.45,72,73,109,
Persian
13. Montesquieu
satirizes
Letters;
abstract,
petty
thinking
throughout
30.12(898);in
and145,in(Euvres
vol.1.See alsoSpirit
11.5(396),29.19(882-83),
128,134-37,
compl&tes,
"evenofreason;"
seeAristotle,
Nicomachean
Ethics
andextremes
11.6(407)hewarnsof"extreme"
liberty
inMontesquieu
the
see IsaiahBerlin,
1094b.On Aristotelian
(1955),inAgainst
"Montesquieu"
prudence
Melvin
ed. Hardy
260-305;
Richter,
Press,1980),130-161;
Current,
(NewYork:
Pangle,
Philosophy,
Viking
ThePoliticalTheory
of Montesquieu
(NewYork:Cambridge
Press,1977),1-19;Mansfield,
University
deMontesquieu
C. KlinckLa philosophie
dudroit
thePrince,
(Paris:Librarie
213-46;
Goyard-Fabre,
Taming
"TheInvestigation
ofthe'Character'
of
1-12;MichaelOakeshott,
sieck,1973),53-76andMontesquieu,
inMorality
andPolitics
inModern
Politics:
Modern
(NewHaven:Yale
Europe,ed. Letwin
Montesquieu,"
Liberalism:
Women
andRevolution
in
Press,1993),29-43,at36,41;andDianaSchaub,Erotic
University
MD:Rowman
& Littlefield,
Persian
Letters
1995),136-44.
(Lanham,
Montesquieu's
PaulCarrese 233
The structure
oftheworkembodiesMontesquieu's
sizedthereafter.
philosophy,
alertto partandwhole,simplicity
a kindofSocratic
and comdialectic,
reviving
and particulars.14
He in factprovides
universals
threeguideposts
forthis
plexity,
ofLaws-its title,
intosixParts,
dialectical
theSpirit
itsdivision
and
journey
through
itsepigraph
fromOvid.In BookI he summarizes
theworkbydefining
itstitlein
ofthevarious
thatcomprise
thespirit
oflaws,andindoingso capterms
"relations"
andfactforwhichhispolitical
turestheblendofprinciple
scienceis known(1.3).
orthings
intofourcategories,
thislistofrelations
Montesquieu
implicitly
separates
fourtimes,
inthreeverbalmoods.First,
laws"mustrelateto"the
byusing"relate"
"nature"
and"principle"
ofa government.
to"the
Second,laws"shouldbe related
and "thewayoflifeofthe
climate,
terrain,
physical
aspectofa country,
including
laws"shouldrelateto"the"degreeofliberty"
a constitution
can
peoples."Third,
sustainand to thereligion,
and
"inclinations,"
wealth,population,
commerce,
ofthepeople.Fourth,
moresandmanners
"lawsarerelated"
toone another,
their
of
the
the
"the
on
and
order
of
which
history, "purpose
legislator,"
things
theyare
from
allthesepoints
ofview:"I shallexamestablished."
Lawsmustbe considered
inealltheserelations:
alltogether
whatiscalledTHESPIRITOF LAWS"
theyform
in
238,
(1.3,
emphasis original).
Thislistoftopicsdoes notclearly
to thesix-part
structure
ofthe
correspond
nor
the
to
of
the
31
Books.
the
work
examines
all
these
work,
Nevertheless,
topics
relations
andthings,
a scopethatsuggests
scienceblending
a newpolitical
thenaturalscienceofBaconand Newtonwithtraditional
science.Thespirit
of
political
lawscomprises
thevariouselements
ofnature
andman'snatureintheir
relations
withvariouslaws,thentheactualandtheoretically
relations
optimal
amonglaws
the
and
social,environmental, theoretical
themselves-comprehendingpolitical,
mankind.
it
phenomenaaffecting
Understanding
politicsmeansnot analyzing
one
or
condition
but
the
idea
actual
the
web
of
ethos, complex
through
grasping
ideasand facts,thatshapeslaws,constitutions,
and civilizations.
Unlikemodern
this
of
thinks requires
sociology,
Montesquieu
study thedifferent
aspectsofman's
foranalysis
is a Newtonian
viewofman'spsychology
being,andone framework
and physiology,
howforcesand ideasactand reactwitheachother.15
observing
Thisnatural
scienceelement
ofrationality
andpsychology
explains
whyhisnotions
omitclassicalteleology,
traditional
ofthebesthumanlife,
precluding
investigations
orbestregime.
Hisanalysis
ofhumannature
andpolitics
isprescriptive,
but,inrelationto classicaland medieval
somewhat
relativist
and reductive.
The
philosophy,
newscienceofrelations
orspirit
betweensubjectivism
occupiesa middleposition
andSocratic
neither
thedistinction
between
facts
andvaluesin
teleology--adopting
14. 1emphasize
Books1-11ofSpirit
to
here,thefocusofscholarship
Montesquieu's
reducing
thought
someoneidea;chapters
3 and4 ofTheCloaking
ofPowerdiscussBooks12to31 indetail,
emphasizing
theprojects
forreform
andprudence
propound.
they
15. See Lowenthal,
"Book1,"497-98.
234 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
RIGHT
modern
socialsciencenortheuniversal
moraljudgment
ofthefirst
science,
political
withclassiAristotle's.
Thismoderate
identifies
as a modern
position
Montesquieu
cal moments.
Insteadofa lawofthehumanspirit
orThomas
soughtbyAristotle
a spirit
oflaws,thuspreparing
butnotentailing,
value-neufor,
Aquinasheanalyzes
tralsocialscience.Still,
thispolitical
thehistoricist
notion
thathuman
sciencerejects
nottomention
Nietmalleableandradically
self-transforming,
beingis essentially
zsche'snotion
thatwe arelawsuntoourselves.
Theconcepts
of"relations"
and"spirit"
inthework'stitle,
whichsugembodied
inturn
humanscience,
thedivision
oftheSpirit
comprehensive
explain
gesta newly
Scholars
often
dismiss
thissecondmajorclueaboutthework,
ofLaws intosixParts.
their
own.'6Thisstructure
either
reinforces
planormaking
Montesquieu's
ignoring
inhisphilosophy,
andmoderation
andsuggests
whytheunderstanding
complexity
inBookI ultimately
andrationalist.
PartI (BooksI to
ofnatural
isnotabstract
right
lawsingeneral
andthenhumanor political
lawsas derived
from
the
8) discusses
orruling
structure
ormotive
forces
ofthethree
basictypes
and"principle"
"nature"
scientists
thisdiscussion,
ofgovernments
since
(2.1;3.1).Recent
political
recognize
andreformulates
them.Bytheend
itsurveys
traditional
modesofpolitical
analysis
thatthecrucialdistinction
forhispolitiofBook3 Montesquieu
however,
indicates,
ariscal scienceis notbetweenthree(orfour)typesofgovernment---democracy,
and despoticgovernand despotism-but
betweenmoderate
monarchy,
tocracy,
ments(see 3.10, title;8.8, 356; 5.14, 297). Thus,the Books thatpropound
11and 12,neveruse thenature
orprinciple
conconstitutionalism,
Montesquieu's
of
a
a
and
Book
19
a
new
the
as
basic
uses
term,
nation,
spirit"
cepts,
"general
printotheterm"political
culcipleofpolitical
predecessor
comprehensive
analysis--a
ambition
ture"(19,title;19.4).Montesquieu's
fundamental
is to re-found
political
whileutilizing
thebestofexisting
The
scienceuponnewprinciples,
approaches.
ofthegovernment
of
orwhorules,andthedefining
or
motives
structure
principle
or
relethepolitical
order-which
Aristotle's
politeia regime--are
together
suggest
oftheseandotherpolitical
vant,butlesscrucialthantheeffects
phenomena
upon
ofancient
andearly
individual
He recognizes
butdemotessuchfixtures
tranquillity.
or
natural
modernpolitical
scienceas abstract
republican
political
rights,
liberty,
while
must
educate
to
of
that
liberalism
governments
types regimes,
emphasizing
civil
to
for
moderation
in
and
life
and
avoid
and
political
despotism brutality.
provide
ofMontaigne's
humanecounselswithNewton's
scienceofmechanThisblending
hiskinder,
and
seekequiicsinforms
view
that
human
nature
natural
right
gentler
andcommunal.
andtranquillity,
moderation
bothindividual
librium
include
Erotic
16. Exceptions
136-44;
Schaub,
Liberalism,
Cohler,
Politics,
Montesquieu's
Comparative
Ancient
& Modern
11-33;and PaulRahe,Republics
Political
2, NewModes& Ordersin EarlyModern
Thethird
edition
thesixofNorth
Carolina,
1994),210-14.
(1750)restored
(ChapelHill:University
Thought
in1748:Books1to8; 9 to13;14to 19;20to23;24to26;27to31.See
omitted
bytheprinter
partstructure
4 volumes
1:I-li.
De L'Esprit
desLoix,ed.Brethe
LesBelles-Lettres,
de la Gressaye,
(Paris:
1950-61),
Soci6t6
PaulCarrese 235
Thesefundamental
ofspirit,
andtranquillity,
whichunfold
moderation,
principles
inPartI oftheSpirit
ofLaws,inturninform
theworkas a whole.Thelatter
Books
ofPart1 (Books2 to8) analyzewhether
thetraditional
andconcepts
governments
securethemoderation
andtranquillity
essential
toa humane
Part
adequately
politics.
2 (Books9 to 13)completes
thiscriticism
bothclassical
of,andtransition
beyond,
andearlymodern
liberalism
a newliberal
constipolitical
philosophy
byproposing
a discussion
ofEngland
ofpowers(Book11).
andseparation
tutionalism,
including
Sincetraditional
ofgovernment
andforms
failtoprovide
moderation
and
analyses
and having
a complexconstitutionalism
sketched
thatdoes so, Part3
tranquillity,
obstaclesto political
moderation
from
climateandter(Books14to 19)examines
rain.HereMontesquieu
inrelation
andhumannature
politics
scientifically
analyzes
to natureand history,
the
of
and
of
predominance
explaining
despotism scarcity
or
the
world
and
recorded
The
last
political
liberty tranquillity
throughout
history.
BookinthisPartinvestigates
thegeneral
ofa people,andlaunches
thesubtle,
spirit
in
education
that
and
moderation
the
remainder
ofthe
practical
prudence
occupies
work.He revisits
to
examine
the
of
and
faction
England
spirit dynamism
shapedby
itsconstitutionalism,
an analysis
thatdeeplyinfluenced
Madisonand Tocqueville,
amongothers(19.27).He launchesPart4 (Books20 to23),andthesecondhalfof
thereader'sjourney,
withan "Invocation
to theMuses"thatprepares
foradvice
aboutcommerce
and population
sows
the
and
seeds
of
modern
growth
political
and"globalization."
Part5 (Books24to26) continues
toblendtheory
and
economy
and
laws
on
tolerance
and
distinct
practice
bydiscussing
religion
defining
categories
oflaw-separating
from
lawfromlocalcustom-tosecure
civil,religious
political
bothindividual
andgeneral
order.
Theunduly
Part6 (Books27 to
liberty
neglected
examines
the
of
certain
Roman
and
French
laws
and
a new
31)
history
propounds
historical
oflaw,punctuated
on thespirit
remarks
oflaw(Book
"theory"
bygeneral
threePartsoftheworkexamine
crucialaspectsofa constitutional29). Thesefinal
ismofmoderation
andtranquillity;
from
modemcommerce
tomedieval
French
law,
inculcates
a liberalprudence
on reforming
thelawsandspirit
ofany
Montesquieu
themoresubtly
thebetter.
particular
peopleorgovernment,
The thirdinitial
thatMontesquieu
fortheSpiritofLaws,
guidepost
provides
is theepigraph,
takenfromtheMetamorstructure,
beyondthetitleand six-part
createdwithout
a
phoses of Ovid:Prolemsine matrecreatam,"Anoffspring
mother.""7
use ofpoetry
is rarely
butone mustaccount
discussed,
Montesquieu's
fortheprominent
recourse
toBook28,toancient
here,andintheepigraph
poetry
abouttransformations
of gods,nature,
and men.As thePrefaceelaborates,
his
to bothlongstanding
and novelhumanprob"genius"seeksoriginal
approaches
useofpoetsandartists
ofgivenideas
lems,andhisfrequent
bespeaksa reordering
17. Ovid,Metamorphoses,
and Goold(Cambridge,
MA:Harvard
2.553,ed. Miller
Press,
University
ofMontesquieu,
Political
319n.2,andnote24,below.
1977),I: 98-99;see Richter,
Theory
236 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
RIGHT
or political
evenwhilewearingthemantleofthings
circumstances
"classic."His
of
new political
of thecomplexinterrelations
science spirit,
and
amongnatural
harnessesEnlightenment
naturalsciencewithearlierelephenomena,
political
mentsoftheWestern
tradition.
Suchcomplexity
and
seeksto bothunderstand
theepitomeofpolitical
anddisequilibextremism,
imbalance,
opposedespotism,
forthisthreat
rium.Hisprimary
to a humane,freelifeis themoderation
remedy
availableinnatureandhumannature.
Thisinforms
hismostnotedconstireadily
tutional
of powers,fora principle
ofequilibrium
doctrine,
separation
guideshis
"So thatone cannotabusepower,itis necessary
constitution:
studyofEngland's
ofthings,
also
that,
powercheckpower"(11.4,395).Moderation
bythedisposition
informs
hisother
orfaction
well-known
suchas thepluralism
thatdefines
concepts,
freepolitics,
butwhichproduces
itsownkindsofextremism
(19.27).Lessobvious
isthattheSpirit
ofLaws as a wholeseekstoinculcate
moderation
or
philosophical
and
modesofknowing
abouthumannature
equilibrium
bydrawing
upondiverse
from
andhistory
toscienceandphilosophy,
themso as to
politics,
poetry
blending
a comprehensive
ofhumanandpolitical
capture
portrait
reality.
oftheSpirit
Thescopeandcomplexity
ofLaws embodies,
then,Montesquieu's
ofspirit,
notion
andthisideaofthemyriad
interrelations
amongphenomena
points
Theseprinciples
of
backtomoderation.
bindthemanyParts,
Books,andchapters
and
a workthatboldlyproclaims
to comprehend
"theinfinite
of
laws
diversity
ofall nations"(Preface,
mores"amongmenand "thehistories
229). SinceMonthat
the
of
and
of
hispolitical
sciannounces
true
tesquieuultimately
spirit laws,
how
of
is
one
must
this
such
core
ideas
ence, moderation,
grasp
principle
shapes
as natural
and
hisphilosophy
constitutionalism.
right
II. Moderation,Humane Letters,
and a NewScience of Politics
moralvirtue
demotes
andinternal
ethical
Montesquieu's
conceptofmoderation
so as tocomprehend
the
central
toclassicalandChristian
ethics,
balance,concepts
ideasandactionsofhumanlife.Hismostgeneral
formulation
ofmoderamyriad
orideas.
as a quasi-Newtonian
betweenbodies,forces,
tionis "spirit"
equilibrium
ofeachgovernment
"relation
betweenthelawsandtheprinciple"
Thus,thecorrect
initsturn,
a
andtheprinciple
all thesprings
ofthegovernment;
"strains
receives,
anactionisalwaysfollowed
newforce.
Itisinthesamewayas,inphysical
motion,
ideas
relations
however,
(5.1,273).Often,
amonghumansandtheir
bya reaction"
is one wayof
and Montesquieu's
recourse
to poetry
cannotbe defined
so starkly,
of
intheParlement
Hispredecessor
as a counselor
tophysics.
analogies
tempering
eventhough,
as withLocke,he
thisdisposition,
Bordeaux,
Montaigne,
mayinform
ofLaws. Montaigne
andMontesquieu
bothwroteworks
is nevercitedintheSpirit
and blendof philosophy
knownfortheircomprehensiveness,
seemingdisorder,
to
andbelles-lettres.
IntheEssaysandintheSpirit
ofLaws eachcompareshimself
Paul Carrese 237
a painter;each prominently
citesOvid,Virgil,
each
and Lucretius;
Plutarch,
addressesmoderation,
andclimateas factors
in politoleration,
culture,
religious
toaddresshumantimidity
andfearbymodtics.'8Bothsoughta humanepolitics,
inalltyrannies,
thecruelty
evident
whether
sheerbarbarism
orreligious
and
erating
he seems,he neverpromoralzealotry.19
evenifMontaigne
is nottheskeptic
Still,
scienceor philosophy
as systematic
as Montesquieu's.20
posesa political
Perhaps
theSpirit
ofLaws givesbothMontaigne
and Lockethesilenttreatment
because
eachreadsnature
intooskeptical
oratomistic
a mode,theone assaying
provocativemusings,
theothertreating
andmoralsanalytically
education,
politics,
religion,
andartificially,
indiscrete
works.
Thecomprehensive
ofLaws suggest
that
scopeandcomplexdesignoftheSpirit
moderation
servesa boldsynthesis,
butina Socratic,
notHegelian,
Montesquieu's
sense.He movesfrom
thehumanespirit
ofMontaigne
inthePreface
toscientific
inBookI of"lawsintheir
relation
withthevariousbeings,"
thenquickly
analysis
shifts
oflawsinempirical,
thespirit
historical
terms(1.1; 1.3).The
back,defining
lasttheoretical
Bookoftheworkechoesthissynthetic
albeithaving
left
approach,
behindanyabstract
reflections
on theuniverse:
of moderation
thespirit
should
forthepolitical
andmoralgoodexistsbetweenextremes
(29.1).
guidelegislators,
Moderation
thuscontains
and
senses,
physical,
epistemological, political
analogous
hesaw between
thatcorrespond
totherelations
thenatural,
meanings
psychologHe tempers
moralresidueby
ical,and socialaspectsof reality.21
anytraditional
in
modern
elements-Cartesian
or
Newtonian
and
science, Machiavellian
blending
realism
abouttheneedtolowerthemoralaimsofpolitics.22
thefinal
aim
Although
in"De I'amitid,"
18. Montaigne
himself
toa painter
ed.
Essais,1.28,in(Euvrescompl&tes,
compares
inTheComplete
Thibaudet
andRat(Paris:Gallimard,
1962),182;"Offriendship,"
tr.
EssaysofMontaigne,
CA:Stanford
Frame(Standford,
namesPlato,Malebranche,
Press,1958),135.Montesquieu
University
andMontaigne
"thefour
1: 1546(no.2095).
Shaftesbury,
greatpoets"inhisPensdes;
(Euvrescompl&tes
ThePblitical
ofMontaigne
19. See Shklar,
15,26-7,114;DavidL.Schaefer,
Montesquieu,
Philosophy
ofGovernment:
Struc(Ithaca,NY:Cornell
Press,1990),340-41,
383-84,
394;PaulRahe,"Forms
University
ScienceofPblitics,
ture,Principle,
75,84-88;and MichaelMosher,
Object,andAim,"inMontesquieu's
inMontesquieu's
Paradox:
HonorintheFaceofSovereign
ScienceofPolitics,
217.
Power,"
"Monarchy's
20. SeeAlbert
deuxibme
6dition
on Mon(Paris:Librarie
Sorel,Montesquieu,
Hachette,
1889),173-74,
between
andPascalina "middle
orgoldenmeanforknowledge,
reflectesquieu
lying
Montaigne
ground"
andcommon
sense.
tion,
inActesdu Congrbs
21. See Charles-Jacque
et I'esprit
"Montesquieu
Beyer,
Montesquieu
cartesian"
inHistory
ofPolitical
3rd
(Bordeaux:
Delmas,1956);Lowenthal,
Imprimerie
"Montesquieu,"
Philosophy,
andCropsey
ofChicago
513-34
at514,and"Moned.,ed.Strauss
Press,1987[19631),
(Chicago:
University
inAncients
andtheClassics,"
andModerns,
BasicBooks,1964),258-87
ed.,Cropsey
(NewYork:
tesquieu
at259.Goyard-Fabre
finds
a Newtonian
blendofempirical
andrationalist
morethananabstract,
principles
inLa philosophie
Cartesian
dudroit,
57-65.
rationalism,
22. On Machiavelli
and natural
sciencesee Lowenthal,
in Considerations
on the
"Introduction,"
oftheRomansandtheir
CausesoftheGreatness
Decline(Indianapolis:
Hackett
1999[1965]),
Publishing,
Erotic
25.1discusstheseissuesin"TheMachiavellian
ofMon11;onmoderation,
Schaub,
Liberalism,
Spirit
inMachiavelli's
Liberal
ed. PaulRahe(forthcoming,
tesquieu's
Republic,"
Republican
Legacy,
Cambridge
2004).
Press,
University
238 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
RIGHT
ofMontesquieu's
newscienceofpolitics
a distinctively
modern
moderais liberty,
as
or
tionisthusitsindispensable
condition.
Hisnegative
ideaofliberty,tranquillity
freedom
fear(11.6),follows
humannature
morebyaverfrom
Hobbesindefining
siontoinsecurity
thanbyorientation
toa higher
end.However,
againstHobbeshe
and thatournatureis opento
moderation,
requires
political
arguesthatliberty
entails
aims,eventothedivine(1.1-2;see also4.2,5.12,24.1). Proper
liberty
higher
oranystagnation
imbalance
offorces
theavoidance
ofanystructural
moderation,
willnothaveman
ofmotion-theavoidance,
thatis,ofdespotism.
Montesquieu
ofthe
ormoral,
as a citizen
whether
suffer
despotism,
political,
physical,
patiently
orfactious
thebrutality
ofambitious
princes
republics,
cityofGod.He condemns
He wouldreform
thecityof
and theyokeofsecurity
imposedbyanyLeviathan.
desirefora tranquil,
manbyemphasizing
thenatural
abode,evenone
hospitable
withroomforhigher
aspirations.23
topoetry
ofmoderation
istherecourse
Related
tothisnewconception
throughofmoderation
is butone deviceby
outtheSpirit
ofLaws. A subtleredefinition
coatshiscontroverwhich,as theRomanpoetLucretius
putit,Montesquieu
might
from
theopeningepito poetsandartists,
withhoney.Hiscitations
sialmedicine
have
studied
withcare.24
been
to
a
sentence
that
quotes
Virgil,
rarely
closing
graph
more
ofLucretius,
a doctrine
materialism
istorecalltheEpicurean
Hisaim,inpart,
the
Lucretian
in
and
since
Ovid,
Montesquieu
accepts
present Virgil
largely
quietly
andmetaphysics
ofPlatoandAristotle.25
andNewtonian
tothephysics
challenges
To replacea teleology
offorms,
ends,Montesquieu
essences,andnatural
updates
and powerof
witha Newtonian
scienceofthestructure
theancientmaterialists
topolitics
heappliessuchmechanistic
matter
anditsmotions.
However,
principles
of
Machiavelli's
factious
intherealistic,
this,
republicanism,
although
empirical
spirit
humane
invokes
the
and
is
too, suitably
Montesquieu
cosmopolitanism
tempered.
or modernmaterialism,
morethaneither
ofVirgil
preferring
Epicurean
grandeur
forpiety
andtradition.
andattachments,
TheAeneid'spraiseforhumanemotions
the
withhisown poemand byrecalling
ofcommerce
He launcheshisanalysis
to
the
then
and
of
Dido
Aeneas,
praisesCarthage, counterpoint
regularly
tragedy
and
to
the
"Invocation
Rome'swarlike
Muses").
(Book20,epigraph
imperialism
is
ancient
modern
ofideasfrom
Thisblending
science,andMachiavelli
poetry,
a
constitutional
mostnotedpolitical
in factthebasisforMontesquieu's
doctrine,
of SeparatePowersin MonSharonKrause,"TheSpirit
"'Internal
23. See Gilbert,
Restlessness';"
in
andKrause,
ofGovernment,"
62 (2000):231-65;
ReviewofPblitics
Rahe,"Forms
"Despotism
tesquieu,"
231-71.
ScienceofPolitics,
ofLaws,"inMontesquieu's
TheSpirit
69-108,
andSchaub,Erotic
24. See Pangle,
Liberalism,
144,150,175n. 13.Christopher
235-37,
Philosophy,
in Political
and Modernity
Visionof Uncertainty
(NewYork:Edwin
Philosophy
Montesquieu's
Sparks,
andthepoetry
reflection
PersianLetters
thephilosophic
Mellen,
1999),overlooks
(including
throughout
own)throughout
Spirit.
Montesquieu's
on WorldEmpire"
to EveAdler,
25. 1 am indebted
Empire:
essay)andVergil's
(unpublished
"Vergil
MD:Rowman
& Littlefield,
inTheAeneid(Lanham,
2003);see alsoJamesNichols,
EpiThought
Political
206.
NY:Cornell
cureanPolitical
Press,1976),190-98,
(Ithaca,
University
Philosophy
Paul Carrese 239
and
politicsof separatedpowersin a dynamic
equilibrium,
serving
tranquillity
moderate
of thepassions.In thiscomplicated,
satisfaction
factional
the
politics
of each forcebyanother"strains"
all thesprings
ofthegovernmental
checking
thatkeepthesystem
actionsandreactions
andavoidthe
order,
producing
moving
ofdespotism
inertness
blends
(5.1,11.13,19.27).Thisnewmoderation
dangerous
a poet'sperception
of thepassions,a modernscientist's
mathematical
viewof
anda realist's
ofpolitics.
Hisphilosophy
embodies
motion,
eyeforthedynamics
thisdynamic
witheachelement
theothers
so as tocapture
equilibrium,
tempering
thecomplexity
ofnature
andpolitics.
theradical
Totemper
inLucretius,
tendencies
or modernscience,Montesquieu
invokestheconcernformoderate
Machiavelli,
reform
andprudence
inAristotle
andPlutarch.
Heisthemaster
whodraws
painter
as
Florentine
con(a
uponearliermasters,
just Corregio
acknowledges
Raphael
of
he
but
utilizes
earlier
in
of
own
view
thinkers
his
of
Machiavelli),
temporary
light
and
human
nature
This
ambition
informs
his
230-31).
(Preface,
reality
synthetic
withno hintofa Hegelian
dialectdriving
it.He thinks
complexconstitutionalism,
thata politics
ofmoderation
andcomplexity
couldtakemanyforms
indifferent
circumstances
This
of
moderation
a
(see 1.3,11.6[end],11.20).
spirit
yields complicatedworkofhundreds
ofchapters
and thousands
ofcitations
to authorities,
at
onceoriginal
andsynthetic.
Onepriceforeschewing
is thatMontesquieu's
resembles,
teleology
philosophy
atmoments,
Machiavelli's
reductive
realism.
Unlike
either
theclassicalfocuson the
modern
focusonstate-of-nature
heemphasizes
end(s)ofmanortheearlier
origins,
thepolitical
statemosthistorically
and geographically
His
prevalent,
despotism.26
foundationalism
to
define
in
man termsof
here,seeming
approaches
philosophy
in
forces.
This
is
evident
hislonecitation
ofa modern
inBook
interacting
authority
and poetGiovanni
Gravina
ofthemodernnatural
1,theItalianjurist
(1664-1718)
lawschoolledbyGrotius.27
defines
"POLITICAL
RIGHT"(droit)and
Montesquieu
"CIVILRIGHT"in strictly
amoralterms:"Theunionof all individual
relational,
Gravina
statesverywell,forms
whatis calledthePOLITICAL
"Indiforces,
STATE";
vidualforcescannotbe united
without
allwillsbeingunited.
Theunionofthese
wills,Gravina
againstatesverywell,is whatis calledtheCIVILSTATE"(1.3,23637,emphasisin original).
Nonetheless,
Montesquieu
tempers
anyrationalism
by
notto Machiavellian,
lookingto a fellowjuristand poetforthesecrucialterms,
or liberalphilosophers.
A jurist's
distinction
betweenpolitical
and civil
Cartesian,
holdsbetweenuniversal
spheresembodiesthebalancehisphilosophy
laws,historicalpractice,
and individual
A political
freedom.
scienceofmoderation
relates
26. Schaub,Erotic
"BookI,"andPangle,
20-47.AlterLiberalism,
20;see alsoLowenthal,
Philosophy,
see Shklar,
andGoyard-Fabre,
PhilosoCohler,
nately,
Montesquieu;
Montesquieu's
Comparative
Poblitics;
phiedu droitandMontesquieu.
27. See Waddicor,
ofNatural
Theories
Law, 16,59-64,96; Richard
Tuck,Natural
Philosophy
Rights
(NewYork:
andNatural
Press,1979)72-81;andC.P.Courtney,
Cambridge
Law,"
University
"Montesquieu
inMontesquieu's
ScienceofPolitics,
41-67.
240 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
RIGHT
naturallaws of motionto psychological
between
agencyand the interactions
humanwills.He concludesthatonlymultiple
a
powerscan maintain
governing
onepreserving
individual
andcommunal
order.
equilibrium,
dynamic
tranquillity
Theconceptsofspirit
and moderation
intheSpirit
ofLaws thusaimto commankind's
evidentpolitical
and an
prehendbothmotionand stability,
diversity
essential
Thisnewhumanscienceseeksa "law"ofpolitics
toexplain
the
humanity.
ofpolitical
theancient
acrosstimeandplace,moderating
practices
diversity
political scienceofvirtue
butalsotheearly
modern
scienceofefficacy
andsovpolitical
ForMontesquieu,
a quasi-Newtonian
ereignty.
analysisof humanthings
actually
forcertainty
theambition
inthenewnatural
science,sincea scienceof
tempers
an "intelligent
world"thatis "farfrom
as
"man"concerns
beingas wellgoverned
thephysical
world"(1.1).Thiscondition
is causedbyman'slimited
thathe
nature,
to ignorance
and"fallssubjecttoa thousand
is "subject
anderror"
but
passions,"
also by man'sagency(1.1,233-34).After
on willand forcehe
citingGravina
tothepeopleforwhomthey
declares
thatlaws"shouldbe so appropriate
aremade
ifthelawsofonenationcansuitanother"
thatitisa verygreataccident
(1.3,237).
forchoicedespite
thelawsofournature
Humanshavesucha capacity
thatwe need
fromphilosophers
on political
reform
to achievehappiness(Preface,
instruction
relates
tothebroadest
ofa divine
or
1.1).Oneaspectofhumannature
generalities
law
and
him
to
this
leads
the
nature,
approach
ontological governing
compare priofhumanjusticewitha priori
mordial
axiomson radiiandcircles(1.1,
principles
doesnotcontradict,
thepervasive
233).Thisnoteofrationalism
however,
argument
oftheSpirit
ofLaws thata philosophy
of humanaffairs
lensesbeyond
requires
Cartesian
andcertainty.
abstraction
shifts
Indeed,
bythecloseofBookI hisanalysis
of
towardempirical,
historical
account
man's
will,pasreality,
taking
intelligence,
ofmanandnature.
sions,andhistory,
amongothercomplexities
ofepistemological,
moderation
moral,andpolitical
Montesquieu's
philosophy
thusbreakswithclassicalphilosophy
tocriticize
butemploys
someofitselements
his modernpredecessors.
One important
for
his
stance
toward
topic discerning
bothancients
andmoderns,
andhisenduring
influence
later
political
upon
theory
andpractice,
is thenovelconception
ofnatural
lawornatural
right
yielded
bythis
ofmoderation.
philosophy
III. Nature,the Politicsof Decent Tranquillity,
and AmericanModeration
As noted,Montesquieu's
findshimturning
fromtheclassical
capaciousspirit
in
ofthePreface
to launchan abstract
of"lawsingeneral"
humanism
discussion
Book1.He announces,
mostextended
arethenec"Laws,takenintheir
meaning,
fromthenatureofthings."
Morespecifically,
"invariable
essaryrelations
deriving
laws"govern
"thedivinity"
allthefiveclassesofbeingsintheworld,from
tobrute
evento "theintelligences
toman,""thebeasts,"andmanhimself
matter,
superior
PaulCarrese 241
andpreserver"
cannotviolateoraltertheserules;this
(1.1,232).Eventhe"creator
Whilemuchdebatearisesover
isa worldofnecessary
laws,aimedatpreservation.
whether
influence
is thegreater
Spinozaor Descartes
upontheseextraordinary,
theactualsourceMontesquieu
statements,
cites,theMoraliaoftheHellenic
cryptic
is ignored.
andmoralist
Plutarch,
biographer
mostly
Ruler"quotesthe
The citedpassagein Plutarch's
essay"To An Uneducated
andimmortal."28
Diffiancient
GreekpoetPindar,
that"lawisthekingofall,mortal
cultiesaboundwithciting
todefine
themostgeneralmeaning
of
suchan authority
lawdictating
law.Pindar'spoemsuggests
a divineandnatural
thatmight
justifies
intheGorgias
andmanySophists,
as wellas Plato'sCallicles
and hisAthenright,
in theLaws, so interpret
it.The eclectic,moderate
of
ian Stranger
philosophy
the
instructs
ruler
that
natural
law
stands
above
human
Plutarch,
however,
young
to be wiseandjust.29
tradition
the
Moreover,
princes
power,counseling
suggests
in
in
of
Pindar
and
their
and
their
in
the
both
belief
Plutarch,
deep piety
writings
oracleofApolloatDelphi,
forwhomPlutarch
Suchan ambiguous
was a priest.
citationinMontesquieu's
initial
on natural
natural
remarks
law,andnatural
theology,
warrants
caution
about
a
or
Hobbesian
doctrine
here.On
right
findingSpinozistic
inhisearlier
theotherhand,thereis toomuchsoberphilosophic
reflection
works
andthroughout
theSpirit
ofLaws todismiss
as either
thesethoughts
or
confusion
ironical
about
fundamental
the
conRather,
Pyrrhonism
philosophical
questions.
tentandmanner
oftheselinessuggest
tomoderate
an intention
thecanonical
views
ofnatural
lawinancient
andmedieval
and
to
the
tenphilosophy, temper reductive
in
modern
dency
philosophy.
oftheseissuesinBook1,andbeyond,
doesdrawupon
Montesquieu's
analysis
therationalism
ofMachiavelli,
Hobbes,and Locke,eachofwhomexplains
reality
andpolitics
a foundational
Thedebttosuchrationalism
wanes,
through
principle.
as theSpirit
ofLaws unfolds,
and
however,
emphasizing
complexity,
particularity,
Evenintheearlypassagesbearing
moderation.30
thestrongest
of
political
imprint
earlier
modern
andliberal
asserts
hisgeniusbyreferring
his
theorists,
Montesquieu
mostabstract
oflawtoa didactic
inturnquoting
a
conception
essaybyPlutarch,
is concerned
notwith
poet.UnlikeHobbes,Spinoza,and Locke,hisphilosophy
abstract
statesmen
reflections
on particular
analysisbutwitheducating
through
andideasforhumaneruling
andreform.
Whatever
theallureofMachiproblems
"Toan Uneducated
28. Plutarch,
MA:Harvard
UniverMoralia780c,ed. Fowler
Prince,"
(Cambridge,
andPlutarch
have"king,"
butMontesquieu
writes
sityPress,1936),X:56-57.Pindar
"queen."
29. See TheLawsofPlato,ed.Pangle(Chicago:
ofChicagoPress,1988[19801),
690b(Book
University
finds
Plutarch
influenced
from
selected
allthe
school,"which
bytheEclectic
III,note24,522-23).Dryden
othersectswhatseemedmostprobablein theirown opinions."
In LivesoftheNobleGrecians
and
ed.Clough(NewYork:
Modern
xx.
Romans,
n.d.),Introduction,
Library,
30. Alternately,
see Michael
"Natural
andClassical
Liberalism:
On MonZuckert,
Law,Natural
Rights,
ofHobbes,"inNatural
Law andModern
MoralPhilosophy,
ed. Paul,Miller,
andPaul
tesquieu's
Critique
(NewYork:
Press,
2001).
Cambridge
University
242 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
RIGHT
orthecertainty
avellian
ofmodern
allrulers
aregovefficacy
sovereignty,
ultimately
ernedbya higher
law.Ontheotherhand,observation
ofnature
andhumannature
themoralism
ofclassicalandmedieval
cannotsupport
natural
law.InthiswayMonthelineaments
ofa modern
"common
neither
sense"philosophy,
tesquieu
provides
norreductive,
ofthesortevident
intheAmerican
ofIndeDeclaration
teleological
TheAmerican
founders
balancedEnlightenment
doctrines
withappeals
pendence.
toProvidence,
thetext,
a philoandhonorthroughout
legaltradition,
duty,
echoing
andancients,
thatassimilates
moderns
liberalism
andclassic
sophicalmoderation
commonlaw.
moderation
to govern
thefirst
continues
of
Montesquieu's
chapter
throughout
Book1. Hisfirst
allbeingsotherthanthedivinity,
embodies
generallaw,covering
as a complexequilibrium:
moderation
"Betweenone moving
bodyand another
it
is
in
accord
with
of
relations
mass
and
that
are
moving
body,
velocity allmotions
orlost;every
is
received,
increased,
diminished,
diversityuniformity,
change
every
isconstancy"
Thislaw,withallitsparadoxical
(1.1,232-33,
emphasisinoriginal).
theanalysis
informs
ofthe"nature"
ofthefourtypesof
and "principle"
import,
in
the
I
rest
of
Part
to
Amidst
the
flux
ofpolitics,
neces8).
government
1 (Books
follow
from
antecedent
states:
must
see
are
the
"One
which
saryconsequences
lawsthatfollowdirectly
fromthisnature,
andthatconsequently
arethefirst
fundamentallaws"(2.1,239). Causalmechanisms
can illuminate
themessinessof
because
finds
that
includes
and
politics
Montesquieu
everyuniformity
diversity
The
of
basic
and
human
of
nature
nature, nateveryconstancy,
change.
principle
uralscienceand political
is
the
of
science,
necessary
governance laws,butlaws
aboutmotion
anddiversity.
Theinterior
exterior
ofeachhumanexists
and
freedom
andpresupposes,
a natural
andsocialworldinwhichbodiesmoveaccordwithin,
Thisaccommodation
interaction.
ofmotion
laws,lawsofdynamic
ingtouniform
andconstancy,
andofthediverse
inwhicha ruleapplies,is Moncircumstances
inbothnatural
and
tesquieu'soriginal,
responseto hispredecessors
imaginative
political
philosophy.31
ofthispolitical
Thesynthetic
ambition
sciencefinds
a fundamental
coherence
betweenitsopeningcitations
toOvid,Virgil,
andPlutarch
(thusPindar),
Corregio,
and a seemingly
rationalist
ofuniversal
laws.Poetry
and natural
science
analysis
intheancient
hadmetbefore
RomanpoetLucretius,
inVirgil
andmoresubtly
and
and Epicureanism
of theirpredecessor.
Ovid,who toneddownthematerialism
first
enunciation
ofa general
lawechoestheblending
ofmaterialist
Montesquieu's
and humanoriginality
in Lucretius
and in Ovid'spoemon metamordynamics
a modern
debttothephysics
ofNewton.
phoses,whileconfirming
philosopher's
Phrasesand momentsin Book I indeedreflect
thesourcesoftenexamined,
or Clarke.Nonetheless,
whether
Descartesor Hobbes,Spinozaor Malebranche
31. See Lowenthal,
516,514.
"Montesquieu,"
Paul Carrese 243
bothinBookI andinthePreface,
embraces
Montesquieu
philosophic,
phenomerather
thananalytical
nologicalcomplexity
simplicity,
seekingto tempermodern
withthehumaneunderstanding
oftheancients.32
LikeEpicurus
philosophical
rigor
andHobbes,he thinks
nature
orients
mantoward
individual
freedom
andsecurity.
hisanalysis
offreely
humanbodiesandwillsborrows
from
However,
moving
Virgil
and Montaigne
to temper
modernreductionism,
thathumansnaturally
observing
and freely
shareaffections,
and desirepeace andsociability
(1.2). Thissynthesis
thatindividual
a political
and
supports
Montesquieu's
argument
requires
security
socialorderfreeoftheHobbesian
elements
ofa rigid
fundamental
anda
contract
fearsome
Hobbesmaybe,as MichaelOakeshott
sovereignty.
argues,a systematic
butnotrationalist
whoseprescriptions
forpublicorderseektoopenup
philosopher
a freeprivate
seemsto haveunderstood
sphere,butthisis nothowMontesquieu
him.Theone reference
toHobbesintheSpirit
ofLaws chastises
theimposition
of
a fabricated
orformal
idea
onto
that
of
natural,
man,
(composee)
pre-social
empire
or domination.
termssuchsystematic
a
Montesquieu
"unreasonable,"
thinking
foretaste
ofhiscriticisms
oftheutopianHarrington
andtheFrench
historian
Dubos
(1.2,235;11.6,407;30.10,891-92;see also 11.5,396).33
BookI as a wholeindicates
thatthereisa divine
lawandlawofnature,
butthis
ordered
universe
the
moral
or
ofgenyetateleological
yields
only
political
guidance
eralphysical
andpsychological
laws.Somemoralorderisfound
innature,
as isindicatedbytheone authority
citedinMontesquieu's
brief
andontologycosmology
nottheBibleorAristotle,
Newtonor Spinoza,butPlutarch's
Moralia.Themixed
character
ofMontesquieu's
noruniverscience,neither
political
entirely
subjective
is
evident
in
his
minimalist
natural
lawsorpre-political
"relations
ofequity."
salistic,
Theseindicate,
forexample,that"supposing
thatthereweresocietiesofmen,it
wouldbe justtoconform
totheir
"ifthere
wereintelligent
laws;"orthat,
beingsthat
had receivedsome benefit
fromanotherbeing,theyoughtto havegratitude"
accordwithman'spre-political
(reconnoissance)
(1.1,233).4Theselawsofequity
as examined
inthesequel,on "thelawsofnature"
nature
(1.2).Whenreadinlight
ofthewholework,thetreatment
ofhumannaturein BookI does notso much
stateofnature
theories
as respond
tothem.Montesquieu
his
adoptearlier
employs
morephenomenological,
toexposetheexcessesofthisfavorite
descriptive
analysis
methodofearlyliberalism,
in orderto rescuenatural
fromtheextremes
of
right
32. Lowenthal,
andtheClassics,"
258-59.
"Montesquieu
33. See Michael
"Introduction
toLeviathan,"
inRationalism
inPolitics
andOther
Oakeshott,
Essays,
edition
IN:Liberty
Fund,1991[19621),
expanded
221-94,
(Indianapolis,
230-32,
235-48,
264-67,
especially
282-83.
34. Reconnoissance
meansbothacknowledgement
andgratitude,
of,yetdifsuggesting
anticipation
ference
as thebasichumanrelationship.
SeePhilosophy
ofRight,
ed.Wood,tr.
with,
Hegel's"recognition"
Nisbet
secs.57,207.See alsoMosher,
(NewYork:
"TheParticuPress,1991[18211),
Cambridge
University
larsofa Universal
Politics:
of Montesquieu's
American
Science
Hegel'sAdaptation
Lypology,"
Political
Review78 (1984):178-88.
RIGHT
244 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
Book
Hiscomplicated
andLockeanrevolution.
Hobbesian
argument-in
sovereignty
inthenon-Hobbesian
terms
ofthemostbasic
ofnatural
right
1beginsa redefinition
andfriends,
a modification
confirmed
toward
sentiments
including
family
feelings,
inthework(3.10,260).35
bytheverynextusageofdroitnaturel
IV. A Humane NaturalRightand PoliticalModeration
inhischapter
ofnatural
sowsmanyseedsforhisredefinition
right
Montesquieu
He
whichmainly
discusseshumannature. examines"the
on thelawsofnature,
on us the
tothe"lawthatimpresses
ofourbeing"byinitially
constitution
referring
natural
law"in
leadsus towardhim."Thisis thefirst
andthereby
ideaofa creator
butnot"intheorderoftheselaws,"andhethendropsanytreatment
importance"
in
thework,andespecially
ofreligion
ofdivinity
(1.2,235).Hisanalysis
throughout
a discussion
thanMachiavelli's,
butomitting
Books24 and25,is moresympathetic
science
inimportance
issignificant.
ofwhatissaidtobe first
Montesquieu's
political
thehorizon
ofthecityofman.
a cityofGodthatbroadens
treats
onlyambivalently
that"manin thestateofnature"
thiscrucialjudgment
He justifies
byobserving
Thisdemotion
of
ofhisbeing"thanofhisorigin.
moreof"thepreservation
thinks
inBook1. Simiearlier
accordswiththenon-providential
implied
divinity
religion
beliefbutplacesgreater
a natural
he laterrecognizes
impulsetotheological
larly,
is
inpolitics.
Thisviewhardly
andtranquillity
on theneedfortoleration
emphasis
itsmerits,
orBayle's.36
Whatever
thanMachiavelli's
butitis lesshostile
Thomistic,
ofhumannatureachievesa certain
hisportrait
coherence,
emphasizing
feelings
reasononlyat theverycloseandina subordinate
andreadmitting
and passions,
would"feelonlyhisweakness"and is markedby
role.Naturalman "at first"
atheism
avoidsextreme
extreme
235).
Still,
(1.2,
bynoting
Montesquieu
"timidity"
to
towardfaith
a humaninclination
here,and laterbypraising
religion's
capacity
24
of
in
Book
His
criticism
soften
24.14).
19.18,
20.7,
(see
2.4,
10.3,
12.29,
politics
a
but
of
essential
a
is
not
atheism
agreement,
prudent
masking
Bayle'sapparent
that
but
a
is
view.
Scholasticism
balanced
mistaken,
philosophy
characteristically
in humannaturealso is extreme,
inclinations
or transcendent
ignoresreligious
informs
thecomplexity
evident
This
view
of
the
a
crucial
phenomena.
part
missing
tothe
in
First
Amendment
clauses
the
in
the
and
intheAmerican
religion
founding
also
free
exercise
but
not
Constitution.
non-establishment,
Byencompassing only
of
andin"ThePhilosophic
thispassageinPhilosophy,
35. Pangleoverlooks
309-10,
Understandings
DC:
ed.Bloom(Washington,
inConfronting
theConstitution,
theConstitution,"
HumanNature
Informing
24-37.
AEIPress,1990),15-18,
in Monon Religion
and theQuestionof Toleration,"
36. See RebeccaKingston,
"Montesquieu
ofFaith
"OnthePolitics
andReason:The
375-408.
Robert
ScienceofPblitics,
Bartlett,
Compare
tesquieu's
andSchaub,
ofPolitics
inPierre
Journal
63 (2001):1-28,
ofEnlightenment
BayleandMontesquieu,"
Project
andthe
inEarlyModern
Toleration"
andBarbarians:
"OfBelievers
Skepticism
Montesquieu's
Enlightened
MD:Lexington
ed.Levine(Lanham,
ofToleration,
Books,2001),225-47.
Origins
Paul Carrese 245
oftheimportance
ofreligion
theAmerican
framers
balancedaccommodation
for
lifewithtoleration
andliberty.37
publicandprivate
Giventhatmanis a passionate
animalwithsomepotential
forrational,
higher
sketches
fourlawsof "ourbeing."Peace is "thefirst
natural
aims,Montesquieu
inhistorical
law"-first
eachman"feelshimself
infeappearance-since
bynature
rior"andwouldhardly
He explicitly
attackhisfellows.
criticizes
Hobbesforproideaas desireforpoweranddomination
sucha "complex"
jecting
uponnatural,
man(1.2,235).Thesecondlawofnature
is"nourishment,"
since"man
pre-political
wouldaddthefeeling
ofhisneedstothefeeling
ofhisweakness"(236).The"naturalentreaty"
whichmen"alwaysmaketoanother,"
orman'snatural
is
sociability,
thethird
natural
thishasa complexrootinfear,
andsexual
law,although
pleasure,
charm.Man'snatural
andfearprompts
of"mutual
which
fear,"
timidity
recognition
would"soonpersuadethemtoapproachone another."
"thepleasure
Alternately,
one animalfeelsattheapproach... ofitsownkind"wouldfoster
This
sociability.
third
driveforcommunity
thusis theincreaseinsuchpleasurebrought
aboutby
"thecharmthatthetwosexesinspire
ineachotherbytheir
difference"
(236).Each
ofthesediverse
sourcesofthenatural
lawofsociability-which
Montesquieu
might
also term,inStoicfashion,
'man'shumanity
towardman'-is a passionor drive.
heclosesbynoting
thatbeyond"sentiment"
orfeeling,
"which
Still,
belongstomen
fromtheoutset,"
meneventually
This
is
in itself,
no
end
but
gain"knowledge."
another
"bond"thatotheranimalslack,"another
foruniting,"
motive
andthus"the
desiretoliveinsociety"
is thefourth
natural
law (236).Manis naturally
in
rational
thathe developsthiscapacity
inhistory
or through
historical
While
a
experience.
modern
not
it
is
Rousseau's
of
a
historicist
view
malleable
view,
basically
humanity,
noris ittheanti-foundationalist
orsociological
viewArendt
andothers
find.38
Once
liesbetweena Thomistic
viewofrational
and political
again,hisposition
man,a
viewofrational
Hobbesian
butapolitical
viewofirrational
man,anda Rousseauan
and apolitical
mandeveloping
towardreasonand society.
Hiscomplexviewof
humannatureguideshispolitical
ofour
science,in thatreasonis a dimension
naturebutpassionsorsentiments-orienting
us topeaceful,
tranquil
sociabilitydefineus morefundamentally.
Thisportrait
ofthepre-political
lawsofequity
andof"maninthestateofnature"
manas henaturally
was andis,notan abstracted,
idealized
onto
conveys
projection
37. I discussWashington's
moderation
andpolitics,
whichcaptures
theAmerican
religion
regarding
ofreligion
thaneither
better
ora "Christian
Jefferson
nation"
and
spirit
view,in"Liberty,
Constitutionalism,
Moderation:
ThePolitical
ofGeorgeWashington,"
inHistory
ofAmerican
ed.
Political
Thought
Thought,
Frost
andSikkenga
MD:Lexington
(Lanham,
Press,
2003),95-113.
38. See Hannah
TheHumanCondition
ofChicagoPress,1958)190-91
n.
Arendt,
(Chicago:
University
BraceJovanovich,
17,202-3,andTheLifeoftheMind,Two/Willing
(SanDiego:Harcourt
1978),198-202;
MarkHulliung,
andtheOldRegime(Berkeley:
ofCalifornia
Montesquieu
Press,1976),108-72;
University
Pierre
TheCity
ofMan,tr.LePain(Princeton:
Princeton
Manent,
Press,1998[1994]).See also
University
"Constitutionalism
andtheParadox
ofSovereignty:
andArendt
Between
Smith,
Pastand
Verity
Montesquieu
Future"
(unpublished
essay).
RIGHT
246 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
The political
steersa
man'shistorical
sciencebasedupontheseprinciples
reality.
ofAristotle
ornatural
middlecoursebetweentheethically
substantive
natural
right
or Hobbes.39
law ofAquinas,and theminimalism
of Machiavelli
Montesquieu's
and freedom
ofa humannatureoriented
to security,
holdsa
sociability,
analysis
of
andhisobservations
middleground
becauseboththenewphysics
philosophical
as beleaguered
norblessedas somehave
indicate
thatwe areneither
man'snature
lawsthatwillbest
oflaws-is toconstitute
Thegeniusofpolitics-the
spirit
thought.
after
ournatureinall itscomplexity.
Thefirst
recourse
to "natural
right"
preserve
involves
neither
selfthishumanerevision.
Natural
BookI confirms
primarily
right
norself-defense,
norevenindividual
eachofwhichtendstoprivpreservation
liberty,
"natural
suchas
Cartesian
individual.
itconcerns
Rather,
feelings,"
ilegetheisolated,
orthe
forone'schildren
andwomen,lawsofhonor,
fora father,
tenderness
"respect
of"natural
thata despot
itis precisely
stateofone'shealth;"
suchstandards
right"
doctrines
be checkedbyreligious
(3.10,260).Whendiseschews,evenifhemight
to livetogether
he
that
men
are
born
and
honor
in
monarchies
suggests
cussing
and
virtues
of
and
the
soul
can
achieve
each
that
other,
magnanimity greatplease
honorwithself-interest,
ness (4.2,5.12).Byequatingmonarchical
Montesquieu
thesehumanedimentheorist
makeshimself
a virtue
(see3.7).Nevertheless,
hardly
ofhisphilosophy.40
ofnatural
reductionist
sionstohisaccount
frustrate
readings
right
sciof
rationalism
and
extremes
Montesquieu's
political
skepticism,
Byavoiding
and
of
encegraspsthemultiplicity,
affecting
policomplexity, diversityphenomena
forthem.He ultimately
thatnatural
is a crucialstandard
ticswhileinsisting
right
thebestgovernment,
bothforpeoples
constitution
deemsa complex,moderate
could
and
those
who
it
nature
and
for
toward
gainitthrough
history
by
disposed
thatits
He
broadens
liberalism
reforms
chs.
(Book11,
8, 11).
byinsisting
gradual
their
"well
that
are
"Gothic"
constitutions
aimsareachieved
tempered"
through
by
and
of
a
"free
"truedistribution,"
executive, judicial
people," legislative,
among
ends
toliberal
andpractical
411).Thishistorical
approach
powers(11.8,409;11.11,
also
but
the
and
not
an
examination
of
means
includes
and
onlyrepublic monarchy
of
human
diverse
circumstances
of
The
phenomenon despotism.
political
enduring
to moresandreligion,
andhistory
from
economics,
climate,
practicommunities,
themoderation
insomecases.He distinguishes,
however,
callyensuredespotism
to makeconstitutional
of despotism
fromtheharshness
of propermonarchies
if
for
not
for
strict
morerespectable liberals,
Montesquieu
republicans.41
monarchy
ofmoderate
andshifts
toa newtypology
linksthesenumerous
themes,
ultimately
20-47.
"BookI,"495;seealsoPangle,
39. Lowenthal,
Philosophy,
ofLibHonorandtheDefense
ofDistinction
andDisobedience:
"ThePolitics
40. See SharonKrause,
UniMA:Harvard
With
Honor(Cambridge,
andLiberalism
31 (1999):469-99,
inMontesquieu,"
Polity
erty
Paradox."
2002);see alsoMosher,
Press,
"Monarchy's
versity
a
monarchies
thatthecomplexEuropean
finds
41. Kenneth
provide
Montesquieu
arguing
Minogue
LineInOur
A Hidden
Fault
andMonarchy:
in"Citizenship
thansimplerepublics,
better
basisforliberalism
ofLondon,
ofUnited
StatesStudies
TheInstitute
1998),10-22.
Civilisation,"
(University
PaulCarrese 247
in Book5. After
and immoderate
and
despoticseverity
examining
governments,
measures
tomoderate
theessential
ofourpolitical
condition
it,heframes
problem
and proposesa remedy.
we lie betweendivinity
and brute
As Book I indicates,
ofmaterial
betweentheliberty
ofintelligence
andthenecessity
existence.
matter,
Thismiddling
condition
is confirmed
for"despite
men's
bythefactofdespotism,
loveofliberty,
ofviolence,
mostpeoplesaresubjected
to this
despitetheirhatred
causesperpetuand itsunderlying
(5.14,297).Thisproblem
typeofgovernment"
humanelegislators
likeMontesquieu
and theStoicphilosophers
he
allyconfront
thosewhowatchovermankind
(see Preface,
24.10,29.19).Atoncepolitipraises,
hissolutionis complexity
cal philosopher,
and reformer,
founder,
greatpolitical
to"form
a moderate
onemustcombinepowers,
itself:
them,
regulate
government,
so tospeak,to
them,makethemact;one mustgiveone powera ballast,
temper
oflegislation
thatchance
toresist
thisis a masterwork
another;
putitina position
and
is
allowed
to
297).
(5.14,
produces prudence rarely
produce"
rarely
inBooks11and
SeveralBooksbeforepropounding
hisownconstitutionalism
for
his
ofpowers
the
fundamental
rationale
12,Montesquieu
separation
provides
is
doctrine.
can
achieve
if
man's
free
motion
structured
accordLiberty
security
only
our
natural
condition
is
not
so low
to
the
of
the
laws
of
nature.
Since
dynamics
ing
contract
and
anddesperate
as Hobbesthinks,
thereisnoneedforthefoundational
ofrevolution
in Locke's
theabsoluteLeviathan,
norevenfortheconstant
threat
condition
is notso favored
as
contractarian
ournatural
Since,however,
politics.
warrant
for
a
moral
orientation
to
either
theBibleorAristotle
there
is
no
indicate,
Man
need
face
neither
and
laws
that
individual
restricts
politics
liberty.
substantially
fearof revolution,
northe
thefearsome
ofa Leviathan,
norcontinual
judgment
of
that
divine
or
ethical
censure.
Nature
indicates,
rather, politics
prospect
judgment
mustbe structured
interms
ofmultiple
thatatoncecheck
powersandperspectives
Thishumane
and facilitate
thefreemovement
ofpolitical
and
passions energies.
andbalance,recommending
an independent
taleofmoderation
devicesfrom
judiofthemedieval
French
contotoleration
andthecomplexities
ciaryandcommerce
thephistitution,
occupiesthegreatthemeofthework.Moreover,
understanding
ofmoderation
thatinforms
viewofnatural
andpolitics
losophy
Montesquieu's
right
illuminates
theextent
ofhisinfluence
on suchstatements
ofAmerican
pluralism
andpolitical
as Federalist
No. 10andNo.51; itis no accident
thathe is
balancing
discussedinthelessfamousessaysinforming
these,Nos.9 and47. A
extensively
related
innovation
is hisinsistence
thatoneoftheindependent
powersbe a judiciofeachindividual's
abouttheir
and
security
arythatsecuresthetranquillity
feelings
ofseparation
ofpowerson
Montesquieu
liberty.
developshisconception
gradually
inPartsI and2 oftheSpirit
ofLaws,culthisbasisofmoderation
andcomplexity
in theliberalconstitutionalism
of due
of Book 11 and theprotections
minating
inBooks6 and 12.Thisisthelegacyhe bequeathed
toAmerican
processendorsed
andpolitical
andthrough
hisdiscibothdirectly
constitutionalism,
politics,
theory,
a legacyinfluential
stilltoday.
pleBlackstone,
248 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
RIGHT
V. MontesquieuanModerationand Liberalism:
BeyondCurrentExtremes
Recent
studiesofdemocratic
inthepost-Cold
transition
andconsolidation
War
era findMontesquieu's
of separatedpowersmoreinstructive
constitutionalism
abouttherequirements
offree,liberalpolitics
thanhisnineteenth
andtwentiethcritics
hadgranted.42
Thedominant
inAnglo-American
discourse
century
political
ofJohnRawls,shouldjoin
aroundtheliberal
theory
today,
theory
largely
revolving
thisrediscovery.
Boththeoriginal
Rawlsian
formulation
ofa universal
ofjustheory
ticeas fairness,
thena "political
mutualrespect
liberalism"
andtoleremphasizing
antpublicdeliberation,
theliberal
concern
forindividual
reconceptualize
autonomy
andrights.43
find
thisreformulation
toonarrow,
sinceliberalism
Critics
longhasrecconcerns
aboutmorals,
andcivic
publicpurposes,
ognizedthatcommunal
larger
areat leastnecessary
forsecuring
individual
Unlike
the
main
participation
rights.44
thrust
ofeither
recent
liberal
or
most
of
its
communitarian
the
central
critics,
theory
notionofMontesquieu's
boththenatscience,moderation,
political
encompasses
uralrights
of individuals
and thenaturalbasisof theircommunities.
His liberal,
modern
seeks
to
and
elevate
modern
humanism
with
philosophy
temper
important
ofancientandmedieval
One causeforthedichotomy
that
principles
philosophy.
defines
muchrecent
is
the
that
political
theory prevailing
Anglo-American
judgment
natural
is either
naiveorpolitically
intolerant.
Toourskeptical
right
philosophically
an "essentialist"
or post-modernist,
natural
minds,whether
historicist,
analytical,
one
of
human
needs
or
others.
From
his
above
right
privileges conception
goods
widereading
knew
of
of
the
brands
Western
Montesquieu
skepticism
throughout
andhewouldnotheedsuchcharges
madebythoseconfidently
tradition,
asserting
theirowncorrectness.
Whileawareofhistorical
he
diversity,
changeandcultural
such
not
but
liberal
concerns
with
thought phenomena onlyqualified strengthened
natural
Hewouldfindourdiscrete
notions
ofeither
orcommunal
right.
rights
purof
either
tolerance
or
civic
as
not
sustainable
without
an anchorin
virtue,
poses,
humannature.
Thescopeofhispolitical
inearlier
hasno counterpart
philosophy
42. Steven
inEastEuropeandEurasia,"
SlavicReview58
Fish,"SocialScienceandDemocratization
LaneandSvante
TheNewInstitutional
(1999):794-823,
805;Jan-Erik
(London:Routledge,
Ersson,
Poblitics
Pdter
Paradox
onFreedom
andHungary's
Constitutions
17902000),115,286-87;
LAszal6,
"Montesquieu's
ofPolitical
16(1995):77-104.
1990,"
History
Thought
43. SeeRawls,
Columbia
Liberalism
M.Dworkin,
(NewYork:
1993),andRonald
Press,
University
Political
andPractice
TheTheory
ofEquality
MA:Harvard
2000).
Press,
Sovereign
(Cambridge,
University
Virtue:
44. See Alasdair
of NotreDame Press,1981);
After
Virtue
(NotreDame,IN: University
Maclntyre,
ofChicago
Liberal
Virtues
Liberal
PurMacedo,
Galston,
Press,1990);William
Stephen
(Chicago:
University
on Trial(Concord,
Press,1991);JeanBethke
Elshtain,
poses (NewYork:
University
Cambridge
Democracy
Ontario:
HouseofAnansiPress,1993);SeedbedsofVirtue,
ed.Glendon
andBlankenhorn
MD:
(Lanham,
MadisonBooks,1995);StevenKautz,Liberalism
and Community
(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversity
Press,
Discontent
MA:Harvard
1995);Michael
Sandel,Democracy's
Press,1996);Peter
(Cambridge,
University
Virtue
andtheMaking
ofModern
Princeton
Liberalism
Berkowitz,
(Princeton:
Press,1999).
University
PaulCarrese 249
tofuseLocke'sdiscrete
ofeducation,
notevenifone tried
reliliberalism,
analyses
intoa larger
ofmoderaphilosophy.45
gion,andpolitics
Montesquieu's
philosophy
ofrights
moresandduties,
tionwarnsthatconceiving
communal
orthe
apartfrom
of isolatedindividualism
leads to extremes
(19.27) or communitarian
reverse,
a grounding
inhumannature,
either
schoolfurther
is
(3.10).Without
oppression
initsdemandfortolerance,
tosuchextremes
as a liberalism
susceptible
oppressive
ora communitarianism
ifcommunal
thatfosters
a willful
cutofffrom
subjectivism,
a sharedhumanity.
andphilosophy
ofpriorpolitics
found
Montesquieu's
reading
doctrines
mistaken
forfailing
todiscern
thebalanceofprinciples
anysuchnarrow
andaimsinournature.
ofmoderation
andnatural
Theseconceptions
shapedAmerica's
right
quasi-legal
traditional
as a duty
of"sacredhonor,"
incontrast
tothe
revolution,
defending
rights
moredoctrinaire
lineofLockeandRousseau,
andofFranceafter1789.ThatcomledAmerica's
founders
to further
transcend
Lockethrough
a complex
plexspirit
constitutionalism
of federalism,
ThisMontripartite
powers,and bicameralism.
orderreflects
somedebtto theSocratic,
dialectical
scienceof
tesquieuan
political
whichembraced
and
a
bothnatural
division
into
distinct
Aristotle,
right
regime's
in
inclusion
with
for
merit
select
offices.46
functions,
space
Montesquieu
balancing
inturninfluenced
whomorefully
theAmerican
Tocqueville,
captures
spirit
bycallon
liberal
to
those
dimensions
of
the
Biblical
and
Westing
democracy appreciate
erntraditions
thatmoderate
thequestforever-greater
and
individual
secuequality
The
the
American
founders
that
the
of
Laws
was
the
rity.47 consensus
Spirit
among
to
which
all
should
a
short
time.
however,
preeminent
appeallasted,
authority
only
MoreLockeanand Rousseauandoctrines
prevailed
eventually
amonginfluential
American
bothMontesquieu's
thinkers,
complicated
criticizing
styleand hissymof
for
traditional
modes
The
first
critic
pathy
prominent wasJefferson,
governance.
andthesuccessful
effort
Woodrow
Wilson
to
formulate
a newpolitical
science
by
and constitutionalism
forAmerican
further
reduced
Montesquieu's
democracy
atleastuntil
TheseCartesian,
in
andprogressive
strains
Lockean,
recently.
standing,
in
American
andmodern
liberalism
be
democratic
times
than
the
may stronger
synconservative
viewsofMontesquieu,
orTocqueville.
A
thetic,
Blackstone,
seemingly
further
issueisMontesquieu's
ownresponsibility,
inpart,
forhissubsequent
decline
in liberalthought,
ofnatural
sincehishumaneconception
to somedegree
right
"A'Non-Lockean'
45. See Nathan
inLiberalism
LockeandtheCharacter
ofLiberalism,"
ReconTarcov,
ed. MacLeanandMills(NewJersey:
Rowman
& Allanheld,
andBerkowitz,
Virtue
sidered,
1983),130-40,
andModern
Liberalism.
46. Aristotle,
ForJamesCeaser,Aristotle,
and Tocqueville
1297b35-1301a18.
Montesquieu,
Politics,
inLiberal
"traditional
andPolitical
Science(Baltimore:
Johns
science,"
political
embody
Democracy
HopkinsUniversity
Press,1990).
47. 1 discussa principled
American
and Principles,
oftheAmerican
amalgamin "TheComplexity,
A Reply
toAlanGibson,"
ofPolitical
ConstitutionXXI(2000):711-17,
Founding:
History
Thought
"Liberty,
andModeration:
ThePolitical
ofGeorge
andinTheCloaking
ofPower,ch.8.
alism,
Thought
Washington,"
250 MONTESQUIEU'SCOMPLEXNATURAL
RIGHT
ourconceptions
ofhumannature
andnatural
law.Thejurist
Oliver
Wendell
dilutes
the
or
now
in
Jr.
was
an
architect
of
Holmes,
pragmatismpositivism predominant
anda fixed
he
American
bothnatural
constitutionalism--and
law,repudiating
right
foundinMontesquieu
abouthistorical
of
onlydoctrines
changeandthepropriety
overtime.48
Theredefinition
ofnatural
dominant
communal
forces
right
prevailing
inSpirit
oftheLaws intermsofaffections
andfamilial
attachments
lendsitself
to
intended.
As Tocqueville
reductionist,
perskeptical
consequencesnotoriginally
and security
ceived,an emphasison individual
permitsthe rival
tranquillity
whichundermine
extremes
ofindividualism
andmajority
theveryconstityranny,
formorescharacteristic
andconcern
ofMontesquieu's
tutionalism
science.
political
withthoseresources
intheliberal
hisphilosophy
and
We mayneedto moderate
tradition
thatprovide
ofphilosophy,
Western
balancetohisconceptions
humanity,
andpolitics.
48. Oliver
Wendell
inCollected
Holmes,"Montesquieu,"
LegalPapers,ed. HaroldLaski(NewYork:
modern
I discusstheuseofMontesquieu
Harcourt,
Brace,1920),250-65;
byHolmesandother
legalrealinTheCloaking
istsandhistoricists
ofPobwer,
ch. 10.